Food energy

Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the
process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration may either involve the chemical reaction of food
molecules with molecular oxygen[1] (aerobic respiration) or the process of reorganizing the food
molecules without additional oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

Overview
Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their metabolism and to
drive their muscles. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins,
and minerals. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with
vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. (Carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.[2]) Organisms derive food energy from
carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from organic acids, polyols, and ethanol present in the
diet.[3] Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals,
vitamins, cholesterol and insoluble fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other
reasons. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body
in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for energy. Fiber cannot be
completely digested by most animals, including humans, who can only extract 2 kcal/g of food
energy. Ruminants can extract nearly 4 kcal/g from fiber because of the bacteria in their rumens.

Measure
Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using (say) the Gibbs free energy of
combustion, or the amount of ATP generated by metabolizing the food. However, the convention is
to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. Conventional food energy is based
on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter and corrections that take into consideration the
efficiency of digestion and absorption and the production of urea and other substances in the urine.
The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th
century[6] (see Atwater system for more detail). Based on the work of Atwater, it became common
practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and
9 kcal/g for lipids.[6] The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the United
States Department of Agriculture, who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors
for different foods were proposed.[7]

Recommended daily intake

Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.
[17]
Older people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically
active people require more.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum
energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal).[18]
Recommendations in the United States are 2,600 and 2,000 kcal (10,900 and 8,400 kJ) for men and
women (respectively) between 31 and 35, at a physical activity level equivalent to walking about 2 to
5 km (1 1⁄2 to 3 mi) per day at 5 to 6 km/h (3 to 4 mph) in addition to the light physical activity
associated with typical day-to-day life.[19] French guidance suggests roughly the same levels.[20]
For young children, estimated caloric needs range from 1,000 to 2,000 kilocalories per day. The
recommended caloric intake for older children and adolescents, on the other hand, varies greatly
from 1,400 to 3,200 kilocalories per day. Boys in general require higher caloric intake than girls. [19]
Recognizing that people of different age and gender groups have varying daily activity levels,
Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council recommends no single daily energy intake
but instead prescribes an appropriate recommendation for each age and gender group.
[21]
Notwithstanding, nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend the average
daily energy intake of 2,100 kcal (8,800 kJ).

Energy usage in the human body

Main articles: Bioenergetics and Energy balance (biology)

The human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20%
of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic
requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to
produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the
production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.
The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on
the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether
the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low:
only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. [22] This
low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food,
losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical
losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of
muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of
mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal (18 kJ) per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing
equipment shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work,
plus 300 kcal (1,300 kJ) per hour,[23] which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of
mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to "burn off"
4,000 kcal (17,000 kJ)[24] more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram
of body fat is roughly equivalent to 32,300 kilojoules or 7,700 kilocalories of food energy (i.e., 3,500
kilocalories per pound).[25]
Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning
more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal
metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher
than those in other climates.[citation needed]

Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment
and is assessed by subjective evaluation (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55).[1] The human body can be
viewed as a heat engine where food is the input energy. The human body will generate excess heat
into the environment, so the body can continue to operate. The heat transfer is proportional to
temperature difference. In cold environments, the body loses more heat to the environment and in
hot environments the body does not exert enough heat. Both the hot and cold scenarios lead to
discomfort.[2] Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other
enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design
engineers. Most people will feel comfortable at room temperature, colloquially a range of
temperatures around 20 to 22 °C (68 to 72 °F),[3] but this may vary greatly between individuals and
depending on factors such as activity level, clothing, and humidity.
Thermal neutrality is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to
dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. The main factors that influence
thermal comfort are those that determine heat gain and loss, namely metabolic rate, clothing
insulation, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and relative humidity. Psychological
parameters, such as individual expectations, also affect thermal comfort. [4]
The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) model stands among the most recognized thermal comfort models.
It was developed using principles of heat balance and experimental data collected in a controlled
climate chamber under steady state conditions.[5] The adaptive model, on the other hand, was
developed based on hundreds of field studies with the idea that occupants dynamically interact with
their environment. Occupants control their thermal environment by means of clothing, operable
windows, fans, personal heaters, and sun shades.[4][6]
The PMV model can be applied to air-conditioned buildings, while the adaptive model can be
generally applied only to buildings where no mechanical systems have been installed. [1]There is no
consensus about which comfort model should be applied for buildings that are partially air-
conditioned spatially or temporally.
Thermal comfort calculations according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55[1] can be freely performed
with the CBE Thermal Comfort Tool for ASHRAE 55.
Similar to ASHRAE Standard 55 there are other comfort standards like EN 15251 [7] and the ISO 7730
standard.[8][9]

Psychrometrics
Not to be confused with Psychometrics, a discipline of psychology and education.

