Chapter 1

INTRODUCION To TUNNELLTNG: ART AND ENGTNEERTNG

Tumets:
.Scope and Application
Tunners are underground structures which
are recognised as a
means of attaining convenient transportation through
posing natural difficulty or speciat hazards. conditions
natural obstactes as mountainous terrain, rivers
suirlrniiil-;;;;
and seas by tunnets
aliows safe and convenient transport at all times
irrespective of
weather conditions. The expectaiions of mooern
iransportation
networks in allowing continuity of flow for both
p"rr"ng.r, and goods
in transit has become an important sociar need -for deveroping
civilisations. consequentry the scope of tunne[ing
is to embrace
convenience of direct transportation coupted with lafety, efficiency
and continuity of operation.
ln underground mining operations tunnets are the
means of access
to minerars, their expoitation and subsequ.nt ,"ror"i
Tunners are a major part of everyday rife for
f;;,
the mine.
tne popurations of
most deveroped countries, and their service and generar
range of
application continues to grow with the expanding
communities. r -'e nleos of different

Tabre 1.1 is indicative of the generar range

of tunnet apprications.
Attention has been focussed il y."r,
lecJnt on extending the scope and
application of tunnels to provide increased service to riodern society.

Historical Developments
Any appreciation of present day tunne[ing cannot
overrook the
remarkable achievements of the pasi 3000 yeais.
runneis of hundreds
and thousands of years in age are stiil standing
tooay anJiepresent the
considerable skill in the art of tunnel construction
work which was
developed at that time.
Early. deveropments in the history of tunneiling
.
described by sandstrom [1.1] and Beavei
have been
[1.2]. sandsr; has argued
that evidence of tunnet construction works refrects
developments of civ.ilisations and particutarly
th,e curturar
and economic strength.
the-gr;;in ;r#;;;;;
Tunners have prayed_ an important rore in
the deveropment of
civilisation. The varue of tunneis was appreciated
civirisations, but primitive man in his attempts
by the eartiest
caves or enrarge sulfgrr3ne.an passages rormed'oy
to extend naturar
*ate, iecognised a
need to. deverop skifis in the formaiion of
unoeiground excavations
and, noiabry, tunners.. cave. dwerlings of earry
man show evidence of
-conditions
excavarion work in his endeavourJ to improle
the under
which he rived. Naturar caves
40,000 B.C. in Australia.
*.r. ir.o i"i Jrri"r;i;rg ago as
 ,ia:

applications
Table 1.1 General ctassification of tunnel
by tht pttt'
Source: based on Szecny [ '3] with
"ddition't l

Tunnel aPPlications
Main classification
1. RailwaY tunnels
1. Traffic tunnels
2. HighwaY and road connections
3. Pedestrian tunnels
4. Navigation tunnels
5. SubwaY lunnels

2. ConveYance tunnels
1. Hydroelectric power plantslstations tunnels
2. Water suPPlY tunnels
i. proti. utitiiies: intake and conduits
4. Sewer tunnels
5. industrial plant: transportation tunnels

1. Access and arterial tunnels (long life)

3. Mining tunnels
2. Tunnels for exploration purposes
S. Exploitation: drivages, galleries and
rooms
(short life)
4. Service tunnels
5. Drainage adits and relief tunnels

!-un to 5m .+

Figurel.lEarlydevelopments:historictunnels'basedonSandstrom[1'1] BC
Sewer tunnei, Nineveh, Assyria, circaTOO
Top left: Adit to nor"irlnr; Top right: at samos,
Lower lefi: Roman ,i"" *"*i.gJ in bpain;-Lower right: Greek water tunnel
cftca 600 BC
 Early civilisations soon realised the importance of tunnels in
gaining access to and for the winning of minerals and natural
materials, for example, flints, so important to their livelihood. The
Stone Age flint mines at Grimes Graves in East Anglia, UK bear
testimony to significant development of underground galleries in chalk
and were excavated using picks made from deer antlers [1.1]. These
excavations probably began in 15,000 to 10,000 B.C. and involved
driving tunnels up to 10 m into the flint-bearing chalk from access
pits, some of which attained 10 m in depth. The developmenl of mining
was closely linked with improvements in man's skills in the art of
tunnelling. Around 4000 to 3000 B.C. appears to have been the time
when excavation in soft rock formations occupied the attenlion of
early man for the construction of different types of underground
openings. Sinai copper mines have operated since the Bronze Age
{circa 3000 B.C.). Gold mining operations began around this period
in Egypt. These early mining operations required both inclined and
level tunnel excavation for access to mineral deposits and veins.

