AAE 439

4.7 REAL NOZZLE

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Ideal Rocket
 Working fluid is homogeneous perfect gas,

 No heat transfer (q=0, adiabatic),

 No frictional loss, no boundary layer loss,

 No shocks,

 Invariant gas composition in nozzle,

 Steady flow,

 One-dimensional flow, i.e., flow is axial and properties are constant across any
plane normal to flow,

 Chemical equilibrium in combustion chamber.

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Real Nozzle Effects

 Stagnation pressure loss in the chamber:
 Non-isentropic flow, including heat and mass transfer, friction,
 Two-dimensional flow (divergence, varying properties),
 Boundary layer (BL) and wall friction:
 Lower velocity in BL: effects include pressure gradient, heat transfer, wall
roughness, nozzle geometry.
 Multi-phase flow:
 liquid drops and solid particles have higher density (thus lower velocity),
 momentum transfer from gas to large drops also slows gas down.
 Unsteady flow
 Nozzle flow chemical kinetics:
 Re-association of relatively unstable (high positive heat of formation) molecules as
gas cools in the nozzle.
 Throat erosion leading to lower expansion ratio,
 Non-uniform properties:
 mixing loss can be a major effect,
 Real gas (not perfect gas) properties,
 Non-optimal expansion.

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 Flow in Ideal Rocket Nozzles:

 One-dimensional,
Area Ratio is only important geometric variable.
 Isentropic.

 Real Nozzles:
 Flow is never truly one-dimensional  Shape of nozzle walls is important.
 Entire nozzle shape must into account variations in velocity and pressure on
surfaces normal to streamlines.
 Other influences on flow:
 Friction,
 Heat transfer,
 Composition change,
 Shocks.
 Shape of the supersonic or divergent part of the nozzle will dictate shock
formation and performance gain/loss.

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Nozzle Contours

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CONICAL NOZZLE
 Shape 
ve
CS
 α dφ
T φ

R r
pa pe

 Thrust:
 Momentum Equation: (
∑ Fx = T + pa − pe A e = ) ∫
 
ρ ( v ⋅ n)v x dA
CS
 
 Exit Velocity: v ⋅ n = ve v e,x = v e cos φ

 Exit Area – projected: A e = π r2 A sph 2

=
Ae 1+ cos α
 Exit Area – spherical: dA = 2π R ⋅R sin φ dφ A sph = 2π R (1− cos α )
2

 Mass Flow Rate: m = ρ v A sph = ρ v e ⋅ 2π R 2 (1 − cos α )

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CONICAL NOZZLE
 Thrust:
1+ cos α
 Conical Nozzle: Tconic = ⎡ m v e + (p e − p a )A sph ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦

 Ideal Nozzle: Tisentr,1−d = m v e + (p e − p a )A e

 Thrust Loss due to Divergence Loss: Tconic,approx = λ m v e + (p e − p a )A e

 Small difference between Ae and Asph

A sph = A e
 Contribution of pressure term small
v e,conic 1 + cos α
 Exit pressure does not have any directional influence as exit velocity =λ=
(v isentr,1−d e) 2
2
A e ⎛ D * +2L tan α ⎞
 Area Ratio: =
A * ⎜⎝ D* ⎟⎠

D * ⎛ Ae ⎞
 Nozzle Length: L= ⎜ −1⎟ ⋅ tan −1 α
2 ⎝ A* ⎠

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Conical Nozzle
 General Observations:
 Conical nozzle contour is the most simple contour.
 It has high divergence losses – lower angle will reduce divergence losses, but
 longer nozzle (for same expansion) is heavier,
 frictional and boundary layer losses will be greater.

 Effective divergence loss accounted by λ applied to momentum thrust term.

 Serves as reference contour for the length definition of profiled nozzles (profiled
nozzle length is typically 75% – 85% of conical length with same ε)

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Perfect Nozzle
 The Perfect Nozzle is shaped in such a manner as to provide uniform parallel
flow at the exit plane.
  Complete elimination of flow divergence loss!!
 This perfect case is not a practical case, and produces very long nozzles,
therefore not used for propulsion application.

 The “Method of Characteristics” is used to analytically determine the contour

needed to achieve ideal (uniform parallel) flow conditions at the exit plane.

 The “Method of Characteristics” is widely used to determine nozzles with

practical contours.

 Designing a shaped nozzle requires 2–dimensional flow.

 The curvature of the streamlines is significant, so that gradients of velocity

and pressure perpendicular to streamlines become important.

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Supersonic Nozzle Design

 Objective of Design:
 Development of nearly 1–dimensional flow at nozzle exit while minimizing
pressure loss.

 Design Approach/Philosophy:
 To generate a wave–free flow downstream, reflected wave has to be eliminated.
 The design of the opposing wall is such as to “cancel” the incident wave by
forming parallel surface to resulting velocity vector.
 Far downstream nozzle contour is a result of the initial expansion just downstream
of the throat.

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Oblique Shocks and Expansion Waves

 Concave Corner  Convex Corner

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Method of Characteristics
 Background:
 In supersonic flow, the influence of a small pressure disturbance is limited to a
specific region.
 Pressure disturbance propagates relative to fluid as a spherical sound wave at local
velocity of sound a.
 Center of sound wave moves downstream with velocity u.
 Changes in fluid properties may be thought of as propagating along Mach lines:
  Mach line is straight, if flow upstream is uniform.
  All properties of flow immediately downstream of a Mach line are uniform.

