Focus on the Learner

Summary
The information in this document will be useful for when you write Module 3. In Part
2 you are required to show an understanding of learner styles, needs and
motivation.

In this section we will spend time considering some of the characteristics of learners
that may affect their success in language learning. Some of these features are
related to their cultural background or to the context in which they are learning.
Others relate very much to the individual him or herself. We will consider learner
beliefs, motivation, and learning styles, which are all very important factors affecting
learning. We will then look at learning strategies - things that learners can be
trained to do to help themselves learn. We then look briefly at intelligence,
personality and aptitude, and finally consider if it is possible to describe the
characteristics of a good language learner.

Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to:

• Demonstrate some knowledge of the different attitudes and aspirations with

which speakers of other languages approach the learning of English.

• Notice and describe differences between adult learners in terms of their belief
systems, motivation, learning styles and preferences, and so on.

• Find ways of enhancing the motivation and learning opportunities for your adult
learners taking account of their cognitive and affective needs.

• Get further insight into learners for your specialism in Module 3

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 Contents
1. Introduction
2. Learner Belief Systems
3. Motivation
4. Learning Styles
5. Learning Strategies
6. Personality
7. Intelligence
8. Aptitude
9. The Good Language Learner
10. Conclusion
Reading
Appendices

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1. Introduction

‘There are a large number of potential factors which might affect an

individual’s success in learning a language. Some of these might relate
to the individual learner, some to the learning context (including
institutional, methodological and affective factors) and some to the
language being learnt’.
If we consider the language being learnt, factors come into play such as:
• Similarity to /difference to L1 (form, lexis, pronunciation, script etc.)

• Opportunities for and types of exposure

• Relationships/attitudes among speakers of L1 and L2 towards each other

• Learners’ beliefs about the language (e.g. the grammar is difficult)

If we consider the learning context, we raise issues such as:

• The role of the target language and culture in the learner’s own culture

• Whether the learner is learning the language as a second language (i.e. to use
in that country) or as a foreign language

• Number of years of study, method of study, amount and type of exposure to the
language
• Teaching methods (and how they match with individuals’ learning styles)

• Affective factors such as attitudes and relationships to teachers, peers and

speakers of the target language, self esteem, perceived relevance of what is
learnt, etc.

You will have already thought about the importance of some of these factors if you
conducted your initial interviews/questionnaires with your chosen group for the
Module 3 extended assignment.

In this section we will focus on the individual learner in more detail. This section will
be particularly useful when you are writing up Part two of your Module 3 assignment
.

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 TASK 1: Brainstorming (30mins)

Read chapter 3 of How Languages are Learned by Lightbown and Spada on

factors affecting second language learning if you have not aleady done so.

• How much do you remember? What are some of the characteristics of

the learner that may affect his or her success in second language
learning?

• After thinking, and possibly making some notes, skim read the chapter
again to remind yourself.

The factors mentioned in fact are intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation and
attitudes, learner preferences, learner beliefs and age.
In this section we will explore some of these factors in a little more in depth:

2. Learner belief systems

Lightbown and Spada restrict their discussion of learner beliefs to beliefs about
teaching methods. However, it can include more than that:

‘’Learners’ beliefs are influenced by the social context of learning and

can influence both their attitudes towards the language itself as well as
towards language learning in general (Tumposky 1991). Learners’
belief systems cover a wide range of issues and can influence learners’
motivation to learn, their expectations about language learning, their
perceptions about what is easy or difficult about a language as well as
the kind of learning strategies they favour”.

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. J. 1994 Reflective Teaching in Second

Language Classrooms Cambridge University Press p52

TASK 2: Reading (45mins)

Read Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms chapter 3, the section

on Learner Belief Systems (pages 52 – 59) and make some notes on the different
belief systems that are described.

