SOIL-WATER- PLANT RELATIONSHIPS

The role of soil in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is unique. It has been demonstrated that
soil is not essential for plant growth and indeed plants can be grown hydroponically (in a liquid
culture). However, usually plants are grown in the soil and soil properties directly affect the
availability of water and nutrients to plants. Soil water affects plant growth directly through its
controlling effect on plant water status and indirectly through its effect on aeration, temperature,
and nutrient transport, uptake and transformation. The understanding of these properties is
helpful in good irrigation design and management.
The soil system is composed of three major components: solid particles (minerals and organic
matter), water with various dissolved chemicals, and air. The percentage of these components
varies greatly with soil texture and structure. An active root system requires a delicate balance
between the three soil components; but the balance between the liquid and gas phases is most
critical, since it regulates root activity and plant growth process.
The amount of soil water is usually measured in terms of water content as percentage by volume
or mass, or as soil water potential. Water content does not necessarily describe the availability of
the water to the plants, nor indicates, how the water moves within the soil profile. The only
information provided by water content is the relative amount of water in the soil.
Soil water potential, which is defined as the energy required to remove water from the soil, does
not directly give the amount of water present in the root zone either. Therefore, soil water
content and soil water potential should both be considered when dealing with plant growth and
irrigation. The soil water content and soil water potential are related to each other, and the soil
water characteristic curve provides a graphical representation of this relationship
Water (H2O):

Water is indispensable for human, animals and plant life. It is a part of all organisms, some of
which contain more than 90 percent. Water is essential part of protoplasm. It is an important
ingredient in photosynthesis. About 400 to 500 liters of water is necessary for production of a
one kilogram of plant dry matter. Water is also required for translocation of nutrient and
dissipation of heat.

Properties of water:

Water molecule contains two hydrogen ions and one oxygen ions. The space occupied by each
water molecule is mainly due to oxygen ions while two hydrogen Ions do not occupy practically
any space. The shape of the water molecule is sphere and the position of two hydrogen ions is at
the corners of a tetrahedron that exists within a sphere.

The positive valences of hydrogen ions are partially neutralized by negative valency of oxygen
ion. Thus, one, end of water molecule has positive charge and another end has negative charge.
This makes water molecules a dipole.
 
Water molecules do not exist in individually. Hydrogen in water serves as connecting link from
one molecule to the other and it is known as hydrogen bonding. Water sticks to it self with great
energy and this property is called cohesion, where as water attaches itself to surface of many
substances and this property is known as adhesion. By adhesion, water is held tightly at the soil
water interface and water is retained in the soil by adhesion and cohesion. The water molecules
hold other water molecules by cohesion forces. Because of these forces, water fills small pores in
the soil and is in fairly thick film in large pores.

Soil Properties
1. Soil physical properties

a. Horizonation
b. Soil color
c. Soil texture
d. Soil structure
e. Soil consistence
 f. Bulk density

2. Soil chemical properties

a. Cation Exchange Capacity

b. Soil Reaction (pH)

Physical Properties
 Horizonation

Soil “horizons” are discrete layers that make up a soil profile. They are typically
parallel with the ground surface. In some soils, they show evidence of the actions
of the soil forming processes.
O horizons are dominated by organic material. Some are saturated with water for
long periods or were once saturated but are now artificially drained; others have
never been saturated.
A horizons are mineral layers that formed at the surface or below an O horizon,
that exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, and that
show one or both of the following:

 an accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the

mineral fraction and not dominated by properties characteristic of E or B
horizons
 modification as a result of the actions of cultivation, pasturing, or similar
kinds of disturbance

E horizons are mineral layers that exhibit the loss of silicate clay, iron,
aluminum, humus, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand
and silt particles. These horizons exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original
rock structure.
B horizons are mineral layers that typically form below an A, E, or O horizon and
are dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and
show one or more of the following:

 Illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus, carbonate,

gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination
 evidence of removal of carbonates
 residual concentration of sesquioxides
  coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in
value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than overlying horizons without
apparent illuviation of iron
 alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both and that forms
granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes accompany
changes in moisture content; or brittleness

C horizons are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The material of
C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying soil horizons
presumably formed. The C horizon may have been modified even if there is no
evidence of pedogenesis.
R horizons are layers of hard bedrock.
Transitional horizons are dominated by properties of one master horizon, but have
subordinate properties of another. AB and B/C are examples of transitional horizon
designations.

b. Soil Color
In well aerated soils, oxidized or ferric (Fe+3) iron compounds are
responsible for the brown, yellow, and red colors you see in the soil.When iron is reduced to
the ferrous (Fe+2) form, it becomes mobile, and can be removed from certain areas of the
soil. When the iron is removed, a gray color remains, or the reduced iron color persists in
shades of green or blue.
Upon aeration, reduced iron can be reoxidized and redeposited,
sometimes in the same horizon, resulting in a variegated or mottled color pattern. These
soil color patterns resulting from saturation, called “redoximorphic features”, can indicate
the duration of the anaerobic state, ranging from brown with a few mottles, to complete
gray or “gleization” of the soil.
Soils that are dominantly gray with brown or yellow mottles immediately below the
surface horizon are usually hydric.Soil color is typically described using some form of
color reference chart, such as the Munsell Color Chart. Using the Munsell system, color
is described in reference to the color’s “hue”, “value”, and “chroma”. Hue describes where
in the color spectrum the soil color exists, which for soils includes the colors yellow, red,
blue, green, and gray. Value describes the lightness of the color. Chroma indicates the
strength of the color. In a Munsell notation, the color is written in the order hue-value-
chroma. The color “5YR 4/3” is an example of a Munsell notation, where 5YR is the hue,
4 is the value, and 3 is the chroma.
c. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the proportion of the soil “separates” that
make up the mineral component of soil. These separates are called sand,
silt, and clay. These soil separates have the following size ranges:

 Sand = <2 to 0.05 mm

 Silt = 0.05 to 0.002 mm

 Clay = <0.002 mm

Sand and silt are the “inactive” part of the soil matrix, because they do not contribute
to a soil’s ability to retain soil water or nutrients. These separates are commonly
comprised of quartz or some other inactive mineral.
Because of its small size and sheet-like structure, clay has a large amount of
surface area per unit mass, and its surface charge attracts ions and water. Because of this,
clay is the “active” portion of the soil matrix.
For all mineral soils, the proportion of sand, silt, and clay always adds up to 100
percent. These percentages are grouped into soil texture “classes”, which have
been organized into a “textural triangle”.

Soil texture can affect the amount of pore space within a soil.
Sand-sized soil particles fit together in a way that creates large
pores; however, overall there is a relatively small amount of total
pore space. Clay-sized soil particles fit together in a way that
creates small pores; however, overall there are more pores present.
Therefore, a soil made of clay-sized particles will have more total
pore space than a will a soil made of sand-sized particles.
Consequently, clayey soils will generally have lower bulk densities
than sandy soils.
Collectively, the soil separates of sand, silt, and clay are called the
“fine-earth fraction”, and represent inorganic soil particles less
than 2mm in diameter. Inorganic soil particles 2mm and larger are
called “rock fragments”.
 When the organic matter content of a soil exceeds 20 to 35% (on a
dry weight basis) it is considered organic soil material, and the soil
is called an organic soil. As this material is mostly devoid of
mineral soil material, they cannot be described in terms of soil
texture. However, the following “in lieu of” texture terms can be
used to describe organic soils:

 “peat”; organic material in which the plant parts are still

recognizable
 “muck”; highly decomposed organic material in which no
plant parts are recognizable
 “mucky peat”; decomposition is intermediate between
muck and peat

d. Soil Structure
The soil separates can become aggregated together into discrete
structural units called “peds”. These peds are organized into a
repeating pattern that is referred to as soil structure. Between the
peds are cracks called “pores” through which soil air and water are
conducted. Soil structure is most commonly described in terms of
the shape of the individual peds that occur within a soil horizon.
Types of Soil Structure

Graphic Example Description of Structure Shape

Granular – roughly spherical, like grape nuts. Usually 1-10 mm in

diameter. Most common in A horizons, where plant roots,
microorganisms, and sticky products of organic matter decomposition
bind soil grains into granular aggregates

Platy – flat peds that lie horizontally in the soil. Platy structure can be
found in A, B and C horizons. It commonly occurs in an A horizon as
the result of compaction.