Early applications of tunnels. A whole range of applications of

tunnels was recognised as the early civilisations developed, ranging
from vaults for burial purposes to tunnels for water conveyance and
passages for ingress and egress. Military applications for tunnels
were also important features in early civilisations, especially in
offering potential escape routes or means of implementing assaults on
fortified settlements and outposts.
Figure 1.1 illustrates some examples of early tunnelling.
lncreasing improvements in the skills of tunnelling resulted in
this form of construction being used for major mining and civil
engineering projects. Tunnels of hundreds of metres in length were
constructed successfully in the thousand years [refore Christ. r
Tunnelling was given considerable impetus with the emergence of
the lndustrial Revolution, especially for application to transport. The
development of canals was assisted by tunnelling and this contributed
significantly to industrial development during the 18th and 19th
centuries in the UK. Tunnels were seen to form an integral part in the
development of the railways, and many notable engineering
achievements were made in constructing tunnels through major
ranges of mountains.
Major drainage lunnels such as the soughs, as for example, at Hill
Carn, Derbyshire, UK, 1766-1787, employed a tunnel of 7 km in
length, were of major importance in the development of many ore
fields. Also underground canals were a major feature of 18th and i gth
Century mining in the UK, as for example, some lO km of
underground canals which served collieries at worsley and formed
part of the Bridgwater canal system.
Mining of virtually all deep mineral deposits is only possible
through networks of tunnels, and the success of such projects has
frequently depended on the developments of new drivage and support
techniques to master increasingly difficult geological conditions. ln
south Africa mining tunnels are driven successfuily at depths below
surface as great as 3-4 km.
Transport through tunnels under extensive stretches of water
involving large rivers, lakes and seas has proved to be a major
challenge in several countries in view of the significant benefits
which such construction projects offer.
Figure 1.1 (continued)
Right: Eariy tunnelling developments: s
various excavation sequences
developed in different counlries, based
Sandstrom [1.1] and Beaver [1.2]
Left: Upper Roman Adit, Dolaucothi,
Dyfed, Wales (early gold mining
development)
Eng[sh method

German method

Austrian method

Belgian method

ft1 1 x
3
5 5
4

St. Gotthard tunnel method

 Progress in tunnelling. Table 1.2 presents a summary of some of
.:& the notable achievements and landmarks witnessed during the earlier
history of tunnelling. This serves to demonstrate that major progress
in the art of tunnelling began in ancient times, even though driving
was mainly by hammer and chisel, or in some cases rock fracturing
by rapid contraction caused by splashing cold water onto fire-heated
rock faces. Progress in tunnelling through the past 300 years has
been accelerated by the development and adoption of major
improvements in construction practice, and the main ones are
referred to in Table 1.2. Chadwick and Knights 11.211 refer to early
tunnelling operations (some twenty thousand years ago) and have
commented on flint tools used in Spain and France and later in
England; an interesting summary is given of early mining
developments in the Middle East and Europe.

The Art of Tunnelling

The history of tunnelling spans a long period of time. The early
achievements in such constructions arose through the acquisition .of
skills in the art of tunnelling. Such skills were probably initiated by
man's knowledge developed in the working of flints and later those of
rocks generally in early quarrying activities. The skill of rock
splitting by wedge action, inducing breakage by exploiting the tensile
weakness 6f rocks seems to have been appreciated in very early times.
This formed the basis of the art of tunnelling, namely that of the
excavation of rocks of different types by simply driving wedges or
picks into either pre-existing planes of weakness or lines of weakness
deliberately created by concentration of tool action and many
kilometres of tunnels were driven by such methods. The art of
tunnelling became recognised as a specialised skill and those who
acquired the skill were usually in great demand. Teams of tunnel
construction contraclors were well established, even in Roman times.

lmpact of drilling and blasting. lt has only been within the past
300 years that drilling and blasting has been employed in tunnel
excavation operations. This allowed tunnelling activities to be
extended into stronger rock formations in addition to significantly
increasing the potential for greater rates of drivage. Drilling was
initially performed as a manual operation, and the later introduction
of power greatly increased the scope for improved tunnel construction
performance.