3. Motivation
Motivation is generally identified as a crucial factor in the learning process and most
studies report a high correlation between motivation and achievement. Whether

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motivation leads to success or success leads to motivation is less clear but it seems
the two are closely linked.
Defining motivation is a complex issue:

‘It is important to emphasise that motivation involves more than simply

arousing interest; it also involves making a decision to act, sustaining
the interest, and deciding how much effort to put in’.
Williams, M. 1999 Motivation in Language Learning ETP Issue 13

Traditionally a distinction has been made between integrative and instrumental

motivation (Gardner and Lambert).

If a learner is instrumentally motivated, it means that they have a practical goal in their
language learning, in terms of their study or work. Perhaps they have to take an exam in
the foreign language or they need to use it in their job. If, on the other hand, a learner is
integratively motivated it means that they want to learn for reasons of personal growth
or cultural enrichment. Perhaps they are lovers of that language and culture, they like to
visit the country where it is spoken and/or they have friends there.

Research suggests that integratively motivated learners tend to do better than those
who are instrumentally motivated. This may well depend on the context, however.
Learners who are living in the target language culture may do better if they are
integratively motivated, but in other situations where the target language is being
learnt as a foreign language, instrumental motivation may be more important.

Another distinction, perhaps more useful, is made by cognitive psychologists

between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation leads you to do
something because of some external pressure such as a reward or punishment of
some kind, whereas if you are intrinsically motivated you carry out the task for its
own sake. Research seems to indicate that while extrinsic motivation may be useful
as well, it is intrinsic motivation that leads better to long-term learning.

Motivation, however, is really much more complex than either of these dichotomies
suggest. It is most certainly influenced by a range of factors, both internal and
external to the learner, and it is also not a static thing as the instrumental/integrative
labelling might suggest. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could work together rather
than be seen as opposite ends of a continuum.

Williams and Burden also point out the importance of the perceived value of the
activity as a crucial factor affecting motivation:

‘The greater the value that individuals attach to the accomplishment of

or involvement in an activity, the more highly motivated they will be both
to engage in it initially, and later to put sustained effort into succeeding
in the activity. This would appear to be true whether they are influenced
by intrinsic or extrinsic reasons.’
Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers
Cambridge University Press p125

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 TASK 3: Brainstorming Factors Affecting Motivation (30-45mins)

What do you think are the different factors that may affect a learner’s motivation?
Think about a learner who is learning in a classroom situation. For example:

• The learner’s relationship with his or her classmates

• The level of material (if the learner thinks it’s too easy or too difficult or just
right)
Make a list of the factors you come up with.
Is it possible for you as the teacher to influence any of these things? How?

For example, the teacher can try to ensure a good relationship among learners
by personalising, by encouraging students to use each other’s names, by getting
students to work with each other etc.
See Appendix 1.

For more about motivation, read:

Nunan, D. & Lamb, C. 1996 The Self Directed Teacher Cambridge University Press
chapter 7
Richards, J C 1980 Motivation. English Teaching Perspectives. Longman pp75-77
Williams, M. October 1999 Motivation in Language Learning ETP Issue 13

Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers Cambridge

University Press chapter 6

4. Learning Styles
Another important aspect of individual differences is in learning style. A lot has been
written about this in recent years. You may have heard the terms VAK, VAKOG or
multiple intelligences for example.

‘Learners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new
material. The term ‘learning style’ has been used to describe an
individual’s natural, habitual and preferred way of absorbing processing
and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995)‘.
Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. op cit p58

Exactly how many different kinds of learning style there are is another debatable
issue, although attempts have been made to categorise learners into types.

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 TASK 4: Reading and Note-making (20mins)

Read Wingate, J. 1996 Multiple Intelligences ETP Issue 1

Then answer these questions:
1. Which ‘intelligences’ does he list?
2. Which ones are traditionally valued and tested in school learning situations?

3. What kind of learning tasks in an ELT context might suit each kind of
learner? See Appendix 2.

Some ELT practitioners influenced by Neuro-linguistic programming have talked

about different sensory styles (VAK refers to visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and –OG
to olfactory and gustatory).