Blocky – roughly cube-shaped, with more or less flat surfaces. If

edges and corners remain sharp, we call it angular blocky. If they are
rounded, we call it subangular blocky. Sizes commonly range from 5-
50 mm across. Blocky structures are typical of B horizons, especially
those with a high clay content. They form by repeated expansion and
contraction of clay minerals.
 Prismatic – larger, vertically elongated blocks, often with five sides.
Sizes are commonly 10-100mm across. Prismatic structures
commonly occur in fragipans.

Columnar – the units are similar to prisms and are bounded by flat or
slightly rounded vertical faces. The tops of columns, in contrast to
those of prisms, are very distinct and normally rounded.

 
"Structureless" Soil Types

Graphic Example Description of Structure Shape

Massive – compact, coherent soil not separated into peds of any kind.
Massive structures in clayey soils usually have very small pores, slow
permeability, and poor aeration.

Single grain – in some very sandy soils, every grain acts

independently, and there is no binding agent to hold the grains
together into peds. Permeability is rapid, but fertility and water
holding capacity are low.

e. Soil Consistence
Soil consistence refers to the ease with which an individual ped
can be crushed by the fingers. Soil consistence, and its description,
depends on soil moisture content. Terms commonly used to
describe consistence are:
Moist soil:

 loose – noncoherent when dry or moist; does not hold

together in a mass
 friable – when moist, crushed easily under gentle pressure
between thumb and forefinger and can be pressed together
into a lump
 firm – when moist crushed under moderate pressure
between thumb and forefinger, but resistance is distinctly
noticeable

Wet soil:
  plastic – when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure but
can be pressed into a lump; will form a “wire” when rolled
between thumb and forefinger
 sticky – when wet, adheres to other material and tends to stretch
somewhat and pull apart rather than to pull free from other
material

Dry Soil:

 soft – when dry, breaks into powder or individual grains under

very slight pressure
 hard – when dry, moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken
with difficulty between thumb and forefinger

f. Bulk Density
Bulk density is the proportion of the weight of a soil relative to its
volume. It is expressed as a unit of weight per volume, and is
commonly measured in units of grams per cubic centimeters (g/cc).
Bulk density is an indicator of the amount of pore space available
within individual soil horizons, as it is inversely proportional to
pore space:
Pore space = 1 – bulk
density/particle density
For example, at a bulk density of 1.60 g/cc, pore space equals 0.40
or 40%. At a bulk density of 1.06 g/cc, pore space equals 0.60 or
60%.
The addition of even a small percentage of organic soil material to
a mineral soil can affect the bulk density of that soil. Compare the
two soil samples below:
Soil “A”: 100% mineral soil
material; bulk density = 1.33 g/cc
Soil “B”: 95% mineral soil material
and 5% organic soil material; bulk
density = 1.26 g/cc
The difference in bulk density relates to a difference in “particle
density” of mineral soil material versus organic soil material. The
average particle density of mineral soil material is 2.65 g/cc, which
approximates the density of quartz. Conversely, the average
particle density of organic soil material is 1.25 g/cc. Organic soil
material weighs less than mineral soil material, so it will lower the
bulk density of a mineral soil when added, as it reduces the overall
weight of the soil.
2. Soil Chemical Properties
a. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Some plant nutrients and metals exist as positively charged ions, or
“cations”, in the soil environment. Among the more common
cations found in soils are hydrogen (H+), aluminum (Al+3),
calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), and potassium (K+). Most
heavy metals also exist as cations in the soil environment. Clay and
organic matter particles are predominantly negatively charged
(anions), and have the ability to hold cations from being “leached”
or washed away. The adsorbed cations are subject to replacement
by other cations in a rapid, reversible process called “cation
exchange”.

Cations leaving the exchange sites enter the soil solution, where
they can be taken up by plants, react with other soil constituents, or
be carried away with drainage water.
The “cation exchange capacity”, or “CEC”, of a soil is a
measurement of the magnitude of the negative charge per unit
weight of soil, or the amount of cations a particular sample of soil
can hold in an exchangeable form. The greater the clay and organic
matter content, the greater the CEC should be, although different
types of clay minerals and organic matter can vary in CEC.
Cation exchange is an important mechanism in soils for retaining
and supplying plant nutrients, and for adsorbing contaminants. It
plays an important role in wastewater treatment in soils. Sandy
soils with a low CEC are generally unsuited for septic systems
since they have little adsorptive ability and there is potential for
groundwater.

b. Soil Reaction (pH)

By definition, “pH” is a measure of the active hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. It
is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil, and also known as “soil
reaction”.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with values below 7.0 acidic, and values above
7.0 alkaline. A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, where H+ and OH- are equal,
both at a concentration of 10-7 moles/liter. A pH of 4.0 is ten times more acidic
than a pH of 5.0.
The most important effect of pH in the soil is on ion solubility, which in turn
affects microbial and plant growth. A pH range of 6.0 to 6.8 is ideal for most
crops because it coincides with optimum solubility of the most important plant
 nutrients. Some minor elements (e.g., iron) and most heavy metals are more
soluble at lower pH. This makes pH management important in controlling
movement of heavy metals (and potential groundwater contamination) in soil.
In acid soils, hydrogen and aluminum are the dominant exchangeable cations. The
latter is soluble under acid conditions, and its reactivity with water (hydrolysis)
produces hydrogen ions. Calcium and magnesium are basic cations; as their
amounts increase, the relative amount of acidic cations will decrease.
Factors that affect soil pH include parent material, vegetation, and climate. Some
rocks and sediments produce soils that are more acidic than others: quartz-rich
sandstone is acidic; limestone is alkaline. Some types of vegetation, particularly
conifers, produce organic acids, which can contribute to lower soil pH values. In
humid areas such as the eastern US, soils tend to become more acidic over time
because rainfall washes away basic cations and replaces them with hydrogen.
Addition of certain fertilizers to soil can also produce hydrogen ions. Liming the
soil adds calcium, which replaces exchangeable and solution H+ and raises soil
pH.
Lime requirement, or the amount of liming material needed to raise the soil pH to
a certain level, increases with CEC. To decrease the soil pH, sulfur can be added,
which produces sulfuric acid.

Classification of soil water

Soil water has been classified from a physical and biological point of view as Physical
classification of soil water, and biological classification of soil water.

Physical classification of soil water

  
1. Gravitational water: Gravitational water occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores) and
moves down readily under the force of gravity. Water in excess of the field capacity is termed
gravitational water. Gravitational water is of no use to plants because it occupies the larger pores.
It reduces aeration in the soil. Thus, its removal from soil is a requisite for optimum plant
growth. Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is zero or less than 1/3 atmosphere.
 
Factors affecting gravitational water

i. Texture: Plays a great role in controlling the rate of movement of gravitational water. The flow
of water is proportional to the size of particles. The bigger the particle, the more rapid is the flow
or movement. Because of the larger size of pore, water percolates more easily and rapidly in
sandy soils than in clay soils.
ii. Structure: It also affects gravitational water. In platy structure movement of gravitational
water is slow and water stagnates in the soil. Granular and crumby structure helps to improve
gravitational water movement. In clay soils having single grain structure, the gravitational water,
percolates more slowly. If clay soils form aggregates (granular structure), the movement of
gravitational water improves.

2. Capillary water: Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores). Capillary water is
retained on the soil particles by surface forces. It is held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it
from the soil particles. The molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and are present in a
liquid state. Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary temperature though it is held
firmly by the soil particle; plant roots are able to absorb it. Capillary water is, therefore, known
as available water. The capillary water is held between 1/3 and 31 atmosphere pressure.