"Psychrometry" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Psychometry.

Humidity and hygrometry

Specific concepts

Psychrometrics, psychrometry, and hygrometry are names for the field of engineering concerned
with the physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures. The term comes from the
Greek psuchron (ψυχρόν) meaning "cold"[1] and metron (μέτρον) meaning "means of measurement".
[2]

Common applications
Although the principles of psychrometry apply to any physical system consisting of gas-vapor
mixtures, the most common system of interest is the mixture of water vapor and air, because of its
application in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning and meteorology. In human terms,
our thermal comfort is in large part a consequence of not just the temperature of the surrounding air,
but (because we cool ourselves via perspiration) the extent to which that air is saturated with water
vapor.
Many substances are hygroscopic, meaning they attract water, usually in proportion to the relative
humidity or above a critical relative humidity. Such substances include cotton, paper, cellulose, other
wood products, sugar, calcium oxide (burned lime) and many chemicals and fertilizers. Industries
that use these materials are concerned with relative humidity control in production and storage of
such materials.
In industrial drying applications, such as drying paper, manufacturers usually try to achieve an
optimum between low relative humidity, which increases the drying rate, and energy usage, which
decreases as exhaust relative humidity increases. In many industrial applications it is important to
avoid condensation that would ruin product or cause corrosion.
Molds and fungi can be controlled by keeping relative humidity low. Wood destroying fungi generally
do not grow at relative humidities below 75%.

Psychrometric properties
Dry-bulb temperature (DBT)
Main article: Dry-bulb temperature

The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer exposed to the air in a
place sheltered from direct solar radiation. The term dry-bulb is customarily added to temperature to
distinguish it from wet-bulb and dewpoint temperature. In meteorology and psychrometrics the word
temperature by itself without a prefix usually means dry-bulb temperature. Technically, the
temperature registered by the dry-bulb thermometer of a psychrometer. The name implies that the
sensing bulb or element is in fact dry. WMO provides a 23-page chapter on the measurement of
temperature.[3]
Wet-bulb temperature (WBT)
Main article: Wet-bulb temperature

The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a thermodynamic property of a mixture of air and water
vapor. The value indicated by a wet-bulb thermometer often provides an adequate approximation of
the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
The accuracy of a simple wet-bulb thermometer depends on how fast air passes over the bulb and
how well the thermometer is shielded from the radiant temperature of its surroundings. Speeds up to
5,000 ft/min (~60 mph) are best but it may be dangerous to move a thermometer at that speed.
Errors up to 15% can occur if the air movement is too slow or if there is too much radiant heat
present (from sunlight, for example).
A wet bulb temperature taken with air moving at about 1–2 m/s is referred to as a screen
temperature, whereas a temperature taken with air moving about 3.5 m/s or more is referred to
as sling temperature.
A psychrometer is a device that includes both a dry-bulb and a wet-bulb thermometer. A sling
psychrometer requires manual operation to create the airflow over the bulbs, but a powered
psychrometer includes a fan for this function. Knowing both the dry-bulb temperature (DBT) and
wet-bulb temperature (WBT), one can determine the relative humidity (RH) from the psychrometric
chart appropriate to the air pressure.
Dew point temperature
The saturation temperature of the moisture present in the sample of air, it can also be defined as the
temperature at which the vapour changes into liquid (condensation). Usually the level at which water
vapor changes into liquid marks the base of the cloud in the atmosphere hence called condensation
level. So the temperature value that allows this process (condensation) to take place is called the
'dew point temperature'. A simplified definition is the temperature at which the water vapour turns
into "dew" (Chamunoda Zambuko 2012).
Humidity
Specific Humidity

Specific humidity is defined as the proportion of the mass of water vapor and mass of the moist air
sample (including both dry air and the water vapor); it is closely related to humidity ratio and always
lower in value.
Absolute humidity

The mass of water vapor per unit volume of air containing the water vapor. This quantity is also
known as the water vapor density.[4]
Relative humidity

The ratio of the vapor pressure of moisture in the sample to the saturation pressure at the dry bulb
temperature of the sample.
Specific enthalpy
Analogous to the specific enthalpy of a pure substance. In psychrometrics, the term quantifies the
total energy of both the dry air and water vapour per kilogram of dry air.
Specific volume
Analogous to the specific volume of a pure substance. However, in psychrometrics, the term
quantifies the total volume of both the dry air and water vapour per unit mass of dry air.
Humid heat
Humid heat is the constant-pressure specific heat of moist air, per unit mass of the dry air. [7]
Pressure
Many psychrometric properties are dependent on pressure concept:

 vapor pressure of water;

 atmospheric pressure at the location of the sample.