‘The systems we use to experience the world are called our primary
representational systems. Depending to some extent on context, most
people naturally tend to use one system more than the other two, or
one system before the others, either when noticing things around them
or when learning something new’.
Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press p31

A quiz about sensory styles appears in that book on page 29 and more on VAKOG
if you are interested. It is very appealing in theory and has attractively practical
relevance for the teacher. Please beware, however, of making too many rash
judgements about your learners on limited evidence! (For example, if a learner says
he likes using pictures in class, it may be tempting to label him as a visual learner.
However, it would be difficult to find learners who don’t find pictures helpful.) See
Revell and Norman’s other book, Handing Over for more classroom ideas.

Elsewhere (based on Knowles’ categories and referred to in books by Willing,

Richards and Lockhart, and Skehan), other distinctions have been made in terms of
learning style, or cognitive style, and the following types identified:
• Concrete learning style

• Analytical learning style

• Communicative learning style

• Authority-oriented learning style

‘Learners with a concrete learning style use active and direct means of
taking in and processing information. They are interested in information
that has immediate value. They are curious, spontaneous and willing to
take risks. They like variety and a constant change of pace. They dislike
routine learning and written work, and prefer verbal or visual
experiences. They like to be entertained and like to be physically
involved in learning’.

‘Learners with an analytical style are independent, like to solve problems

and enjoy tracking down ideas and developing principles on their own.

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 Such learners prefer a logical, systematic presentation of new learning
material with opportunities for learners to follow up on their own.
Analytical learners are serious, push themselves hard, and are
vulnerable to failure.’

‘Learners with a communicative learning style prefer a social approach

to learning. They need personal feedback and interaction, and learn
well from discussion and group activities. They thrive in a
democratically run class.’

‘Learners with an authority-oriented style are said to be responsible and

dependable. They like and need structure and sequential progression.
They relate well to a traditional classroom. They prefer the teacher as
an authority figure. They like to have clear instructions and to know
exactly what they are doing; they are not comfortable with consensus-
building discussion’.

Richards, J. C & Lockhart, C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language

Classrooms chapter 3 p60

TASK 5: Reflecting on Learning Styles (20mins)

Think about one of your groups of learners. Just from your observations of the
class at work, can you actually identify any of the types of learner described
above? Are there any predominant types of styles in within your group? Do these
descriptions reflect reality in your opinion?

From reading the descriptions above it is clear that learning style will affect a
learner’s preferences for particular activities or approaches in the classroom. For
example, authority-oriented style learners will probably like teacher-led activities
and lots of teacher explanation. Analytical learners on the other hand may like
working things out for themselves (e.g. working out grammar rules from examples).

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 TASK 6: Classroom Research

Devise an activity to find out about your learners’ learning preferences (that is
what they like doing and consider useful in class). Since you are doing Module 3,
it would be a good idea to do this activity on your chosen specialism group so
that you can use the information in the Extended Assignment too. For ideas, look
at:

• Willing Teaching how to learn

• Richards & Lockhart Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms

• Nunan & Lamb The Self-directed Teacher chapter 7

• Porter-Ladousse Language Issues pages 4 & 5

• Ellis & Sinclair Learning to learn English pages 8 & 9

• Hadfield Classroom Dynamics Chapter 2

Are there any general preferences? Do you think you cater for these adequately?
How do you or could you cater for individual preferences?

Another distinction that has often been referred to when talking about learning style
is that of field dependence and field independence.

‘This refers to whether an individual tends to separate details from the general
background or to see things more holistically’.

Lightbown P. & Spada, N. 1999 How Languages are Learned Oxford

University Press p58

However, this is a rather more difficult factor to analyse with any degree of certainty.
Williams and Burden in Psychology for Language Teachers point out many of the
problems of designing tests to measure factors such as this.

