7 INSPECTION FOR FLAWS

7.1 Magnetic particle inspection

MPI can be regarded as the standard method for locating and

characterising the length of a surface-breaking crack, but has to a
certain extent been superseded b y other methods.

MPI under water is not, in principle, very different from MPI above
water. The main differences are the need to apply the magnetic
particle suspension through the water, and the turbidity of the water,
which may limit visibility significantly. Operation at shallow depths may
encounter problems from light levels unless high-visibility inks are used
or the inspection is done at night. It is essential to clean the surface
thoroughly to bare metal.

The performance of MPI is heavily dependent on the skill and

experience of the Inspector, and on the nature of the test surface.
Inspectors must be qualified to CSWlP 3.2U or equivalent (see
Appendix B), and should ideally have considerable experience in the
application or environment under test. Surfaces for inspection should
be carefully cleaned back to bare metal, taking care not to peen
over the edges of any defects that might be present, as described in
Section 6. A careful scrutiny by close visual inspection is essential
before and during MPI, as weld undercut, interbead grooves, and
other fabrication defects are often mistaken for cracks.

There is no standard specifically written to cover MPI underwater, but

BS6072, intended for onshore MPI, is often used in the North Sea.
Other Standards may have some application, notably BS4069 for inks,
and BS4489 for assessing the ultra-violet light used in MPI. None of
these standards is completely satisfactory for offshore use and
caution should be exercised in their use.

General information is given in IIS/llW-849-87 'Handbook on the

Magnetic Examination of Welds'.

Z 1. 1 General requliemenfs

Magnetic field strengths in the examination area are generally the

same as those encountered in above-water testing: peak tangential

17
field strength of 2.4 to 4.0 kA/m is in most cases adequate. The normal
component of the field should be kept as small as possible.

Offshore structural steels often have high permeabilities and so lower

field strengths can be used, provided the peak tangential magnetic
flux density in the steel is at least 0.75T. The relative permeability of
offshore structural steels is often quite different from that assumed in
the Standards, and will vary from parent plate to weld metal and
heat affected zones (HAZs).

The magnetic field may be produced in a number of ways.

Alternating or half-wave and full wave rectified currents are
recommended, and should be measured by an ammeter, giving rms
values for alternating current and rms values referred to half-periods
for half-wave rectified current.

The magnetic field strength should be verified using Hall probe

instruments or meters of similar accuracy, particularly for complicated
geometries such as nodes. Simple flux indicators such as Burmah
Castrol strips should be used with caution and basically treated as
showing whether a field is present or not: they should not be relied
upon for measurement of field strength.

Z 1.2 Magnetisation methods

The most common magnetisation methods are:

8 Coils
The coil should be placed 50-1OOmm outside the test area.
Only surface-breaking cracks substantially parallel to the coils
will be susceptible to detection.

8 Parallel conductors
Use of parallel conductors will facilitate the detection of
cracks parallel to the conductors in the area between them.

8 AC electromagnetic yoke
The AC electromagnetic yoke can be applied to detect
surface breaking cracks at 90 degrees to the line between
the two poles of the electromagnet.

18
 Prods
The use of prods is not recommended unless special
precautions are taken to avoid damage to the test area (see
below). If they are used, prod spacing should be 150-300mm.
An rms alternating current of 2.5-4.0 A per mm prod spacing
should give the necessary tangential peak field strength.

The prods should be arranged as a yoke to allow one-hand

operation, and should be fitted with low-melting-point alloy
tips to avoid local heating and burning of the steel surface
leading to cracking. Copper or bronze tips should be
avoided to remove the chance of creating copper inclusions
in the steel surface. Good electrical contact between prods
and surface must be made before the current is turned on, to
avoid any arcing at the point of contact and local heating.

The use of DC or permanent magnets is possible but not

recommended.

Z 1.3 Defecfion system

Fluorescent magnetic particles are normally employed, stored as a

suspension in liquid and fed through a hose to the examination area
whilst this is being magnetised. After application of the particles, the
field should be maintained for a few seconds.