Tunnelling skill. The art of tunnelling steadily became

transformed to one dependent upon optimising the applicdtion of basic
equipment and techniques to .wider ranging geological conditions.
General safety in such operations relied heavily on the skills and
knowledge of the tunnelling crews and their supervisors. This was
particularly in evidence in mailers of temporary support where
tunnelling skill was continuously being challenged by the changing
complexity of the tunnel face conditions.
Most current tunnelling operations are still dependent upon highly
developed skills in the art of tunnelling. Not every facet of tunnelling
can be completely engineered, and consequently the art still occupies
an important place in this branch of underground construction work.

Tunnel Engineering
An element of engineering appears to have been introduced into
tunnelling operations even in early times. The importance of designing
 Table 1.2 Examples of tunnelling progress through the ages

Period Development/constructio n Length Flemarks Source

B.C.
40000 Bomvu Ridge, Swaziland: Primitive 1.21
mining of hematite for decoration
15000 to Grimes Graves, East Anglia: underground up to 1.1
10000 operations developing flint mines 10m
3000 to Egypt and Malta: rock tunnels associated various 1.1
1 000 with mines, tombs and temPles
Greek mining operations for various
metals involved extensive tunnelling
J developments
2500 to Hallstatt, Salzkammergut Austria: salt various up to 12m 1 .1
20rh c. mining operations wide rooms
2000 to Mt. Laurion, Attic Peninsula, Greece: various 1.1
20th c. lron Age mining activities with the order
of 2000 shafts and multiple galleries
2000 Euphrates tunnel, Babylon (underwater 1km 3'6x4'5 m 1.1,
tunnel constructed by open cut in bed of 1.3
diverted river)
700 Shiloah tunnel 540m Driven from 1.4
each end
700 Jerusalem water suPPlY tunnel 200m 4.7x0.7 m 1.1
600 lsland of SamoS, Greek water suPPlY 1.5km 1 .8x1 .8 m 1.1
tunnel 1.4
500 to Roman mining operations introduced 1.1
500 A.D. adits and machinery (wheels and screws)
to promote improved drainage of
underground workings
A.D.
50 Posilopo, Roman road tunnel 900m 7.5m wide 1.1
300 to Catacombs, tunnel network of burial various 1.3
400 places
500 to Tunnels mainly built for militarY various 1.1,
1 500 purposes 1.2
Towards the end of the Middle Ages
attention was starting to focus on
increased mining activity and on the
construction of road tunnels
700 to European mines: extensive underground various 1.1
20rh c. melal mining activity in SaxonY
1 400 Biber mine tunnel, Hungary 5'6km 1.3
(drainage tunnel)
1500 to lncreasing use of navigational tunnels various 1.4
1800
1 627 Selmecbanya, Hungary: gunpowder used 1.3
in mine excavation work
1 679 Languedoc, France, canal tunnel: 1.1,
gunpowder introduced for blasting rocks 1.5
1 826 Roan ne-Andressieux: first railway 1.3
tunnel (horse drawn)
1826 to Liverpool-Manchester line: first 1.3
1 829 railway tunnel (steam traction)
 Table 1.2 (continued)