It is important to remember that all these different learning styles are labels that
have been ‘invented’ to apply to the ‘reality’ of how different people learn, or prefer
to learn. They cannot therefore be absolutely clearly defined categories. We should
avoid accepting them as black and white distinctions between types of learners;
rather they may represent tendencies. For you as a language teacher, it is
interesting to notice – and find out about - such tendencies in your learners since it
may help you see why learners respond as they do to certain types of activities. It
should also help you in consciously extending your repertoire of teaching
techniques and approaches to try and ensure you cater for all types of learner.
There can be a tendency for us to teach in the way that we favour as learners.
On this topic Willing writes:

‘There is not much doubt that teachers’ styles of teaching are greatly
influenced by their own individual learning styles. For one thing there is
always the temptation to do in class those sorts of activities which one
personally enjoys (and indeed why not?). So the analytical teacher is
naturally more interested in structure; formal correctness, getting at rules
by deduction or discovery and in pointedly organised class procedures.
The concrete teacher is more sensitive to social interaction,

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 and tends to favour activities in which learners are given plenty of
exposure to the language in communicative contexts (e.g. in roleplays,
group projects, practice and discussion)’.

Willing, K. Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) National Centre

for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University,
Sydney 1989

TASK 7: Reflecting on Your Learning / Teaching Style (45mins-1hr)

Think about the following:

• How would you describe yourself as a learner? (Think about recent

experiences you’ve had in the classroom, perhaps learning a language, etc.).

• As a teacher, what kind of classroom activities do you like doing best? Are
there any you dislike or feel less comfortable doing (or maybe you don’t do
them)?

• Does your teaching approach reflect your learning style? Are there activities
which you do a lot because YOU like them (rather than the students)?
Conversely, are there any that you avoid (because YOU don’t like them)
which could benefit your students who have different learning styles?

In addition to your reflection, look at Wingate’s quiz in Multiple Intelligences and

then read Multiple Intelligences and Lesson Planning.

5. Learning Strategies
Strategies can be defined as procedures that learners use in relation to the task of
learning a foreign language. They are things that can be learnt or changed unlike
learning style which is normally considered a relatively stable characteristic.
They include:

• Memory strategies, which help students to store and retrieve information.

• Cognitive strategies, which enable learners to understand and produce new

language.

• Compensation strategies, which allow learners to communicate despite

deficiencies in their language knowledge.

• Metacognitive strategies, which allow learners to control their own learning

through organising, planning and evaluating.

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• Affective strategies, which help learners gain control over their emotions,
attitudes, motivations and values.

• Social strategies, which help learners interact with other people.

[Based on Oxford, R. 1990 Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher

should know New York: Newbury House, quoted in Richards and Lockhart
Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms, page 63 to 65]

(Note that other writers use different categories: once again, these are labels
applied to ‘reality’ and so interpretations can vary).

TASK 8: Classifying Learning Strategies (25mins)

Read Richards & Lockhart Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms,

pages 63 to 65.

Here are some examples of learning strategies. Can you classify them according
to the above six types of learning strategies?

1. Labelling things in your room with post-its so that every time you go in there
you can read the labels.
2. Filling in a learning checklist, saying how confident you feel in each area.
3. Seeking out native speakers of the language to talk to.
4. Paraphrasing when you don’t know the word you want when speaking.
5. Playing a positive role in groupwork tasks.
6. Ignoring unknown lexical items when you are reading.
7. Setting goals and time aside for language learning.
8. Looking at notes taken in class and rewriting them.

9. Reading signs and notices in public places and trying to work out what they
mean.
10. Making notes before carrying out a writing task.
11. Getting to know your classmates.
12. Relaxing by listening to songs in the target language.
See Appendix 3.

Learners who have not been in a learning situation for some time or who were not
‘good’ learners at school may in particular benefit from some work on learning
strategies. This means raising awareness of different ways of learning and suggesting
useful strategies. People learn in different ways and therefore you really shouldn’t be
too authoritarian about how they should go about it. If learners have a range of
strategies available, though, they can choose what suits them. Some learners of course
may already have very clear ideas about what learning a language entails and the kind
of activities that should be done in the process. For example a lot

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of students want to be corrected more than a lot of native speaker teachers actually
do, or they want to write everything down (or not write anything down!) even if you
have a different idea about the nature of the activity. You may therefore find it useful
to discuss the rationale behind certain procedures and activities that you use and
bear you learners’ feedback in mind!