Although fluorescent particles are mainly used offshore, examination

near the surface in daylight may require non-fluorescent inks.

Z 1.4 Inks

The concentration of particles should be about 0.5% by volume, with

a range of sizes from 0.15 to 25pm, depending on the surface
condition of the area - 15pm is a commonly used mean diameter.
The liquid suspension should contain a suitable wetting agent such as
soap.

The container for the ink should be slightly overpressurized or fitted

with a pump to supply the ink to the inspection site, and it is important
that the ink should be agitated from time to time to prevent settling-

19
out of the particles. The application system should be periodically
cleaned after use to avoid blockages.

7.1.5 Wewing conditions

Ultraviolet light of wavelength between 320 and 400nm is used at an

intensity of 1 OW/m* for fluorescent inks. BS6072 indicates that MPI
should be performed under very low ambient light levels of less than
10 lux. However, subject to approval by regulator, it may be
reasonable to conduct MPI at considerably higher light intensities. A
luxmeter should be used to assess the light level. Sufficient time should
be allowed for the diver to become acclimatised to the low light
levels before inspection is undertaken.

For non-fluorescent inks, the area under examination should be

illuminated by natural or artificial light to a level of not less than 500
lux.

A record of the MPI indication may be made by a variety of methods,

particularly using still photography or video cameras. Where surface
replication is used undue credence should not be placed on the
veracity of any replica as this can depend substantially on the
conditions.

7.2 Alternating current potential drop

This technique is purely for crack sizing and is not used for crack
detection in the first instance. Both low-frequency (50 Hz) and high-
frequency ACPD equipment are available and are used for crack
depth measurements underwater on plate material, butt welds and
node welds. Low frequency equipment is recommended on rough
surfaces, as the larger skin depth offsets the surface irregularities.

Various corrections are required for the effects of crack shape, vicinity
of edges, angle between plate and weld cap, etc. Bridging across
crack surfaces and angled cracks may lead to significant errors. The
technique requires clean surfaces for electrical contact.

20
7.3 Eddy current and ACFM techniques

Although eddy current and ACFM systems are distinct entities, since
they work on similar principles and possess broadly comparable
performance, they will be presented together. Both techniques are
capable of detection and have sizing capabilities, though some
equipment can perform only the detection function.

Eddy current NDT has been used offshore for many years, but
considerable development has taken place over the last decade.
Some systems have been specifically developed with the intention of
minimising the amount of cleaning needed and of reducing the
workload on the diver and making them suitable for use by ROVs.
These systems are highly computerised and are capable of
performing extensive signal processing and analysis, together with
recording data on floppy disk for subsequent analysis. ACFM
possesses similar capabilities.

Interpretation of the signals from the probes is the responsibility of the

topside inspector/operator, and the diver's training consists essentially
of learning how to deploy the probe correctly. Other systems place
more emphasis on the capability of the diver-inspector and slave
monitors may be employed to echo the results to both diver and
topside operator.

In all these systems, despite the assistance from computer processing,

interpretation still requires skill and experience. It is essential that the
inspector, whether a diver or a topside operator, has sufficient training
to be able to recognise not only the signatures of flaws, but also when
the equipment is not being operated properly. Both eddy current and
ACFM methods are now included in some national training and
qualification programmes like the CSWlP scheme under the
electromagnetic inspection of welds, CSWlP-DIV-8-96 and Lloyds
Register. Attention is drawn to the comments regarding training
(Section 4) and the introduction of new equipment (Section 11).

When operated correctly under good conditions, the performance of

these methods is almost as good as MPI, but has the advantage of
being very much faster and of usually needing less cleaning. Lift-off of
the probe can be a problem, and although these modern systems
are not unduly sensitive to surface condition, they do perform better

21
on clean surfaces. Inspection through paint coatings is not only
feasible but may be desirable by providing smoother surfaces. This
produces a simpler operation than for MPI and makes these
techniques more desirable to use and also makes it simpler for them
to be deployed by ROVs.