Period DevelopmenVconstruction Length Remarks Source

1 842 Thames Tunnel completed by Brunel: 1S0m 6.7x11'3m 1.3

first subaqueous tunnel driven without
river diversion
1857 to Mont Cenis, France-ltaly, railway 12.Zkm 8x7.5m 1.1,
1 871 tunnel: hydraulic rock drill introduced arched 1 .3
1864 Nobel invented dynamite and used in 1.3
Mont Cenis Tunnel
1872 to St. Gotthard Tunnel 1 5km 8x7'4m 1.1,
1 881 1.4
1895 to Simplon Tunnel (1)
1906 19.7km 5x5.4m 1.1,
1912 to Simplon Tunnel (2) 1.6
1 921
1906 to Loetschberg Tunnel. A major Alpine 16km 8x6.1 m 1.1,
1912 railway tunnel which experienced a 1.6
heavy inrush of water, sand and gravels
which were in hydraulic contact with a
river bed some 180-200m above. The
tunnelwas blocked by a bulkhead and a
diversion made around the affected area.
1918 to Tanna Tunnel, Japan: speciat problems of 7.gkm 8.4x5.3 1 .3 m
1934 major roof collapses (60m high) and
influx of water (pressure head up to 2OOm)
temperatures up to 31"C needed to be
overcome. Up to 2m thick concrete roof
vault used. Fire, gas and water inrush
problems encountered.
1920 to Great Apennine Tunnel 18.5km 9.4x8.3m 1.9
1 931
1924 to New Cascade Tunnel (U.S.A.) 12.4km 4.9x7.3m t.g
1 927 drivage rate attained 4'3km/year
1925 to Mersey Tunnel, Liverpool: major 3.4km 14m(dia.) 1 .3,
1 934 subaqueous road tunnel. Average depth 1.4
of cover under river is 10m of which
6m is rock. Four lanes of traffic
accommodated.
1959 to Mont Blanc Tunnel: 12.7km 9xl m 2.5 1 .1 ,
1 965
1964 to
longest highway tunnel 9x9.7m 1.3
Seikan Tunnel, Japan: completion of pilot 53.8km 5x4.2m 1.2
1983 tunnel. Driven using drill and blast; (23.3 k m
major water inflow up to 11 Umin underwater)
1968 to Orange-Fish Tunnel, South Africa: 82.5km 5.4m(dia.) 1.2,
197 4 flooding problems and ignition of methane 1.8
gas in tunnel occurred.
1 988 Japan: Seikan Main Tunnelopened 1 .12
1 988 Channel Tunnel commenced

Data sources:
Sandstrom [1.1]; Beaver [1.2]; Szechy [1.3]; Pequignot [1.4]
Legget [1.5]; Halcrow [1.6]; Matsuo [1.7]; Jaeger [1.8]
Kirkland [1 .1 2]; Chadwick and Knighrs [1.21].
 Table 1.3 Factors contributing to significant improvements during a century of
tunnelling
Source: based on the publication of Halcrow [1'6]

Tunnelling element Main factors

1. Excavation 1. Drilling improvemenls: power and equipment

2. lmproved explosives and blasting techniques
3. lmproved clearance and loading of debris
4. lmproved use of power: electrical and compressed air

2. Support 1. lmproved linings: concrete and cast iron

2. lmproved ground controlby pressure grouting
3. Use of tunnelling shields giving improved control
of ground at tunnel face

3. Working environment 1 . lmproved ventilation

2. lmproved lighting
3. Better controlover groundwater by improved
pumping machinerY
4. Reduction in water inflow by use of compressed
air locks in lunnels

tunnelling works and specifying their method of construction was

appreciaied by the Romans in several projects. Tunnel engineering,
however, made its greatest contribution during the last 200 years in
allowing the excavation, support operations and control of
environmental factors to be assessed and an appropriate design
produced.
Various accounts of different aspects of tunnel engineering have
been given in a number of text books and in particular they have
traced significant historical developments. The works of Sandstrom
[1.1], szechy 11.3] and Pequignot [1.4] make special contributions
to
knowledge on progress in tunnel engineering during earlier years. An
important contribution was made, however, by Halcrow [1.6] who
reviewed progress in tunnelling during the previous 100 years. The
advances in tunnel engineering as described by Halcrow during that
period are worthy of mentioning here and are summarised in Table