Factors affecting capillary water: The amount of capillary water that a soil is able to hold varies
considerably. The following factors are responsible for variation in the amount of capillary
water.

i. Surface tension: An increase in surface tension increases the amount of capillary water.

ii. Soil texture: The finer the texture of a soil, greater is the amount of capillary water holds. This
is mainly due to the greater surface area and a greater number of micro pores.

iii. Soil structure: Platy structure contains more water than granular structure.

iv. Organic matter: The presence of organic matter helps to increase the capillary capacity of a
soil. Organic matter itself has a great capillary capacity. Undecomposed organic matter is
generally porous having a large surface area, which helps to hold more capillary water. The
humus that is formed on decomposition has a great capacity for absorbing and holding water.
Hence the presence of organic matter in soil increases the amount of capillary water in soil.

3. Hygroscopic water: The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal particle is
known as hygroscopic water. It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the vapour form.

Hygroscopic water held so tenaciously (31 to 10000 atmospheres) by soil particles that plants
can not absorb it. Some microorganism may utilize hygroscopic water. As hygroscopic water is
held tenaciously by surface forces its removal from the soil requires a certain amount of energy.
Unlike capillary water which evaporates easily at atmospheric temperature, hygroscopic water
cannot be separated from the soil unless it is heated.
 
Factors affecting hygroscopic water: Hygroscopic water is held on the surface of colloidal
particles by the dipole orientation of water molecules. The amount of hygroscopic water varies
inversely with the size of soil particles. The smaller the particle, the greater is the amount of
hygroscopic water it adsorbs. Fine textured soils like clay contain more hygroscopic water than
coarse textured soils.

The amount of clay and also its nature influences the amount of hygroscopic water. Clay
minerals of the montmoril1onite type with their large surface area adsorb more water than those
of the kaolinite type, while illite minerals are intermediate

Forces Causing Water Movement and Retention of Water in Soil

Force Causing Water Movement:

The forces which cause the water movement in soil are:

(1) Gravitational force or gravity tension: The flow of water due to gravity is very marked
when the soil is in saturated condition and generally, the direction of such flow is downward
although a little lateral flow takes place. The large pores i.e. macro-pores serve as the main
channels for gravitational flow.

(2)  Capillary force or capillary tension: In the soil, water is held by the forces of surface in the
capillary spaces and around the soil particles. The movement of water under unsaturated soil
conditions is due to force of surface tension. Once the flow due to gravitational force has ceased
the water moves in the form of thin or capillary film from a wet region to a dry region through
finer or micro-pores. The surface or capillary tension is responsible for the capillary movement
of water to all directions from low tension to high tension.

(3)  vapour tension: If the soil is not water logged, the movement of water vapour may take
place to a very little extent from soil layers which gets more heated towards the cooler soil layers
particularly when difference between their temperatures are very wide.

(4)  Osmotic pressure: The movement of water takes place due to difference in osmotic
pressure of the soil solution. the situation is only observed in only saline soil which has excessive
salts.
In all these four forces, the gravitational and capillary forces are important because their
significance in the movement of water in the soil is more. However, vapour transfer and osmotic
pressure are less important because of their negligible significance in case of normal soils.

Retention of water in soil:

Water that enters in the soil is retained by means of the following three forces:

i)   Force of adhesion: It is the attraction of solid surface of water molecules (It is the attraction
of unlike materials to each other). Due to the force of adhesion, the water molecules are attached
to the surface of soil particles and thus a thin film of water is tightly held around the soil
particles. Finer the soil particles, greater the surface area and consequently, the water film is held
or retained more tightly.

ii)  Force of cohesion: It is attraction between similar molecules of like characteristics. Cohesion
is attraction of water molecules for each other. When more water is added to the moist soil, the
cohesive force comes into action and the freshly added molecules get attracted towards already
existing water molecules. This results in thickening of water film around the soil particles.

iii) Soil colloids: (Clay or humus particles): The water is also retained in the soil due to soil
colloids like clay or humus particles. The water thus retained in the soil is called imbibitional
moisture.

Such retention of moisture is different in different soils. Fine textured soils having greater
aggregation and more organic matter or humus retain much more quantity of water than those
coarse textured single grained soils which are poor in organic matter.

Ways to Retain Water in Soil

1. Cohesion and adhesion forces: These two basic forces are responsible for water retention in
the soil. One is the attraction of molecules for each other i.e., cohesion. The other is the attraction
of water molecules for the solid surface of soil i.e. adhesion. By adhesion, solids (soil) hold
water molecules rigidly at their soil - water interfaces. These water molecules in turn hold by
cohesion. Together, these forces make it possible for the soil solids to retain water.
2. Surface tension: This phenomenon is commonly evidenced at water- air interfaces. Water
behaves as if its surface is covered with a stretched elastic membrane. At the surface, the
attraction of the air for the water molecules is much less than that of water molecules for each
other. Consequently, there is a net downward force on the surface molecules, resulting in sort of
a compressed film (membrane) at the surface. This phenomenon is called surface tension.

3. Polarity or dipole character: The retention of water molecules on the surface of clay micelle is
based on the dipole character of the molecule of water. The water molecules are held by
electrostatic force that exists on the surface of colloidal particles. By virtue of their dipole
character and under the influence of electrostatic forces, the molecules of water get oriented
(arranged) on the surface of the clay particles in a particular manner.

Each water molecule carries both negative and positive charges. The clay particle is negatively
charged. The positive end of water molecule gets attached to the negatively charged surface of
clay and leaving its negative end outward. The water molecules attached to the clay surface in
this way present a layer of negative charges to which another layer of oriented water molecules is
attached. The number of successive molecular layers goes on increasing as long as the water
molecules oriented. As the molecular layer gets thicker, orientation becomes weaker, and at a
certain distance from the particle surface the water molecules cease to orientate and capillary
water (liquid water) begins to appear. Due to the forces of adsorption (attraction) exerted by the
surface of soil particles, water gets attached on the soil surface. The force of gravity also acts
simultaneously, which tries to pull it downwards. The surface force is far greater than the force
of gravity so water may remain attached to the soil particle. The water remains attached to the
soil particle or move downward into the lower layers, depending on the magnitude of the
resultant force.

Soil Water Potential

The retention and movement of water in soils, its uptake and translocation in plants and its loss
to the atmosphere are all energy related phenomenon. The more strongly water is held in the soil
the greater is the heat (energy) required. In other words, if water is to be removed from a moist
soil, work has to be done against adsorptive forces. Conversely, when water is adsorbed by the
soil, a negative amount of work is done. The movement is from a zone where the free energy of
water is high (standing water table} to one where the free energy is low (a dry soil). This is
called soil water energy concept.

Free energy of soil solids for water is affected by

i) Matric (solid) force i.e., the attraction of the soil solids for water (adsorption} which markedly
reduces the free energy (movement} of the adsorbed water molecules.

ii) Osmotic force i.e., the attraction of ions and other solutes for water to reduce the free energy
of soil solution.

Matric and Osmotic potentials are negative and reduce the free energy level of the soil water.
These negative potentials are referred as suction or tension.

iii) Force of gravity: This acts on soil water, the attraction is towards the earth's center, which
tends to pull the water down ward. This force is always positive. The difference between the
energy states of soil water and pure free water is known as soil water potential. Total water
potential (Pt} is the sum of the contributions of gravitational potential (Pg), matric potential (Pm)
and the Osmotic potential or solute potential (Po).

Pt = Pg + Pm + Po

Potential represents the difference in free energy levels of pure water and of soil water. The soil
water is affected by the force of gravity, presence of soil solid (matric) and of solutes.