TASK 9: Helping Learners to Adopt Useful Learning Strategies

Look at the materials in Appendix 4. What kind of learning strategies do they aim
to promote?
The suggested answers also appear in the key to Appendix 4.

If you are interested in reading more about learning strategies, read Williams and
Burden, Psychology for the Language Teacher, chapter 7.

6. Personality
Various attempts have been made to link certain personality types with success (or
lack of it) in language learning. For example, it has been claimed that extroverts and
risk takers are better language learners. However, there are difficulties in measuring
these factors and it also would seem to depend on what aspect of language
learning is being focussed on. Even intuitively there doesn’t seem to be any reason
why being an extrovert would help you learn grammar rules or write an essay
although it may mean you are more willing to practise speaking in front of others. It
may therefore not be a very useful factor to consider for most teachers, beyond
making sensitive judgements about personality and learning preferences (e.g. you
know that Susana is shy so you don’t ask her to stand up in front of the class and
do the first mime in the hotel receptionist game).

7. Intelligence
Measuring intelligence raises problems since it is unclear what exactly it is we are
measuring. IQ tests measure one type of intelligence but, although there may be
some link between this and success in language learning in traditional classrooms
(e.g. with the learning of grammar rules, reading, vocabulary) it may not be linked to
the development of communication and interaction skills, such as speaking.
As Lightbown and Spada point out:

’It is important to keep in mind that intelligence is complex and that

individuals have many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which
are measured by traditional IQ tests. In our experience, many students
whose academic performance has been weak have experienced
considerable success in language learning’.

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. 1999 How Languages are learned Oxford

University Press p53

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It may be more useful to think in terms of multiple intelligences, which you read
about in the Wingate article (see Task 3 above).

8. Aptitude
Some people seem to have a ‘gift’ for languages. This means that they have
exceptional aptitude for language learning. You may have met people like this who
at least appear to learn pretty effortlessly and manage to reach a very high level of
proficiency - including excellent pronunciation, perfect grammar and a wide range of
entirely appropriate lexis - in a relatively short time. An English teacher I knew had a
hard time convincing Italians that he wasn’t actually Italian (he certainly didn’t look
Italian) and he’d only lived there for about five years and had no previous ‘Italian
background’!

Psychologists have devised language aptitude tests. These can be used to find out
the language learning abilities of an individual or group of individuals, usually to see
to what extent they would benefit from a language course. This may be particularly
useful where potential students have no previous foreign language learning
experience, or where a company for instance wishes to send the employees who
will benefit most from an intensive course.

The best known of these tests are the Modern Language Aptitude Test and the
Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery, developed in the 1950s.

‘Both tests are based on the view that aptitude is composed of different
types of abilities:
• The ability to identify and memorise new sounds.

• The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences.

• The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples; and

• Memory for new words’.

Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. op cit p53

Early research showed that there was a link between these factors and success in
language learning, at least when learners were instructed via a grammar translation
or audio-lingual method. Whether these same factors would lead to success under
other circumstances, e.g. in informal settings (not in classrooms) or in
communicative, task based classrooms, it is less clear. You might like to think about
this.

There is a ‘light-hearted’ aptitude quiz in Soars, J. and L. Headway Advanced

Oxford University Press (1989) p6 – 7 (NB This is only in this edition and not the
more recent ones).

9. The Good Language Learner

Other researchers have tried to draw up a profile of a ‘Good Language Learner’
which includes a wider range of factors, some relating to aptitude, some to
personality and some to learning strategies. For example:

• Good language learners are willing and accurate guessers.

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• Good language learners have a strong drive to communicate, or to learn from
communication. They are willing to do many things to get their message across.

• Good language learners are often not inhibited. They are willing to make
mistakes in order to learn and to communicate. They are willing to live with a
certain amount of vagueness.

• In addition to focussing on communication, good language learners are

prepared to attend to form. Good language learners are constantly looking for
patterns in the language.
• Good language learners practise.

• Good language learners monitor their own and the speech of others. That is
they are constantly paying attention to how well their speech is being received
and whether their performance meets the standards they have learnt.