tntroduction of tunnelling shield. lmproved tunnelling

practice as indicated in Table 1.3 was linked very much to progress in
excavation technique. More effective ground control by use of better
Supports and adoption of grouting together with improvements in the
*oit ing environment have also played important roles in
accomplishing successful tunnelling projects in increasingly difficult
geological conditions. Halcrow also points out that the rate of tunnel
drivage was vastly improved by the factors listed in Table 1.3.
Halcrow argues that the introduction of the shield was probably the
most significant advance in the art of tunnelling in modern times. He
points out that the shield has given great service when driving tunnels
through soft and treacherous ground and especially in subaqueous
conditions. Shields, aS used in tunnelling operations, offer two main
advantages, firstly safety in bad ground, and secondly the reduction or
elimination of timbering at the working face.
Compressed air tunnelling. ln commenting upon water in tunnels
Halcrow remarks that the introduction of the use of compressed air
was a revolution in construction practice. The fact that the tunnel,s
internal pressure can be raised above atmospheric pressure
introduces scope for balancing the head causing the water inflow to the
tunnel. Arresting the percolation of water into the tunnel by this
method allows construction work to progress in virtually dry
conditions. He suggests that compressed air is an acceptable remedy to
the water problem. His discussion draws attention to a maximum
pressure of 2.4-2.7 bar (35-40 lbf/in2) above atmospheric under
which men are able to work; this pressure is equivalent to a static
head of waler of 24-4-27.4 m. A further limitation given to this
method is the presence of open water-bearing gravels, or similar
materials, where there is a significant risk of losing compressed air
pressure by virtue of air leakage.

Machine excavation of rock. Since Halcrow presented his paper

major progress has been made in tunnel engineering with increased
application of machines to cut lhe rock face continuously and discharge
the debris onto conveyors without interruptions to the continuity of
the drivage operation. West [1.22] has discussed innovation and the
rise of the tunnelling industry and has drawn attention to the
development of various rock tunnelling machines such as those of
Brunton, Beaumont and Whitaker. These early machines made
significant contributions to the mechanical excavation of rock and the
development of improved tunnelling practice. The support operations
have in many situations been divorced from the drivage element as
special support designs have been introduced which allow erection to
be performed continuously behind purposely designed shields.
Additionally, supplementary supports such as rock bolts can be
accommodated and inserted through special openings within the shield
so that tunnelling can progress unhindered by such operations. As a
consequence the rate of tunnel drivage has increased enormously as
powerful full-face tunnel boring machines have been used in many
different conditions with a wide spectrum of rock strengths. Tunnel
engineering has led the way for large and powerful shields to be
designed so that larger size tunnels can be driven as a single
operation. Ground conditions can still prove to be a major impediment
to tunnelling progress. Heavy squeezing ground can trap tunnelling
machines, and major influxes of water can also hamper progress with
modern machinery.

Role of geological knowledge. with the current advanced state of

tunnel engineering, the status of geological knowledge pertaining to
the site conditions has assumed a more important role. Modern
tUnnelling machines can be sensitive to changing geotogical conditions
which introduces a need to plan for any special provisions. Legget
[1.5] drew attention to the need for a thorough geological
investigation, before the construction stage, as being of paramount
importance in all work related to the tunnel. He states that accurate
geological sections are the first requirement together with knowledge
of the rocks' characteristics.
Legget remarks that geological data will provide the engineer with
an appreciation of the tunnelling conditions and so allow improved
estimates to be made of anticipated progress. conversely the
contractor involved with the tunnel work, is furnished with geological
data which are vital to taking decisions on his construction
[-
{
l,

programme and selected methods; pre-knowledge of the geological

conditions is the sole means of judging the likelihood of the main
tunnelling hazards, for example, underground water.
It is appreciated, however, that economic considerations enter into
the nature of the programme for determining geological conditions
relating to specific tunnelling sites. Legget has argued, however, that
the rock conditions of the tunnelling location need thorough
exploration in order to satisfy the chosen design and construction
method; the first task of the geological investigation for such a project
is that of determining whether the geological conditions are favourable
for the design and conslruction of the tunnel. This discussion includes
the response of the immediate rocks surrounding the tunnel to the
disturbance caused by excavation; rock strength, collapse potential
and rock pressure need consideration.