Methods of expressing suctions: There are two units to express differences in energy levels of
soil water.

i) PF Scale: The free energy is measured in terms of the height of a column of water required to
produce necessary suction or pressure difference at a particular soil moisture level. The pF,
therefore, represents the logarithm of the height of water column (cm) to give the necessary
suction.

ii) Atmospheres or Bars: It is another common mean of expressing suction. Atmosphere is the
average air pressure at sea level. If the suction is very low as occurs in the case of a wet soil
containing the maximum amount of water that it can hold, the pressure difference is of the order
of about 0.01 atmospheres or 1 PF equivalent to a column of water 10 cm in height. Similarly, if
the pressure difference is 0.1 atmosphere the PF will be 20. Soil moisture constants can be
expressed in term of PF values. A soil that is saturated with water has PF 0 while an oven dry
soil has a PF 7.
Soil Moisture Constant:

Water contents under certain standard conditions are referred as soil moisture constants.

Under field conditions, water content of soil is always changing constantly with time and depth
of soil and is not static or constant. However, the concept of soil moisture constants greatly
facilitates in taking decision in irrigation.

Important Soil Moisture Constant:

While studying soil water and discussing its availability or other wise to plant, some specific
terms called as soil moisture constants are used. A brief explanation of some important and
commonly used terms is given below and the methods of expressing them are indicated in the
table below.

Appearance Moisture Tension

of soil Type of Soil Soil Moisture Constant in Atmosphere
Wet soil Gravitational water Maximum water 0.001
Moist soil Available water Field capacity 0.33 (1/3)
  Water held in micro pores Wilting point 15
Dry soil Unavailable water tightly held Hygroscopic coefficient 31
    Air dry 1000
    Oven dry 10,000

Important soil moisture constants:

1. Oven dry weight: This is the basis for all soil moisture calculations. The soil is heated in an
oven at 105 degree Celsius until it looses no more water and final weight is recorded as oven dry
weight. Equivalent moisture tension at this stage is 10,000 atmospheres.

2. Air-dry weight:  Unlike oven dry weight, this is a variable constant. Soil exposed in humid
atmosphere will have a higher weight than the same soil, if put in dry atmosphere. Under average
conditions, moisture at air dryness is held with a force of about 1000 atmosphere.

3. Hygroscopic coefficient: It is the maximum quantity of water absorbed by any soil in a

saturated atmosphere (i.e. at 99 percent relative humidity) at 25 degree Celsius temperature. The
hygroscopic coefficient varies with the type of soil, its texture and organic matter content. This
constant is equal to a force of about 31 atmospheres and determined by placing the soil in a
saturated atmosphere at 25oC temperature. Water held by the soil at this constant is not available
to plants because it is mostly in vapour form but it is useful to certain bacteria.

4. Permanent Witling Point (PWP): The wilting point is also known as a wilting coefficient or
permanent wilting point or permanent wilting percentage.
     
After using the water from outer capillary portion, the plant roots begin to utilize although with
difficultly the inner capillary water. Thus, as the moisture film becomes thinner, it is held more
and more tightly and it is difficult for plant roots to remove each successive portion of the water
film. But later on, a stage is reached at which plants cannot obtain enough water to meet
transpiration requirement and remain wilted even under saturated atmosphere, unless water is
added to soil. The soil moisture constant at this stage (wilting is called as wilting co-efficient or
permanent wilting percentage. Water at this constant is with force of a 15 atmosphere. The
wilting co-efficient differs in different soils. It is as low as 4 to 6 percentage in sandy soils and as
high as about 16 to 20 percent in clayey soils which are rich in organic matter. The wilting point
is a lower limit of available soil moisture.

5. Field Capacity (F.C.): Field capacity is the moisture content in percentage of a soil on oven
dry basis, when it has been completely saturated and down ward movement of has practically
ceased.

With 2 to 3 days after a heavy rains or irrigation, the gravitational or free water is drained. The
moisture content at this stage in the soil is said to be at field capacity. The field capacity is the
upper limit of available soil moisture range in the soil moisture and plant relations. The moisture
tension at this stage is about 1/3 atmosphere. The fine textured granular soil with high organic
matter content more soil moisture than sandy soil at field capacity.

6. Moisture equivalent: According to the modified technique, moisture equivalents is the

amount of moisture in percentage on oven dry weight basis held by 30 grams of dry soil when
subjected to 1000 times the gravitational force in a centrifuge for 30 minutes.

For practical purpose, field capacity may be considered as equal to the moisture equivalent. The
value (moisture content may be considered as equal to the moisture equivalent are nearly equal
in loamy soil but for sandy soils, the moisture equivalent is slightly higher than filed capacity.

7. Maximum capillary capacity: When water is added to the soil whose field capacity is
already reached, that water goes on thickening the moisture film. A stage is then reached after
which any further additional of water will get percolated down by the force of gravity. This is the
point of maximum capillary capacity.
8. Maximum water holding capacity: Any further addition of water to the soil after its
maximum capillary capacity is reached will start moving down by force of gravity, if it is a well
drained soil but when drainage is restricted, maximum amount of water can be held until all
micro and macro pores are filled with water. This stage is called the maximum water holding
capacity. It is only in case of poorly drained soils or soils having hard pan near the surface that
maximum water is retained in the soil for a long period.

The values of different soil moisture constant (moisture percent) differ according to soil type.
The values for these moisture constant for some the soils are given below.     

Table: Moisture constants for few typical Indian soils (in percent of oven dry soil)

Air Hygro
dry scopic Wilti Mois Maximum
moi co- ng ture water
Soil stur efficie Coeff equiv holding
type e nt icient alent capacity
Heavy
black 3.8 20.7 29.9 53.2 79.7
Mediu
m
black 2.1 13.3 20.6 45.6 66.6
Alluvia
l 1.6 7.6 13.5 40.4 48.7
Sandy 0.5 1 5.3 21.8 25.2 Entry of Water into Soil
Laterit
e 0.8 2.8 5.5 32.9 39.6 1. Infiltration: Infiltration refers to the downward
entry or movement of water into the soil surface.
It is a surface characteristic and hence primarily
influenced by the condition of the surface soil. Soil surface with vegetative cover has more
infiltration rate than bare soil. Warm soils absorb more water than colder ones. Coarse surface
texture, granular structure and high organic matter content in surface soil, all help to increase
infiltration. Infiltration rate is comparatively lower in wet soils than dry soils.
 
Factors affecting infiltration

1. Clay minerals
2. Soil Texture
3. Soil structure
4. Moisture content
 5. Vegetative cover
6. Topography

2. Percolation: The movement of water through a column of soil is called percolation. It is

important for two reasons.
 
i) This is the only source of recharge of ground water which can be used through wells for
irrigation
ii) Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of plant roots (leaching)

Percolation is dependent of rainfall. In dry region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is
high. Sandy soils have greater percolation than clayey soil. Vegetation and high water table
reduce the percolation loss

3. Permeability: It indicates the relative ease of movement of water with in the soil. The
characteristics that determine how fast air and water move through the soil are known as
permeability. The term hydraulic conductivity is also used which refers to the readiness with
which a soil transmits fluids through it.

Soil Water Movement

i) Saturated Flow
ii) Unsaturated Flow
iii) Water Vapour Movement

Saturated flow: This occurs when the soil pores are completely filled with water. This water
moves at water potentials larger than – 33 k Pa. Saturated flow is water flow caused by gravity’s
pull. It begins with infiltration, which is water movement into soil when rain or irrigation water
is on the soil surface. When the soil profile is wetted, the movement of more water flowing
through the wetted soil is termed percolation.
 
Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed mathematically as

V = kf
Where,
          V = Total volume of water moved per unit time    
          f = Water moving force
          k = Hydraulic conductivity of soil
Factors affecting movement of water

1. Texture, 2.Structure, 3.Amount of organic matter, 4.Depth of soil to hard pan, 5.Amount of
water in the soil, 6.temperature and 7. Pressure

Vertical water flow:

The vertical water flow rate through soil is given by Darcy’s law. The law states that the rate of
flow of liquid or flux through a porous medium is proportional to the hydraulic gradient in the
direction of floe of the liquid.

                (dw) At

QW = - k--------------
                   Ds
Where,
          QW = Quantity of water in cm-3
          k = rate constant (cm/s)
          dw = Water height (head), cm
          A = Soil area (cm2))
          t = Time
          ds = Soil depth (cm)
 Absorption and Movement of Water in Soil

The movement of water from the soil surface into and through the soil is called water intake. It is
the expression of several factors including infiltration and percolation.