• Good language learners attend to meaning. They know that in order to

understand the message, it is not sufficient to pay attention to the grammar of
the language or to the surface form of the speech.
(Adapted from Rubin 1975)
From Willing, K. Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) op cit p11.

TASK 10: Reflecting on the Good Language Learner (20mins)

Think about someone you know well: yourself or another person. Do you consider
this person to be a good language learner? Why or why not? Do any of the above
factors seem to be important or not?
Can you draw up your own list of characteristics of the good language learner?

10. Conclusion
Every student who comes to your language classes is different and experience will
have shown you that different learners learn different things, at different rates and in
different ways. It is worth taking the time to find out about learners as individuals
and thinking about how you can cater for them best as individuals, because it is
likely then that the whole group learning situation will also be enhanced.

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Reading

Essential reading
Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. 1999 How Languages are Learned Oxford University
Press

Nunan, D. & Lamb, C. 1996 The Self Directed Teacher Cambridge University Press
chapter 7

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. 1994 Reflective Teaching in Second Language

Classrooms Cambridge University Press chapter 3

Williams, M. October 1999 Motivation in Language Learning ETP Issue 13

Wingate, J. October 1996 Multiple Intelligences ETP Issue 1

Recommended Additional Reading

Ellis, G. & Sinclair, B. 1989 Learning to Learn English Cambridge University Press
Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press

Porter-Ladousse, G. 1993 Language Issues Longman

Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press

Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1999 Handing Over Saffire Press

Soars, J. & L. 1996 Headway Advanced Oxford University Press

Vouillemin, D. 1994 VAK Again PET

Williams, M. & Burden, R. 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers Cambridge

University Press

Willing, K. 1989 Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, Sydney

Wingate, J. January 1997 Multiple Intelligences and Lesson Planning ETP Issue 2

Wingate, J. 2000 Learning Preferences. ETP Issue 17 Zhu,

Huimin. 2006. Teaching Quieter Students ETP Issue 42

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Brainstorming Factors Affecting Motivation

1. Reasons for learning need for the language
2. Progress made, feedback gained, achievement
3. Attitudes towards the target language and culture
4. Attitude towards/relationship with the teacher
5. Attitudes towards/relationship with peers
6. Attitudes towards the learning materials and tasks, perceived relevance
7. Perception of self as a language learner
8. Enjoyment of the learning process
9. Events in their lives, feelings, tiredness, etc.

Some of these relate to long-term states or attitudes, others may be transitory,

related to a particular class or learning activity.
How the teacher can help (numbers refer to the numbers above):

1. Encourage students to set goals in their learning, preferably related to the real
world or at least to the course syllabus, create a need for the language in the
classroom, choose materials that will interest the students, be aware of their
needs and interests, provide opportunities for individualisation.

2. Try to make the work you do success oriented – ensure your learners experience
success (e.g. procedures to help ‘weaker learners’), ensure students get feedback
on their learning, through counselling, marking; give praise where it’s due;
remember the value of positive feedback as well as constructive criticism.

3. Some of these things may be deep-rooted and difficult to affect. The teacher
can try to dispel any negative stereotypes, and s/he should be aware of her/his
role as a ‘real example’ of someone from that culture. Find out what the
learners’ view on the language is, what they perceive to be easy/difficult.

4. Find out about students’ expectations, some students may have quite different
ideas from yours about what the teacher’s role is, what constitutes good
teaching, (they may also be very reluctant to criticise the teacher in any way). In
some cases it may be good to be friendly with your students but be careful you
don’t step over any cultural boundaries. Bear in mind that:

‘Learners from different cultures may have different beliefs about what
constitutes good teaching’.

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language

Classrooms op cit p55

5. Try to create a good relationship between students: getting to know each other’s
names, something about each other, working with different people but ultimately
respecting their preferences. See Hadfield, Classroom Dynamics for lots of
ideas

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6. Find out about the students’ needs; let them have a say in the work you cover;
find out about their learning preferences; cater for everyone not just the most
vociferous members of the group; get feedback from them on what they’ve liked,
found useful, not liked, not found useful and so on.