Psychrometric charts[edit]

A psychrometric chart for sea-level elevation

Terminology
A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic parameters of moist air at a constant
pressure, often equated to an elevation relative to sea level. The ASHRAE-style
psychrometric chart, shown here, was pioneered by Willis Carrier in 1904.[8] It depicts these
parameters and is thus a graphical equation of state. The parameters are:

 Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is that of an air sample, as determined by an ordinary

thermometer. It is typically plotted as the abscissa (horizontal axis) of the graph. The SI
units for temperature are kelvins or degrees Celsius; other units are degrees
Fahrenheit and degrees Rankine.

 Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is that of an air sample after it has passed through a
constant-pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation process, that is, after the air has passed
over a large surface of liquid water in an insulated channel. In practice this is the
reading of a thermometer whose sensing bulb is covered with a wet sock evaporating
into a rapid stream of the sample air (see Hygrometer). When the air sample is pre-
saturated with water, the WBT will read the same as the DBT. The slope of the line of
constant WBT reflects the heat of vaporization of the water required to saturate the air of
a given relative humidity.

 Dew point temperature (DPT) is the temperature at which a moist air sample at the
same pressure would reach water vapor "saturation." At this point further removal of
heat would result in water vapor condensing into liquid water fog or, if below freezing
point, solid hoarfrost. The dew point temperature is measured easily and provides useful
information, but is normally not considered an independent property of the air sample as
it duplicates information available via other humidity properties and the saturation curve.

 Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole fraction
of saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure. RH is dimensionless, and
is usually expressed as a percentage. Lines of constant RH reflect the physics of air and
water: they are determined via experimental measurement. The concept that air "holds"
moisture, or that moisture "dissolves" in dry air and saturates the solution at some
proportion, is erroneous (albeit widespread); see relative humidity for further details.
 Humidity ratio is the proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the
given conditions (DBT, WBT, DPT, RH, etc.). It is also known as the moisture content or
mixing ratio. It is typically plotted as the ordinate (vertical axis) of the graph. For a given
DBT there will be a particular humidity ratio for which the air sample is at 100% relative
humidity: the relationship reflects the physics of water and air and must be determined
by measurement. The dimensionless humidity ratio is typically expressed as grams of
water per kilogram of dry air, or grains of water per pound of air (7000 grains equal 1
pound).

 Specific enthalpy, symbolized by h, is the sum of the internal (heat) energy of the moist
air in question, including the heat of the air and water vapor within. Also called heat
content per unit mass. In the approximation of ideal gases, lines of constant enthalpy
are parallel to lines of constant WBT. Enthalpy is given in (SI) joules per kilogram of air,
or BTU per pound of dry air.