Infiltration:

Infiltration is the term applied to the process of water entry into the soil generally (but not
necessarily) through the soil surface and vertically downward. This process is of great practical
importance since its rate determines the amount of run-off over the soil surface.

In other words, infiltration refers to the entry and downward movement of water in to the soil
surface. Infiltration is a surface characteristic of a soil.

Infiltration rate:

It is the rate at which the water enters from the surface to the soil. Initially the infiltration rate is
more but afterwards it decreases because the soil gets wet. According to the rate of entry of water
from surface to the soil, infiltration rate is grouped in to four categories.

1. Very Slow: soils with less than 0.25cm per hour e.g. - very clay soils.
2. Slow: infiltration rate of 0.25cm to 1.25cm per hour e.g. Soils with high clay.
3. Moderate: infiltration rate of 1.25 to 2.5cm per hour. e.g. - sandy loam/ silt loam soils.
4. Rapid: infiltration rate is more than 2.5cm per hour e.g. deep/sandy silt loam soils.

Factors affecting the rate of infiltration:

 Compactness of soil surface: A compact soil surface permits less infiltration whereas
more infiltration occurs from loose soil surface.

 Impact of rain drop: the force (speed) with which the rain drop falls on the ground is
said to be impact of rain drop. Ordinary size varies from 0.5 to 4mm in diameter. The
speed of raindrop is 30ft per second and force is 14 times its own weight. When impact of
raindrop is more then it causes sealing and closing of pores (capillaries) especially in
easily dispensable soils resulting in infiltration rate

 Soil cover: Soil surface with vegetative cover has more infiltration rate than bare soil
because sealing of capillary is not observed.

 Soil Wetness: If soil is wet, infiltration is less. In dry soil, infiltration is more.
  Soil temperature: Warm soil absorbs more water than cold soils.

 Soil texture: In coarse textured soils, infiltration rate is more as compared to heavy soils.
In coarse textured soil, the numbers of macro-pores are more. In clayey soils, the
cracking caused by drying also increases infiltration in the initial stages until the soil
again swells and decreases infiltration.

 Depth of soil: Shallow soils permit less water to enter into soil than too deep soils.

A coarse surface textured, high water stable aggregates, more organic matter in the surface soil
and greater number of micro pores, all help to increase infiltration. As it is a dynamic and quite
variable character of soil, it can be controlled by management practices. Cultivation practices
that loosen the surface soil make it more receptive for infiltration e.g. course organic matter
mulches increases infiltration.

Permeability:

It is defined as the characteristic that determines how fast air and water move through the soil
describes what is known as permeability.

Once the water has entered into the top layer, its subsequent slow or rapid movement within the
soil indicates its rapid or slow permeability. The permeability basically depends upon pore size
distribution in the soil. Larger the number of macro pores (non-capillary pores), the greater is the
permeability. The movement of water becomes slow in subsoil layers due to their compactness
and low organic matter content but with deep-rooted plants, there is an increased permeability
even in such sub soil layers. Permeability increases with the increasing fine texture.

Permeability depends up on:

 Number of micro pores: More the number of macro pores higher is the permeability.

 Soil aggregates: Larger the size of capillary pores, greater is the permeability.

 Depth of soil: Permeability decreases with the depth, as the sub soil layers are more
compact and have less organic matter.

 Coarseness of soil texture: In coarse textured soil, permeability is more, however fine
textured soil is less.
  Salt concentration: Salt concentration affects permeability adversely. If the sodium is
high in water; it would cause ready dispersion of soil and thus reduces permeability.

 Soil moisture status: Permeability decreases as the soil becomes drier and increases
when soil becomes wet.

 Organic matter content: more organic matter in the soil results in more permeability.

The permeability is considered slow, if it is less than 2.5 cm per hour, moderate if it is about 5.0
cm per hour. Like infiltration, permeability can be also controlled to a extent by suitable
management practices. Continuous tillage reduces permeability, while the growth of deep-rooted
crops like pulses or legumes, grasses and tress increases permeability. The permeability of soil
varies with its moisture status and usually decreases as the soil becomes drier because air enters
in to soil and reduces the permeability.

Percolation:

The down ward movement of water through saturated or nearly saturated soil due to the forces of
gravity is known as percolation. Percolation occurs when water is under pressure or when the
tension is smaller than about 1/3 atmosphere.

Percolating water goes deep into the soil until it meets the free water table. Percolation studies
are important for two reasons-

1)Percolating water is only source of recharge of ground water, which can be again be profitably
used through springs and wells for irrigation.

2)Percolating water carries plant nutrients like Calcium, Magnesium deep into lower layers and
depositing them beyond the reach of roots of common field crops. In sandy or open textured
soils, there is a rapid loss of water through percolation.

Percolation depends up on:

(i)   Climate: If the rainfall is more than evaporation, then there will be appreciable amount of
percolation. In dry region, percolation is almost negligible.
(ii)   Nature of soil: sandy soils permit more percolation as these occupy large number of macro-
pores. The macro-pores serve as the main channels of the gravitational flow. However, clayey
soil permits less water to percolate.

Capillary movement:
Once the flow due to gravitational forces has been ceased (stopped), the water moves in the form
of thin or capillary film from a wet region to dry region. This type movement goes through the
finer or micro-pores and it continues until the thickness of moisture film surrounding the soil
particles is equal to both the regions (wet and dry regions). Capillary may be in all directions i.e.
it may be downward, lateral or upwards from a low tension to high-tension area, since thicker
film have lower tension; water from thicker film around the soil particles flows to thinner film.
The greater the difference between the thicknesses of the film, the quicker is the capillary
movement up to certain point and as difference narrows, the movement of water film also
becomes slow and may cease (stop).

Factors Affecting Absorption of Water

Factors affecting absorption of water:

A)  Physical factors: The soil and atmosphere are the chief physical factors which determine the
flow rate of water through plant.

Soil factors:

i) Soil water content: The plant roots can easily absorb the soil moisture in between field
capacity and permanent wilting point. When the soil moisture decrease below the wilting point,
plant roots have to exert more pressure and thus rate of absorption decreases. On the other hand,
when the soil is completely saturated with water, then soil temperature and aeration are poor and
this condition also affects the absorption of water.
ii)  Soil temperature: Soil temperature is known to influence water absorption and ultimately
transpiration to a considerable extent. In many plants, water absorption below a soil temperature
of 10 oC is reduced sharply and 25 oC soil temperature up take of water is slowed down. In most
instances, temperature above 40 oC does not support water absorption and plant can show signs
of wilting. A freezing temperature reduces water absorption because of following causes.
a) Decreased root growth       
b) Increased viscosity of water
c) Increased resistance to movement of water in to roots. thus is caused by decreased
permeability of cell membrane and the increased viscosity.

iii) Soil aeration and flooding: Most of crop plants are not able to water while standing under
water logged conditions. The following are the possible reasons of flood injury.
a) Poor availability of oxygen and occurrence if higher CO2 concentration around roots.
b) Accumulation of toxic substances either in the submerged roots or around them.
c) Changes in pattern of ion up take resulting in the accumulation of some toxic ions.

In water logged condition, the availability of oxygen is reduced which affects respiratory actively
of roots. In addition, CO2 concentration is increased and it affects permeability of membranes
and adversely influences water up take. Reduced oxygen also affects root growth adversely.

B)  Atmospheric factor:

Classification of Crops According To Root Depth, Rooting Characteristic And Moisture

Use Of Crops.

The amount of soil moisture that is available to a plant is determined by the moisture
characteristics of the soil, the depth to which the plant roots extend and the proliferation or
density of the roots. Soil moisture characteristics, such as field capacity and wilting percentage
are peculiar to a soil and are a function of the texture and organic matter. Little can be done to
alter these limits to any great extent. Greater possibilities lie in changing the characteristic of the
plant enabling it extend its rooting system deeper into the soil, thereby enlarging its reservoir of
water. The density of roots proliferation is important.