7. This is also something deep rooted – people may have decided a long time ago
that they were no good at languages, for example. Positive feedback from you
(where deserved), catering for different types of learner, or rather, mixed ability
may help increase self-esteem. You may also have the opposite problem of
people who think they are better than they are. Raise awareness of different
types of intelligence (see Wingate Multiple Intelligences).

8. A lot of adult learners spend their free time and a lot of money studying in language
classes. If it can become a pleasure rather than a chore, that’s good! What
constitutes a pleasure? Humour, (but not all the time), variety, interesting content
and materials (authentic?), the right amount of challenge, the sense that spending
the time there was really worthwhile and something was learned, the sense of
involvement and progress. Find out what your learners want, like, need.

9. Taking a (tactful) interest in students as people, (i.e. the maxim ‘A problem

shared is a ...’), providing a variety of activities, including short activities when
learners are tired, getting them to move around (mingles, standing up role-
plays), being flexible enough to respond to their ‘mood’.

Appendix 2: Reading and Note Making

1. He lists seven intelligences:

Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic,

interpersonal, intrapersonal
2. Linguistic intelligence and logical-mathematical intelligence.
There are various possible answers here but here are some suggestions:

• Linguistic- written exercises, word games, reading, writing etc.

• Logical-mathematical – grammar by guided discovery, problem solving activities

• Spatial – video, project work

• Bodily - kinaesthetic – roleplay, drama, mime

• Musical – listening to and singing songs, beating the stress

• Interpersonal – brainstorming in groups, discussions in groups

• Intrapersonal – visualisation activities, selecting own learning activities

Appendix 3: Classifying Learning Strategies

Memory

• Labelling things in your room with post-its so that every time you go in there you
can read the labels.

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• Looking at notes taken in class and rewriting them.
Cognitive

• Reading signs and notices in public places and trying to work out what they
mean.
• Making notes before carrying out a writing task.
Compensation

• Paraphrasing when you don’t know the word you want when speaking.

• Ignoring unknown lexical items when you are reading.

Metacognitive

• Filling in a learning checklist, saying how confident you feel in each area.

• Setting goals and time aside for language learning.

Affective

• Relaxing by listening to songs in the target language.

• Getting to know your classmates.

Social

• Seeking out native speakers of the language to talk to.

• Co-operating with classmates in groupwork tasks.

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Appendix 4: Helping Learners to Adopt Useful Strategies
Excerpt 1

‘I like it when’ from Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press
chapter 10 p 87

- 19 -
Excerpt 2

From Porter-Ladousse, G. 1993 Language Issues Longman unit 7 p54 Learning

Grammar ex 1

- 20 -
Excerpt 3

‘How to Learn Vocabulary’ from Soars, J and L 1991 Headway Pre-intermediate

Oxford University Press Unit 5, page 37

- 21 -
Excerpt 4

‘Have I got what I wanted?’ from Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford
University Press Chapter 16 ex 5

- 22 -
Key to Appendix 4:
Excerpt 1

This activity encourages learners to share their positive impressions of the target
language or learning the language.
Hadfield writes:

‘A positive attitude towards oneself as a learner, towards the learning

process, and towards the language and culture being studied are
obviously essential if any progress is to be made. If you have little faith
in your own ability to learn, little enjoyment of or feeling for the
language, and feel alienated by and resentful of the culture you will not
be highly motivated to learn’.
Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press p86
This activity concerns affective strategies.
Excerpt 2

The aim here is that students learn grammar rules by looking at correct and incorrect
examples of the language, discussing them with a partner and reading about the rule.
The activity therefore focuses on developing appropriate cognitive strategies.

Excerpt 3

This activity encourages learners to think about the strategies they can adopt to
help themselves learn and remember lexis. It therefore concerns developing
appropriate memory strategies.
Excerpt 4

This activity encourages learners to reflect on their learning in terms of their

learning goals and whether they have achieved them. It therefore concerns
metacognitive strategies.