Tunnel and Underground Space Applications

Underground space. lncreasing use of underground space has been
prompted by the premium being placed on surface space which is very
costly in congested urban environments quite apart from public
demand to preserve green space ['t.9].
The underground alternative has been seen to be increasingly
attractive in view of progress made in improved prediction of the
suitabililty of such sites together with the tunnelling industry's
technical advances in rapid excavation. The argument is advanced that
comparable underground space is proving substantially cheaper than
that at the surface. An example quoted for a fuel storage facility
showed that the underground alternative was only 71o/" of lhe
equivalent surface housed facility [1.9], which excluded personnel
costs and would have made the difference even greater for the planned
operating period of 30 years. The same article remarks that
underground facilities offer increased safety for the storage of
hazardous materials, particularly oil and gas. Finland is experiencing
significant growth in the underground construction industry.
Radioactive waste disposal has prompted special underground
design proposals, amongst which tunnels play an important role.
Willett [1.10] has suggested that the case for increased use of
underground space is strengthened by the following points:

1 .
The structural setting: providing design and construction are
appropriate, the fact that the underground opening has its own
enclosure reduces the need for elaborate structural features.
2. lnsulation: rocks surrounding the opening provide excellent
insulating properties.
3. Freedom for accommodation of large size structures: underground
space offers increased freedom to incorporate large structures in the
three dimensions without the need for the form of major structural
supports as required by comparable surface constructions.
4. Environmental impact is reduced: underground construction of
facilities affords opportunities, to reduce if not eliminate, the visual
environmental impact factor.
The case against this form of development needs to be considered in
relation to the above listed attributes of underground space
development. Such factors as ventilation, fire escapes, etc need to be
caref ully evaluated in any assessment of underground space
development.
 Norwegian undersea oil storage tunnels. Martin 11.11] has
reported on Norway's first undersea oil tunnel (over 2 km long)
located some 80 m below the sea bed and driven by drill and blast
technique. Large storage caverns of 314 m length, 19 m width and 3s
m height to the crown of the arched roof, whilst the vertical side walls
will be 28 m high, are planned, and will be located in precambrian
gneiss. The main transport tunnel to the caverns is planned to be 10 m
width, 8'3 m height (to the crown) with a
cross-sectional area of 75
m2.
This undersea storage facility eliminates what could be unsighily
surface storage tanks; insulation is provided by the sunounding rocki
which could otherwise present problems with wide extremes of
temperature between summer and winter.

Seikan Tunnel: major undersea construction. The com-

pletion of the seikan Pilot Tunnel in 1989 [1.7] demonstrated that
tunnelling skills could be extended to overcome major geological and
physical conditions. This 54 km long railway tunnel forms a link
between the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu in Japan; 2s km of tunnel
are under the sea. The seikan Tunnel's need was given great impetus
by the loss of 1,430 lives in a ferry boat disaster during a typhoon in
September 1954. The tunnel construction was seen as a major
triumph in tunnel engineering particularly in view of the difficult
geological setting and the major flooding problems encounlered. ,The
success of the seikan Tunnel has paved the way for future major
tunnel construction projects involving extensive undersea portions.
The 19 year construction period for the pilot tunnel experienced
special difficulties with many geological faults. The seikan Tunnel
opening and general operation as a major rail connection between the
two islands has been referred to by Kirkland [1.12].
53'85 km

m
400

200

-300
lS - lnclined shaft
VS - Vertical shaft
i[T -Main tunnet
m

Sandy siltstone @AndeF,il,€

Shale
Tuf ,- breccia - mudstone rclBasalt Ir",,,
Tuff
Figure 1 .2 Section along Seikan Tunnel. (Source: [1 .7],[1 .1 3])

11
 Breakthrough for the seikan Tunnel was achieved on 10 March,
1985, with the link up between the islands occurring in the middle of
the Tsugaru Straits.
Figuie 1.2 shows a geological profile of the Seikan Tunnel, with
an inJ'ication of many geological faults encountered under the sea on
the Hokkaido side.
A tunnel boring machine (TBM) was employed during the early
stages of driving the pitot tunnel in order lo allow rapid excavation
.or"pf.O with minimising ground disturbance by comparison with that
experienced during blasting. The ground conditions, however,
grouting for the
deieriorated and thil necessitated the application of
purpose of strengthening the surrounding rocks. lt prwed necessary
io Oi.p.n.t with lhe TBM and resort to the drill and"blast technique'
The rock types encountered in the pilot tunnel during the undersea
length of drivage consisted mainly of sandy siltstone, shale, tufi,
tuff-breccia, and mudstone.
Figure t.3 sho*s a cross-section of the undersea portion of the
seikan Tunnel. The pilot tunnel was designed to serve as a water
collection point for the main tunnel. water drained to pump rooms
located at ihe bottom of the inclined shafts. The service tunnel allowed
general
access to the main tunnel and on completion was designed for
maintenance purposes. The ftooding incidents encountered during the
tunnel consiruction operations demonstrated the need for a
programme of planned grouting which was executed and proved
conirolling water inflow to the tunnel' The initial drivage
'ot:ine pilot and 'serrice tunnels allowed substantial information and
"tt.""tir..in
erg*ri.i,". to be gaineo regarding controlling the conditions which
cOnsequently proved invatuable to the construction of the main tunnel'