Water is an unsaturated soil moves very slowly, and only a distance of a few cm. To utilize
effectively the moisture stored in the soil profile, roots must continue to proliferate into
unexploited zones throughout the plants growth cycle. During favorable growing periods, roots
often elongate so rapidly that satisfactory moisture contacts can be maintained even when the
soil moisture content declines. Where transpiration is effected due to the different atmosphere
factors such as wind velocity, humidity, sunlight, etc when temperature and wind velocity are
more sunlight for longer period and humidity are less, under such conditions, transpiration is
more. The increased rate of transpiration results more water uptake.

C) Biological factors:

Root system is the plant factor which is directly related to the absorption of water from soil.
Under favorable soil water, potential soil temperature, aeration, and roots system of the plants
strongly influence the uptake of water. When growth of roots (root system) is more, uptake of
water is also more under favorable soil conditions. Root growth is influenced by soil and more
therefore agronomic management practices can help to improve root growth.

Other plant factors such as morphology of leaves, stomatal mechanism and growth stage of the
crop influence the rate of transpiration. The increased rate of transpiration results more water
absorption.
Good root system has developed during favorable growing periods; a plant can draw its moisture
supply from deeper soil layers.

Plants vary genetically in their rooting characteristics. Vegetable crops such as onions and
potatoes have a spare rooting system and are unable to use all the soil water within the root zone.
Forage grasses, sorghum, maize and such other crops have very fibrous, dense roots. Lucerne has
a deep root system. Whether plant is an annual or perennial is another factor affecting its its
moisture relations. An annual plant must extend its roots down into the soil to make availability
root depth, and needs only to extend its small roots and hairs to be able to utilize the entire
amount of available soil water.

Plants may be limited in their rooting by factors other than genetic. High water table, shallow
soils and an impermeable formation near the ground surface restrict the depth rooting. Fertility
and salt status of the soil influence the rooting of plants crop management practices, such as
cutting the top growth at different physiological stages and the cultivation and cutting of surface
roots after rooting habits. The rooting pattern of common and crop plants vary widely from soil.
For example, roots of maize crop have been found to extend as deep as 1.5 meters in medium to
textured soils, while in a fine textured soil the crop has a shallower root system.

Effective Root zone: Effective root zone is the depth from which the roots of average mature
plant are capable of reducing soil moisture to the extent that it should be replaced by irrigation. It
is not necessarily to have maximum root depth for ant given plant especially for plants that have
a long taproot. Root development of any crop varies widely with the type of soil and other
factors.

Table: Effective root zone depth of some crops and their classification.
  

Rooting Characteristic

Shallow Rooted Moderately Deep Rooted Deep Rooted Very Deep Rooted
Rice Wheat Maize Sugarcane
Potato Castor \Cotton Citrus
Cauliflower Ground Nut Sorghum Coffee
Cabbage Pea Bajara Apple
Lettuce Bean Soybean Grape Vine
onion Chili Sugar Beet Safflower
  Tobacco Tomato Lucerne
Moisture extraction pattern within root zone

The moisture extraction pattern shows the relative amounts of moisture extracted from different
depths within the crop root zone.

It is seen that about 40 percent of the total moisture used is extracted from first quarter of the
root zone, 30 percent from the second, 20 percent from third and only 10 percent from last
quarter.

This indicates that the need for making soil moisture measurements at different depths within the
root zone in order to have estimate of soil moisture status

 Mechanism of Water Absorption

Water can be absorbed by two methods:

 Active absorption

 Passive absorption

Active Absorption
Water is absorbed due to activities going on in roots. Absorption of water occurs with the
help of energy in the form of ATP, which is released due to metabolic activities of root
cells such as respiration. Absorption takes place against concentration gradient - even
when the concentration of cell sap is lower than that of soil water.

Passive Absorption
Passive absorption is by osmosis. Passive absorption takes place along the concentration
gradient - when the concentration of cell sap is higher than that of soil water. Water is absorbed
when transpiration rate is high or soil is dry. Due to high transpiration rate, water deficit is
created in transpiring cells. Rapid transpiration removes water and reduces turgor pressure in
living cells of root. The suction force thus developed is transmitted to root xylem. It pulls water
from surrounding root cells to make up water deficit
Plants absorb water through the entire surface - roots, stems and leaves.
However, mainly the water is absorbed by roots. The area of young roots where
most absorption takes place is the root hair zone. The root hairs are delicate
structures which get continuously replaced by new ones at an average rate of 100
millions per day. The root hairs lack cuticle and provide a large surface area.
They are extensions of the epidermal cells. They have sticky walls by which they
adhere tightly to soil particles. As the root hairs are extremely thin and large in
number, they provide enormous surface area for absorption. They take in water
from the intervening spaces mainly by osmosis.
Water in the roots move by two pathways. They can be classified as1) Apoplast
pathway2) Symplast pathway

Apoplast pathway
In this pathway the movement of water occurs exclusively through cell wall
without the involvement of any membranes. Majority of the amount of water goes
through the apoplast pathway. The cortex of the root does not oppose such
movement of the water.
 Symplast pathway
Here the movement of water molecules is from cell to cell through the plasmodesmata.
The plasmodesmata forms a network of cytoplasm of all cells.

The Casparian strip separates the cortex and the endodermis. It is composed of a
wax like substance called suberin, which blocks water and solute molecules
through the cell wall of the endodermis. Now the water is forced to go through the
cell membranes of different cells leading to a transmembrane pathway.

Path of Water from Soil into Root:-

Water movement from root hair to cortex and to the xylem vessels, showing the
apoplast pathway and the cellular pathway through symplast and transmembrane is
shown below.

Osmosis
The movement of solvent molecules from the region of their higher concentration to the
region of their lower concentration through a semi permeable membrane is called
osmosis.

Demonstration of Osmosis Using Potato

Osmoscope
 Water molecules from a region of their higher concentration (water in the beaker)
move into a region of their lower concentration (sugar solution in potato cavity)
through the differentially permeable cell membrane of the potato cells.

Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to prevent the net movement of pure water
into a solution so as to prevent the volume of the solution from increasing.

The Importance of Osmosis in Plants

 In the absorption of water by plants

 Cell to cell movement of water occurs throughout the plant body

 The rigidity of plant organs is maintained

 Leaves become turgid and expand due to osmotic pressure

 Growing points of root remain turgid and penetrate the soil particles

 The resistance of plants to drought and frost

 Movement of plants and plant parts

 Opening and closing of stomata

Turgor Pressure
 Diagram showing relationship of Osmotic Pressure (OP), Turgor Pressure (TP)
and Wall Pressure (WP)
The actual pressure exerted by the protoplasm of turgid cell against cell wall is the turgor
pressure.

Wall Pressure
Wall pressure is the pressure which is exerted by the rigid and elastic cell wall and is equal and
opposite to turgor pressure
 Forces that Help in Water Absorption in Plants
 
The three forces that act together in the xylem vessel to transport the water to
other parts are
1. Force of cohesion developed due to attraction between water molecules
2. Force of adhesion developed due to attraction between water molecules and
lignocellulose walls of xylem and
3. Transpiration pull developed due to transpiration in the leaf.

Ascent of Sap

Transpiration pull and cohesion theory (cohesion

tension theory)
The theory was originally proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894) and supported by
Renner (1911 to 1915), Curtis and Clark (1951), Benner and Golston (1952)
Kramer and Kozlowski (1960). The features on which the theory is based are:

Water is lost from the surface of the mesophyll cells of the leaves. The water
escapes as water vapour into the intercellular spaces and finally into the
atmosphere through stomata. The sequence of events are as given below:
   Water vapours diffuse out from the intercellular space to the atmosphere.