7.4 Flooded member detection

FMD possesses only crack detection capability and that when the
crack has penetrated the wall thickness of the immersed member.

Two main systems exist, using ultrasonics or gamma-ray sources. The

former works by detecting an echo from the far side of the flooded
member, as air-filled members do not transmit the ultrasonic pulse.
The gamma-ray method relies on the absorption of gamma radiation
by water, with air-filled members giving higher radiation levels on the
detector side of the tubular. The gamma source is sited on one side of
the member, with the detector on the other.

The ultrasonic system is suitable for deployment by diver, but the

gamma-ray system must be carried by ROV. Since radioactive
sources are used, similar precautions to radiography must be taken -
see Section 7.5.

Although the FMD systems give a high POD of flooding, this is offset by
the short remaining life of the member caused by the through-
thickness crack responsible for the flooding. Internal corrosion can
lead to false readings on some ultrasonic systems owing to the
scattering of the ultrasonic signal from the pitted corrosion surface.
Partially-flooded members can be difficult to detect, although the
implementation of the correct procedures will largely offset this
problem by taking a number of readings in different clock positions
around the member.

The high speed of use of FMD leads to its main role as a screening
system for parts of the structure not inspected by the more detailed,
but slower, NDT methods.

22
7.5 Radiographic methods

Radiography possesses both detection and sizing capabilities for

embedded flaws.

In general, radiography does not find ready application offshore,

owing to obvious problems from the radiation sources. X-ray
equipment is normally not suitable for use below water, and gamma-
ray equipment is the main variant of radiography employed.

If X-ray equipment is to be used below water, such as in habitats,

special precautions are required for the high voltage power supply.
Procedures should also pay especial attention to the possibility of
accidental exposure to personnel from opened radiation sources,
including by failure of protective shielded containers. Some countries
may well class such an incident as a notifiable nuclear accident and
require it to be reported to the appropriate authorities. There may also
be severe restrictions on the transport and storage of gamma
radioisotopes.

Gamma radiography is predominantly used for repair weld

examination in habitats, but can also be used in water, including for
detecting and sizing of pitting corrosion in pipelines.

Precautions must be taken to overcome radiation absorption and

scatter in water by exclusion of water from the space between source
and object. This can be achieved with gas-filled rubber balloons, light
metal cones, etc.

Reference to the following IIW documents may be useful: llS/llW-492-

75,42373,363-71,33569,269-67, 185-65, 183-65, 62-60 as well as to:
'Basic Rules for Radiographic Examination of Metallic Materials by X-
and Gamma-Rays', I S 0 5579, and to other relevant I S 0 standards.

7.6 Ultrasonic inspection methods

Ultrasonic testing is used to detect and characterise flaws, and to

measure wall thickness, especially for corroded surfaces or to
measure ligament thicknesses under defects or following remedial
grinding. Wall thickness corrosion measurements are also covered in

23
Section 8.2. A specialised application is in some types of Flooded
Member Detection (Section 7.3). Both buried and surface-breaking
flaws can be found, though the latter requires favourable orientations
and suitable arrangements of probe and detector transducers.

Ultrasonics is generally well suited to underwater use as the water

provides good coupling, although since a smooth and clean metal
surface is required, cleaning will probably be necessary. Both
automated and manual methods may be used, though the large-
scale use of manual ultrasonics is operationally difficult. Examination
of nodal welds by ultrasonics is often impracticable owing to the
restrictions of geometry and the lack of access.

A variety of systems is available, ranging from conventional analogue

pulse-echo systems to digital thickness measurement systems and
highly-automated and computerised ultrasonic techniques. This
section describes commonly used underwater ultrasonic inspection
methods and application details, and should not be taken as being
an exhaustive description of ultrasonic techniques.