Con nection O.6 -'t km

Figure 1.5 dross-section of undersea portion of Sekan Tunnel [1.7]

Tunnelling progress. The 1970's and 1980'S have seen

significant icfrlevements made in the tunnel construction industry
sp:anning from the Victoria Line Extension of the London Underground
to the itart of the Channel Tunnel. Undoubtedly the 83 km long
Orange-Fish Tunnel in South Africa set a landmark as did the Limfjord
immersed tube tunnel in Denmark. lt would appear that tunnel boring
machines have allowed tunnelling to achieve new records in terms of

12
Figure 1.4 Cavern at Gitaru Hydro-electric Power Station, Kenya (Balfour
Beatty)

13
 Figure 7.5 Cruachan Pumped Storage Project, Argyll, Scotland (Nuttall)
Machine Hall: 91'5 m long, 23'5 m wide and 38'7 m high

14
'tr

Figure 7-5 cruachanPumped storage project, Argyll, scotland (Nuttall)

Road Access Tunnel: 6.7 m wide and 4.3 m high

rate of drivage coupled with overall safety during construction; a

Robbins TBM achieved 128 m drivage in a single day in oslo. During
this period many kilometres of tunnels have been driven in Japan and
China [1.14], [1.15].
Tunnelling progress has contributed markedly to the construction
of impressive hydro-electric projects. Major advances in excavation
practice, design and support methods have contributed to the
successful construction of such projects as the Main Cavern, Gitaru
Hydro-electric Power station, Kenya (Figure 1.4) and the Machine
Hall, cruachan Pumped storage project, Argyll, scoiland (Figure
1.5), in addition to many others. such projects require a wide ringe
of high quality tunnels ranging from those required for access (Figure
1.6) to those for power and for river diversion during oam
construction (Figure 1.7).

Future Tunnelling Considerations.

lmproved rates of tunnel drivage. Robbins t1.161 has suggested that
the scope for higher rates of tunnel drivage by tunnel boring machines
must offer a major challenge for the future. He points out that such

15
 Figure 1.7 MricaHydro-electric Project, lndonesia (Balfour Beatty)
Completed tunnel: constructed for power and for river diversion
during dam conslruction

machines have been improving their capability to cut increasingly

harder rock types and has consequently allowed larger mechanical
excavalion systems to be applied at the expense of the drill and blast
technique. Hb also argues that roadheaders are becoming increasingly
more adaptable to wider ranges of rock strength.
Rote of improved ptanning of tunnelling proiects. ln giving
consideration to thb future Muir Wood [1.17] draws attention to the
importance of time and effort in tunnelling being applied with
resourceful expertise aS an important key to success. Planning is
vital for each project from concept to optimisalion, with the latter
allowing cost differentials of significant proportions. Muir Wood
concludes that tunnelling in the hands of the unversed can decline into
an occupation which is expensive, unpredictable and accident prone.
Tunnelling remains challenging and adequate foresight allows the
achievement of success in terms of its rewards in overall value for

i"il,l'or* tunneltins. This important development has grown

significantly in only a very short space of time. small bore
tunnelling, which has also been referred to aS micro-tunnelling,
relates to a tunnel too small for a man to enter and in the U.K. appears