   Evaporation of water vapours from thin walled mesophyll cells (leaf) into the
intercellular space.
   Reduced water content in the cell
   Increased osmotic potential and low y in cell sap

   Movement of water from adjacent cell by osmosis

   Movement of water from xylem to adjacent cell

Diagrammatic Representation of the Path of Water Through the Plant and the
Various Physical Forces That are Concerned in the Movement of Water
A kind of water potential gradient exists from the leaf to the root and creates a
transpiration pull. The water molecules have a strong force of cohesion (a tendency to
stick together). The force of cohesion is even more in narrow tubes such as xylem
vessels.

In addition, there is also a force of adhesion between the walls of xylem vessels
and water. The ligno-cellulose walls not only provide strength but have a strong
affinity for water molecules. Both the forces, adhesion and cohesion together,
help to form thin, unbroken columns of water in the capillaries of xylem vessels.
The transpiration pull lifts the water column up by creating a tension. It is almost
similar to the liquid being taken up from a straw.
 Absorption of Water and Conduction Through the Xylem Vessels a, b, c, d, e
Refer to the Sequence of Events During Transpiration
The transpiration pull creates a negative pressure in the xylem vessel called tension
which is transmitted down to the roots. Tension causes a decrease in the water potential
and hence in the uptake of water by the roots.

This phenomenon provides a possible explanation of how water is lifted to the

tallest trees that occur on earth, though it is said that any break in the water
column which may be due to air or water vapour should stop the flow. So far it is
the most widely accepted theory. The water potential as low as - 30 bars has
been recorded in the leaves of higher plants which is sufficient to overcome the
resistance offered by the narrow capillaries of the xylem and the gravitational pull

Transpiration

Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts
of the plant.

Significance of Transpiration
Absorption of water
Transpiration influences the rate of absorption of water from the soil.

Water movement
By transpiration, water moves upwards and as it passes into the cell vacuoles, it makes
the cells turgid. This gives form and shape to cells and plant as a whole.

Mineral salt transport

The water stream moving upwards carries dissolved minerals with it. Transpiration also
helps in distributing these minerals throughout the plant.

Cooling
The evaporation of water during transpiration cools the leaves.

Protection from heat injury

Some plants like cacti, retain water by reducing transpiration. This saves the plants from
high temperatures and strong sunlight.

Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration - External

factors
Temperature
Higher the temperature more is the transpiration.

Light
Light causes stomata to open and hence increase the water loss from plant.

Diagram Showing Normal Responses of Stomata to Light, CO 2, pH, K+ ion and Water
Deficiency

Availability of soil water

When the soil gets dry, soil solution becomes more concentrated and the rate of
absorption by cells decreases. This leads to reduction in transpiration and stomata close
quickly to keep the water loss to minimum.
 Atmospheric humidity
High humidity means high water vapour pressure outside and it results in lower rate of
transpiration and as the humidity decreases rate of transpiration increases.

Wind
The wind removes water vapour and thus increases the rate of transpiration. High winds
lead to stomatal closure to stop the rapid water loss and hence bring a drop in rate of
transpiration. Moderate winds may also reduce transpiration by lowering the temperature
of leaf.

Atmospheric pressure
Lower the atmospheric pressure, higher is the rate of transpiration.

Water Movement through the leaf to the atmosphere in the form of vapour

Role of Stomata in Transpiration

Since most of the water (90%) is lost through stomata, plants regulate the degree
of stomatal opening to reduce the water loss.
 Structure of Stomata
Each stomata consists of a minute pore called stoma surrounded by two guard
cells. The stoma acts as a turgor operated valve which closes and opens
according to the turgidity of guard cells. The guard cells are the only epidermal
cells that contain chloroplasts. The guard cells have unevenly thickened walls.
The cell wall around stoma is tough and flexible and the one away from stoma is
thinner. The shape of guard cells differs in dicots and monocots though the
mechanism remains the same

Mechanism of Stomatal Action

he mechanism namely the opening and closing of stomata depends upon the
turgor pressure in the guard cells. When the guard cells are turgid, the stoma
opens and when the guard cells lose water, stoma closes.

Stomatal Movement in Dicot Plants

Stomatal Movement in Monocot Plants

Active Potassium Theory (Levitt 1974)
It was observed by Fujino (1967) that opening of stomata occurs due to the influx
of K+ ions into the guard cells. The source of K + ions are the neighbouring
subsidiary and epidermal cells, there by increasing the concentration from 50mM
to 300mM in guard cells.
The increase in K+ ion concentration increases the osmotic concentration of guard
cells thus leading to stomatal opening. ATP helps in entry of K + ions into the
guard cells.

Role of potassium, chloride and malate ions in stomatal opening (PEPcase =

Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase)
Levitt (1974) observed that proton (H+) uptake by guard cells, chloroplasts takes place
with the help of ATP. This leads to increase in value of pH in guard cells. Rise in pH
converts starch into organic acid like malic acid.

The uptake of K+ ions is balanced by:

 Uptake of chloride (Cl-) ions

 Transport of H+ ions released from organic acid (malic acid)

 By negative charges of organic acids when they lose H+ ions

Thus all these factors lead to the opening of stomata. The stomata closure is due
to excretion of K+ ions from guard cells surrounding epidermal and subsidiary
cells.
The stomatal closure is considered to be brought about by a passive or highly catalysed
excretion of K+ ions and Cl- ions from the guard cells to the epidermal tissue in general
and the subsidiary cells in particular. It is believed that subsidiary cells have an active
reabsorption mechanism of K+ ions.

Role of ABA (Abscissic acid) in stomatal closure

 ABA blocks the active excretion of H+ from guard cells. ABA brings about closure of
stomata.

Number of stomata on the upper and lower

surfaces of leaves

Dryland Farming and Dryland Farming in India

Preface

I. Introduction
II. Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture
III. Problems of Dry Farming in India
IV. Work on Dry Farming in India
V. Principal Dry Farming Zones in India
VI. Steps for Raising Productivity in Dry Fanning
VII. Agro-forestry and Dryland Agriculture
VIII. Recommendations for Dry Farming Areas
IX. Conclusion

Preface
By 2010 A.D., India will have to produce 300 million tonnes of food grains to feed her 1.5
billion population (approx.). This target cannot be realized from irrigated areas alone as we have
irrigation potential for 178 million hectares only. Therefore, we will have to evolve an
appropriate technology for dry land farming. On the other hand, we can say that second 'green
revolution' in Indian agriculture can be had in rainfed/dryland agriculture. This is important to
improve the standard of living of farmers residing in these areas as well..
In this article, all the
aspects of dry land farming
including problems of dry
farming and
recommendations for
raising productivity in dry
farming have been fully
discussed. This article is
prepared mainly to help
people working for socio-
economic development of
the rural poor farming classes: scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women.

Introduction
India has about 108 million hectares of rainfed area which constitutes nearly 75% of the total 143
million hectares of arable land. In such areas crop production becomes relatively difficult as it
mainly depends upon intensity and frequency of rainfall. The crop production, therefore, in such
areas is called rainfed farming as there is no facility to give any irrigation, and even protective or
life saving irrigation is not possible. These areas get an annual rainfall between 400 mm to 1000
mm which is unevenly distributed, highly uncertain and erratic. In certain areas the total annual
rainfall does not exceed 500mm. The crop production, depending upon this rain, is technically
called dry land farming and areas are known as dry lands.

India has about 47 million hectares of dry lands out of 108 million hectares of total rain fed area.
Dry lands contribute 42% of the total food grain production of the country. These areas produce
75% of pulses and more than 90% of sorghum, millet, groundnut and pulses from arid and semi-
arid regions. Thus, dry lands and rainfed farming will continue to playa dominant role in
agricultural production.

Dry lands, besides being water deficient, are characterized by high evaporation rates,
exceptionally high day temperature during summer, low humidity and high run off and soil
erosion. The soil of such areas are often found to be saline and low in fertility. As water is the
most important factor of crop production, inadequacy and uncertainty of rainfall often cause
partial or complete failure of the crops which leads to period of scarcities and famines. Thus the
life of both human being and cattle in such areas becomes difficult and insecure.