Limit of Influence
Zone of Silence
−1 ⎛ at ⎞ −1 ⎛ 1⎞
Mach Angle α = sin ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟
u  ⎝ ut ⎠ ⎝ M⎠
A B
Uniform parallel
⎛ ⎞
⎟ = tan −1 ⎛ ⎞
supersonic flow
at 1
α = tan ⎜
Source of small −1
v = at ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
( ) ( )
pressure disturbance
⎜⎝
2
ut − at ⎠⎟ ⎝ M 2
− 1 ⎠
d = ut

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Method of Characteristics
 Expansion at Infinitesimal Corner:
 Velocity change due to an expansion:
dU dθ
=
U M2 −1

 Change in Mach number is related to change in direction of streamline (for

isentropic flow):

dM2 =
2 M 2
⎣ ( )
⎡1+ 0.5 γ −1 M2 ⎤
⎦ dθ
M2 −1

 Change in Mach number determines temperature, density, and pressure.

 See handout about Method of Characteristics.
 Wall curvature controls the flow field downstream of Mach lines.

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Method of Characteristics
 Intersection of Mach Lines:
 Streamlines upstream of O (blue region) and downstream of O (red region) must be
parallel!!
Mach number must be uniform!

 Knowing M, δθ
MM,1, δθ 3, δMM,
MM, M1, δMM
M3 will determine flow immediately downstream of O.

 Conditions:

(i) δθ1 − δθ2 = δθ 3 − δθ 4

(ii) δ M1 + δ M2 = δ M3 + δ M4
(iii) δθ2 = m1 δ M2
(iv) δθ 4 = m 3 δ M4

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Method of Characteristics
 The initial expansion occurs inside “1AI5”.
 At “I” the design Mach number is reached.
 The flow downstream of the left running characteristic “IP” is uniform and
parallel.
 The contour “AP” is calculated with MoC, such that incoming expansion
waves are compensated.

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Contour Design
 Design of a Parabolic Contoured Nozzle
 In 1960, G.V.R. Rao proposed a simple optimization method for nozzle design –
provides close approximation to a thrust-optimized contour.
 G.V.R. Rao, “Approximation of Optimum Thrust Nozzle Contour,” ARS Journal,
Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1960, p. 561

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Contour Design
 Influence of Nozzle Design on Performance

Typical length of bell nozzle: 75%-85% of length of conical nozzle

100
Conical nozzle, 15-degree
bell nozzle, eps=10

99 bell nozzle, eps=20

bell nozzle, eps=30
bell nozzle, eps=40

98

97
c

96

95
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Nozzle length / Length of conical 15o-nozzle · 100

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Why Altitude-Compensating Nozzles?

 Example:
 Conventional TCA performance characteristic vs. flight altitude based on ideal gas
analysis.
 ε = 45, p0=100 bar, ϒ = 1.2, MW = 22kg/kmol

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles

Dual-bell nozzle

Bell nozzle

Extendible nozzle

Plug nozzle
(“Aerospike”)

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles
 Extendible nozzles are being used on the RL-10 and Japanese upper stage
engines.
 Detailed nozzle design and mechanical design of a reliable deployment
mechanism are key.

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles
 Altitude adjusting nozzles expand at free surface

Plug Cluster Nozzle

Linear Aerospike Nozzle

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles
 Truncated Aerospike nozzles offer improved mission-averaged performance,
shorter lengths, TVC, and improved structural efficiency.
 Clustering losses and inter-thruster interactions, end-wall effects, base
region flow and heat transfer need development

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Performance Definition
 ‘Four’ types (according to Sutton):
 Theoretical performance (based on calculations, loss types specified) at operating
conditions,
 Delivered (actually measured),
 Performance at standard conditions:
 p0=1000 psia, optimally expanded at SL or stipulated e in vacuum,
 Propellant combination, not propulsion system, performance,
 Guaranteed minimum performance.

 Associated conditions must be clearly defined:

 Chamber and ambient pressures (SL or vacuum),
 Nozzle geometry ( !, !, etc.),
 Propellants and propellant conditions (T, composition, O/F),
 Type of thermochemical analysis (equilibrium chemistry or invariant composition
during nozzle flow).

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Real Nozzle Effects

 Stagnation pressure loss in the chamber:
 Non-isentropic flow, including heat and mass transfer, friction,
 Two-dimensional flow (divergence),
 Boundary layer and wall friction:
 Lower velocity in BL: effects include pressure gradient, heat transfer, wall
roughness, nozzle geometry,
 Multi-phase flow:
 liquid drops and solid particles have higher density (thus lower velocity),
 momentum transfer from gas to large drops also slows gas down.
 Unsteady flow
 Nozzle flow chemical kinetics:
 Re-association of relatively unstable (high positive heat of formation) molecules as
gas cools in the nozzle.
 Throat erosion leading to lower expansion ratio,
 Non-uniform properties:
 mixing loss can be a major effect,
 Real gas (not perfect gas) properties,
 Non-optimal expansion.

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4.8 SUPPLEMENT - TABLES

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