General background may be found in references such as IIS/IIW

document: 'Handbook on the Ultrasonic Examination of Welds',
IIS/II W-527-76.

Z 6.1 Types of ultrasonic systems

a. Ultrasonic point thickness measurement

Digital thickness meters are used to take wall thickness measurements

from specific locations. The purpose way be to confirm the nominal
wall thickness of a component, to obtain an indication of whether
generalised corrosion is taking place, or for specific tasks such as to
measure the ligament of sound material following excavation of a
surface-breaking crack by grinding.

Point thickness measurements should not be used to obtain minimum

wall thickness measurements for residual life or corrosion rate
assessment purposes, or to define localised corrosion in pipelines as
revealed by intelligent pigging.

24
b. Fixed point corrosion rate monitoring

Ultrasonic transducers permanently attached to components can be

used to monitor corrosion loss rates at specific locations. The
transducers may be attached to studs welded into position prior to
installation or may be bonded with adhesive prior to, or during,
service.

C. Manual ultrasonic pulse-echo weld testing

Manual pulse-echo systems use analogue or digital ultrasonic flaw

detectors adapted for subsea use with a slave system located at the
dive platform for supervisory and secondary interpretation purposes.
Operators must be trained and certified in accordance with
recognised standards. This is intended to replicate a conventional
manual topsides inspection, but is subject to additional problems of
dexterity, distractions, restricted view, working environment and
communications. For these reasons alternative forms of inspection
should be assessed to identify which is most suited to providing the
required information.

d. Semi-automated uItrasonic pulse-echo examination

In this technique, digitised ultrasonic signals are conveyed to the dive

platform by umbilical where they are processed and displayed using
an ultrasonic imaging system. Storage of each ultrasonic waveform
(A-scan) enables detailed off-line analysis of range and amplitude to
be carried out. Through-wall sizing of known cracks underwater has
given accuracy of sizing within 1.Omm with this technique. The
addition of a positional encoder to the ultrasonic probe or scanning
device enables ultrasonic responses to be accurately located with
respect to the direction of scan.

e. Automated ultrasonic pulse-echo weld examination

A fully automated mechanised scanner is used to manipulate the

probe(s) in the desired scan pattern. Deployment is by diver or ROV,
but the inspection operation is controlled entirely from the dive
platform. This approach is usually restricted to welds in components
which have simple geometry due to the complexity of multi-axis
robotics. It provides controlled coverage and enables fully code-

25
compliant inspections to be carried out. Storage of ultrasonic
waveforms enables advanced sizing techniques to be performed off-
line. Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection usually requires the use of
several beam angles from both sides of a weld. This can lead to
complex and time-consuming procedures for scanning equipment
and calibration.

f. Automated ultrasonic pulse-echo corrosion mapping

A fully-automated dual-axis robotic scanner is used for corrosion

mapping, normally using a single 0" compression probe scanned in a
raster pattern over the area of interest. The resolution of inspection is
typically a 4mm x 4mm raster, though higher resolutions may be used
if better definition is needed.

Both contact and immersion techniques are used and can be carried
out with the ultrasonic probe mounted in a carriage, which is
referenced off the material surface. It must be noted, however, that
wherever the carriage is lifted off the surface through riding over
surface roughness such as welds, ultrasonic information will be lost.
The use of an immersion probe mounted off the scanner overcomes
this effect and enables scanning to be carried out up to weld toes.
Immersion probes are normally focused at a point several millimetres
(typically 8mm but can vary depending on material thickness) below
the scanned surface.

The effects on the ultrasonic inspection of irregular scanned surfaces

caused by corrosion or damage can be minimised using an
immersion approach with the ultrasonic beam focused at the near
surface. Immersion techniques give rise to a dead-zone immediately
below the scanned surface owing to reflection at the water/steel
interface, and this may necessitate the use of contact probes.