16.
 to be less than 0'9 m internal diameter. This form of tunnelling is
being seen as an attractive alternative to open trench pipe laying
especially in crowded cities [1 .18]. This technique has been
researched in Germany and Japan and in the lailer country attention
has been given to developing remotely controlled fullface tunnelling
moles. However, the technique appears to be more expensive than pipe
jacking and will need careful evaluation when being considered as an
alternative system.
Specialised techniques. The application of specialised techniques of
shaft sinking and tunnelling to successful recovery'of the.Alberta oil
sands has been described by Stephenson and Luhning [1.19]. These
authors clearly demonstrate the important role of tunnelling in
extending what is termed as 'recoverable oil reserves' bdyond that
which was previously thought possible by conventional technology.
The provision of access to oil reservoirs where in situ processes -
involving horizontal wells can be applied is demonstrated as a concept
made possible by new tunnelling technology.
Achieving further progress in tunnelling. Progress in surmounting
new frontiers in tunnelling continues to be made. Within the art and
engineering of tunnelling, however, improvements are continually
being achieved by careful evaluation and assimilation of present day
knowledge. This text aims to contribute lo lunnelling improvements
by way of critical review and examination of experiences and the
collation of design and operational procedures for the ever growing
range of tunnel applications. Pearse [1.20], in commenting on
extending the range of knowledge gained with Austrian tunnelling
methods, sums up the current situation by stating that selection of the
tunnelling method is still skilled and difficult and that in many cases
I it was a matter of 'horses for courses' but he adds that successful
matching of the two still requires experience, research and an open
mind.

I 'References to Chapter 1

1.1 Sandstrom, G.E. (1963) The history o| tunnelling, Barrie and

i
-:J<
1.2
Rockliff, London, 427p.
Beaver, P. (1972) A history of tunnels, Peter Davies, London,
I 1 55p.

t
1.3 Szechy, K. (1967) The art of tunnelling, Akademiai Kiado,
Budapest,891p.
I 1 .4 Pequignot, C.A. (19631 Tunnels and tunnelling, Hutchinson,
I London, 555p.
I
1.5 Legget, R.F. (19621 Geology and engineering, McGraw-Hill,
884P.
I 1.6 rHalcrow,
''l.Mech.E.,
W.T. (1941) A century of tunnelling, Proc.
146, 100-116.
1.7 Malsuo, S. (1986) Tackling floods beneath the sea, Tunnels and
Tunnelling, March, 18, 42-45.
1.8 Jaeger, C. (1979) Rock mechanics and engineering
j Cambridge University Press, 417p.
1.9 Anonymous (1986) Comment: Underground space, Tunnels and
Tunnelling, Oclober, 18, p3.
1 .1 0 Willett, D.C. (1979) The development of tunnelling and the use
of underground space through the ages, Tunnels and Tunnelling,
September, 11, 81-85.
1.11 Marlin, D. (1986) Undersea tunnel brings Norway's North
Sea oil ashore, Tunnels and Tunnelling, October, 18, 13-1S.

17
FT
1 .1 2 Kirkland, C. (1988) Seikan Tunnel - a personal view, Tunnels
and Tunnelling, July, 20, p33.
1 .1 3 Anonymous (1983) Seikan Pilot Tunnel opens the way for
Japan's 23 km undersea rail link, Tunnels and Tunnelling,
July, 15, 24-25.
1.14 Anonymous (1984) Comment: Fifteen years of tunnelling,
Tunnels and Tunnelling, June, 16, p5.
1.15 O'Reilly, M.P. (1988) Rapporteur for: Tunnelling in China,
by G. Quping, Tunnels and Tunnelling, September, 20, 62-63.
1.16 Robbins, R.J. (1984) TBMs have achieved impressive speeds
more than 400ft in a day, Tunnels and Tunnelling, June, 16,
p30.
1.17 Muir Wood, A. (1984) Time and effort applied with
resourceful expertise is the key to success, Tunnels and
Tunnelling, June, 16, p29.
1 .1 8 Anonymous (1988) Comment: Small scale but big benefits,
Tunnels and Tunnelling, July, 20, p5.
1.19 Stephenson, H.G. and Luhning, R.W. (1988) Underground
mining and tunnelling techniques for in situ oil recovery,
Tunnels and Tunnelling, September, 20, 41-46.
1.20 Pearse, G. (1988) Austr'ian tunnelling methods, Mining
Magazine, October, p281.
1.21 Chadwick R. and Knights M.C. (19881 The story of tunnels,
Andre Deutsch, 96p.
1.22 West, G. (1988) lnnovation and the rise of the tunnelling
industry, Cambridge University Press, 355p.

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