 Specific volume is the volume of the mixture (dry air plus the water vapor) containing
one unit of mass of "dry air". The SI units are cubic meters per kilogram of dry air; other
units are cubic feet per pound of dry air. The inverse of specific volume is usually
confused as the density of the mixture (see "Applying the Psychrometric Relationships"
CIBSE, August 2009). However, to obtain the actual mixture density one must multiply
the inverse of the specific volume by unity plus the humidity ratio value at the point of
interest (see ASHRAE Fundamentals 1989 6.6, equation 9).
The psychrometric chart allows all the parameters of some moist air to be determined from
any three independent parameters, one of which must be the pressure. Changes in state,
such as when two air streams mix, can be modeled easily and somewhat graphically using
the correct psychrometric chart for the location's air pressure or elevation relative to sea
level. For locations at not more than 2000 ft (600 m) of altitude it is common practice to use
the sea-level psychrometric chart.
In the ω-t chart, the dry bulb temperature (t) appears as the abscissa (horizontal axis) and
the humidity ratio (ω) appear as the ordinate (vertical axis). A chart is valid for a given air
pressure (or elevation above sea level). From any two independent ones of the six
parameters dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio,
specific enthalpy, and specific volume, all the others can be determined. There
are possible combinations of independent and derived parameters.
Locating parameters on chart
* Dry bulb temperature: These lines are drawn straight, not always parallel to each other,
and slightly inclined from the vertical position. This is the t–axis, the abscissa (horizontal)
axis. Each line represents a constant temperature.
* Dew point temperature: From the state point follow the horizontal line of constant
humidity ratio to the intercept of 100% RH, also known as the saturation curve. The dew
point temperature is equal to the fully saturated dry bulb or wet bulb temperatures.
* Wet bulb temperature: These lines are oblique lines that differ slightly from the enthalpy
lines. They are identically straight but are not exactly parallel to each other. These intersect
the saturation curve at DBT point.
* Relative humidity: These hyperbolic lines are shown in intervals of 10%. The saturation
curve is at 100% RH, while dry air is at 0% RH.
* Humidity ratio: These are the horizontal lines on the chart. Humidity ratio is usually
expressed as mass of moisture per mass of dry air (pounds or kilograms of moisture per
pound or kilogram of dry air, respectively). The range is from 0 for dry air up to 0.03
(lbmw/lbma) on the right hand ω-axis, the ordinate or vertical axis of the chart.
* Specific enthalpy: These are oblique lines drawn diagonally downward from left to right
across the chart that are parallel to each other. These are not parallel to wet bulb
temperature lines.
Specific volume: These are a family of equally spaced straight lines that are nearly parallel.
The region above the saturation curve is a two-phase region that represents a mixture of
saturated moist air and liquid water, in thermal equilibrium.
The protractor on the upper left of the chart has two scales. The inner scale represents
sensible-total heat ratio (SHF). The outer scale gives the ratio of enthalpy difference to
humidity difference. This is used to establish the slope of a condition line between two
processes. The horizontal component of the condition line is the change in sensible heat
while the vertical component is the change in latent heat.[9][10][11]
How to read the chart: fundamental examples
Psychrometric charts are available in SI (metric) and IP (U.S./Imperial) units. They are also
available in low and high temperature ranges and for different pressures.

 Determining relative humidity: The percent relative humidity can be located at the
intersection of the vertical dry bulb and diagonally down sloping wet bulb temperature
lines. Metric (SI): Using a dry bulb of 25 °C and a wet bulb of 20 °C, read the relative
humidity at approximately 63.5%. U.S/Imperial (IP): Using a dry bulb of 77 °F and a wet
bulb of 68 °F, read the relative humidity at approximately 63.5%. In this example the
humidity ratio is 0.0126 kg water per kg dry air.

 Determining the effect of temperature change on relative humidity: For air of a fixed
water composition or moisture ratio, find the starting relative humidity from the
intersection of the wet and dry bulb temperature lines. Using the conditions from the
previous example, the relative humidity at a different dry bulb temperatures can be
found along the horizontal humidity ratio line of 0.0126, either in kg water per kg dry air
or pounds water per pound dry air.
A common variation of this problem is determining the final humidity of air leaving an air
conditioner evaporator coil then heated to a higher temperature. Assume that the
temperature leaving the coil is 10°C (50°F) and is heated to room temperature (not mixed
with room air), which is found by following the horizontal humidity ratio from the dew point or
saturation line to the room dry bulb temperature line and reading the relative humidity. In
typical practice the conditioned air is mixed with room air that is being infiltrated with outside
air.

 Determining the amount of water to be removed or added in lowering or raising

relative humidity: This is the difference in humidity ratio between the initial and final
conditions times the weight of dry air.
Mollier diagram

Mollier Diagram (Chart), IP Units

The "Mollier i-x" (Enthalpy - Humidity Mixing Ratio) diagram, developed by Richard
Mollier in 1923,[12] is an alternative psychrometric chart, preferred by many users in
Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Russia.[13]
The underlying psychrometric parameter data for the psychrometric chart and the
Mollier diagram are identical. At first glance there is little resemblance between the
charts, but if the chart is rotated by ninety degrees and looked at in a mirror the
resemblance becomes apparent. The Mollier diagram coordinates are enthalpy and
humidity ratio. The enthalpy coordinate is skewed and the lines of constant enthalpy are
parallel and evenly spaced. The ASHRAE psychrometric charts since 1961 use similar
plotting coordinates. Some psychrometric charts use dry-bulb temperature and humidity
ratio coordinates.