The technique is equally applicable to corrosion mapping and the

assessment of hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). In both cases,
special attention needs to be given to the sensitivity of inspection.

g. Semi-automated time-of-flight-dlffraction (TOFD)

The TOFD technique is described in detail in BS7706:1993. TOFD

requires the use of an ultrasonic imaging system capable of grey

26
scale imaging. The ultrasonic waveforms are digitised, stored and
displayed as grey-scale D-scans in real time. The scan axis may or
may not be encoded. TOFD is a fast inspection technique which uses
simplistic scanning equipment and the results obtained underwater
can be of equal quality to results from onshore. Reproducibility of flaw
height measurement underwater has been demonstrated to be in the
order of l.Omm. The speed of inspection reduces diver risk and can
be advantageous where access is restricted due to the state of
currents. Commonly used acceptance criteria can be adapted to
apply to TOFD.

h. Ultrasonic creeping wave

Ultrasonic creeping wave is a specialised form of ultrasonics relying on

the generation of a surface wave which is restricted to, and which
propagates along, the layer immediately under the steel/water
interface. The intensity of the wave decreases with travel as energy is
lost into the interior owing to mode conversion.

Conventional ultrasonics equipment can be used to drive a special

probe, but otherwise the interpretation is similar to normal ultrasonics.
The technique is very suitable for detecting surface-breaking flaws, as
a surface wave echo is produced which is reflected back to the
probe. It can be used with coated steel and is particularly suitable for
geometries of awkward access, as it possesses a 'stand-off' capability,
the wave reaching ahead of the probe.

As with other ultrasonic techniques, good cleaning of the surface for

the probe is necessary.

Z 6.2 humples of suitable appll'cations for ultrasonic examhation

a. Depth sizing of known cracks in structures

For sizing of cracks found by surface crack-detection methods, either

TOFD or semi-automated pulse-echo using 'backscatter tip diffraction'
may be used.

b. Volumetric examination of welds in structures

Flaws revealed by in-service condition assessment surveys or by code-

27
compliant inspection of welds repaired underwater may be
inspected by TOFD, automated pulse-echo, or, if in a habitat, by
manual pulse-echo. Other suitable applications for these techniques
are the monitoring of repaired joints, or for monitoring the stability of
known flaws.

C. Pipeline weld assessment and monitoring

Pipelines may be examined for volumetric flaws, such as following

criticality assessment, by TOFD, preferably encoded, or by automated
pulse-echo.

Welds with suspect root/HAZ erosion or cracking can be inspected by

TOFD.

d. Pipeline parent material assessment and monitoring

Corrosion at strategic locations identified through criticality

assessment may be inspected using automated corrosion mapping,
and for corrosion rate assessment at specified locations, fixed point
monitoring may apply.

e. Newer rapid scanning ultrasonic inspection techniques

Developments are ongoing to utilise different types of ultrasonic

techniques e.g. the resonance technique or use of plate waves and
head waves, in inspection systems for rapid scanning of large areas
for the detection of corrosion and other flaws. All of these systems
utilise modern computing technology.

7.7 Visual inspection

%% I General visual inspection

GVI may be done by a diver but is frequently carried out by ROV. It

may be used to give an overall impression of the general state of the
structure, including areas of gross damage, coating damage, the
extent and type of marine growth, debris build-up and sacrificial
anode consumption. It is not suitable for the detection of cracking
other than very sizeable cracks. Performance is affected substantially
by the turbidity of the water.

28
ZZ2 Close vkual inspection

CVI may be done by diver or by means of an ROV fitted with high-

resolution imaging systems. A principal purpose of CVI is to improve
the definition of features found during GVI, but on its own, it is not an
acceptable method for inspecting for cracks. It is very useful as a
supplement to other NDE techniques, allowing the differentiation
between weld undercut and a crack, for example. Divers should be
encouraged to practise CVI as part of their other inspection activities.

During CVI, a replica technique may be used to obtain a permanent

record of a defect suitable for examination elsewhere. Stereo-
photography and video recording techniques may also be suitable.

29