Despite all these improvements in agriculture, we have yet not been able evolve an appropriate
package of practices for our dry land areas. The income of farmers of dry land regions is still
very low land areas. The income of farmers of dry land regions is still very low. To feed our one
billion population that we will have by 2000 A.D., we will require food grains 10 the tune of 240
million tonnes approximately. For achieving this target we will have to harness every inch of our
cultivable lands, especially dry lands, with utmost care.

Dry farming or dryland farming may be defined as: " a practice of growing profitable crops
without irrigation in areas which receive an annual rainfall of 500 mm or even less. "

Efforts are being made to bring more area under irrigated agriculture and thereby to increase
cropping intensity. But, even when we achieve our target of 113 million hectares of irrigated area
by 2000 A.D., we would still have about 45% area under rainfed cultivation. We continue to
stress on intensive agriculture on irrigated land but we can not afford to be complacent with our
dry lands. Therefore, improved dry farming is necessary for equity and prosperity. As such we
can not achieve stability in food production with unstabilized dry land agriculture. Therefore, we
are required to adopt improved technology especially developed for dry land agriculture.

II. Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture

Dry land areas may be characterized by the following features:

1.uncertain, ill-.distributed and limited annual rainfall;
2. occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc;
3. undulating soil surface;
4. occurrence of extensive and large holdings;
5. practice of extensive agriculture i.e. prevalence of monocropping etc;
6. relatively large size of fields;
7. similarity in types of crops raised by almost all the farmers of a particular region;
8. very low crop yield;
9. poor market facility for the produce;
10. poor economy of the farmers; and
11. poor health of cattle as well as farmers.

III. Problems of Dry Farming in India

The major problem which the farmers have to face very often is to keep the crop plants alive and
to get some economic returns from the crop production. But this single problem is influenced by
several factors which are briefly described below.

1. Moisture stress and uncertain rainfall

According to definition the dry farming areas receive an annual rainfall of 500 mm or even less.
The rains are very erratic, uncertain and unevenly distributed. Therefore, the agriculture in these
areas has become a sort of gamble with the nature and very often the crops have to face climatic
hazards. The farmers also take up farming halfheartedly as they are not sure of being able to
harvest the crops. Thus, water scarcity becomes a serious bottleneck in dry land agriculture.

2. Effective storage of rain water

According to characteristics of dry farming, either there will be no rain at all or there will be
torrential rain with very high intensity. Thus, in the former case the crops will have to suffer a
severe drought and in the latter case they suffer either flood or water logging and they will be
spoilt In case of very heavy downpour, the excess water gets lost as run-off which goes to the
ponds and ditches etc. This water could be stored for providing life saving or protective irrigation
to the crops grown in dry land areas. The loss of water takes place in several ways namely run-
off, evaporation, uptake through weeds etc. The water could be stored for short period or long
period and it can be preserved either in soil, pond or ditches based on situation and utilized for
irrigation during dry periods.
3. Disposal or dry farming products
In dry farming all the farmers grow similar crops which are drought resistant. These crops
mature at the same time and the growers like to dispose off their products soon after the harvest.
This results in a glut of products in the market and the situation is badly exploited by the grain
traders and middlemen. Therefore, marketing becomes a serious problem in dry farming areas. 4.
Selection or limited crops
Only drought resistant crops namely oilseeds, pulses and coarse grains like jowar, bajra, millets
etc. can be grown in dryland areas. Thus, the farmers have to purchase other food grains and
household commodities that unbalance their economic position.

5. Careful and judicious manurial scheduling

In case of irrigated farming the farmers are at a liberty

to apply [manures and fertilizers according to their
availability and facility but in case of dry farming they
have to be very careful in fertilizer application. Due to
lack of available moisture, broadcasting or top
dressing becomes wasteful and meaningless. These
can be applied ' by only deep placement and foliar
spray for an improved crop production. In this article,
all the aspects of dry land farming including problems
of dry farming and recommendations for raising
productivity in dry farming have been fully discussed.
This article is prepared mainly to help people working
for socio-economic development of the rural poor
farming classes: scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women.

6. Utilization of preserved moisture

Judicious and purposeful utilization of preserved moisture water depends upon soil type, plant
type and other factors. The amount of available water to the plants depends upon the depth of
plant roots, their proliferation and density. In case of limited moisture condition, the yield
directly depends upon the rooting depth. The rooting depth can be desirably increased by
mechanical manipulation of the soil. If the planting is very dense and all the plants have same
kind of rooting then there will be a tough competition among roots for moisture and scarce
moisture condition will result in the wilting of plants. Therefore, utilization of preserved
moisture is an art in dry farming. The water collected in ponds or brooks may be used to give
protective or life saving irrigation. The widely spaced crops can be intercropped with oilseeds or
pulses for increasing the productivity of the land per unit area and per unit time. Therefore, the
water. , collected during the rainy season need special technique and skill for its efficient
utilization.

7. Quality or the produce

The quality of the produce from dry farming areas is often found to be inferior as the grains are
not fully developed or they are not filled properly; often mixed with other crop seeds owing to
mixed .cropping system prevalent in these areas and the fodder become more fibrous. All these
factors reduce the market value of produce and the farmers do not get the profit of their labour
and Investment.
IV. Work on Dry Farming in India

As it has already been stated, that crop production is highly risky in arid and semi-arid climates.
In such conditions generally two types of agriculture is practised. One is crop production or
arable farming and the other is mixed farming i.e. animal husbandry together with crop
production and pasture management. But this type of agriculture holds true only in those
countries where the population is limited and agricultural land is extensive such as Australia,
South Africa and some states of the USA. In India, with high population and limited available
land for agriculture, we have no other option than adopting arable farming.

Principal Dry Farming Zones in India

Almost all the states have some area under rainfed culture depending upon topography and
irrigation facilities, but only the major dry farming areas are discussed here.

1. The Indo-Gangetic plains of North India

This zone is the youngest in the geological formation. This zone includes districts of Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, North- western M.P., and V.P. This zone is characterized by two major soil
types namely light loam and heavy loam. The land is nearly leveled with a modest slope of 2
ft/mile length. The soils are very deep and situated at about 700 to 800 ft. above sea level.
Because of heavy sand and silt fractions in the soil it has large pore spaces. The soils are rich in
essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, calcium etc. and, therefore, quite good for
raising the crop excepting few with high water requirements. The cropping intensity, in this
zone, stands around 120% and the major crops which are grown in this zone are millets, cereals,
oil seeds and pulses.

As far as rainfall pattern in this zone is concerned, it is observed that about 60% or more of the
total rainfall is observed between the end of July to the end of August, and the rainfall in
remaining months is quite poor. Thus, due to very high intensity of rainfall, floods are of
frequent occurrence during the first week of September followed by a long spell of drought
subsequently.

2. The trapian plateau of peninsular India

This zone comprises the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The soil of this
zone has been derived from the Deccan trap .The tract is undulating and consists of low ridges
and valleys due to erosion which results in rapid run-off. About 40% of the land of this zone is
not fit for cultivation. This tract is situated ; at an elevation of 1400 -2(XX) feet from sea level.
The soil may be grouped into three types based on its depth as deep. medium deep and shallow
soils. Leaching of lime has resulted in the formation of lime nodules or kanker on the surface
soil. The soil is quite rich in total and available nitrogen. phosphorus and potash which favours
production of crops if moisture is efficiently conserved.

In this zone. two high peaks of rain are observed because the area is affected by both south-west
monsoon as well as northeast i monsoon. About 40-55% of total annual rainfall is obtained from
south-west monsoon and the rest from north-east monsoon. Mostly the millets and some oil
seeds like groundnut. are grown in this zone.
3. Plateau of granite formation

The soils of this zone are grouped as red soils and black cotton soils. Red soils are shallow while
black cotton soils are very deep like clayey soils. The topography is of gentle undulations which
favour run-off and soil erosion. The high pore space and high swelling of soil obstruct the
permeability of rain water in to the lower layers of soil and its shrinkage results in hardening and
clod formation on the surface which is unfavorable for plant growth. The red laterite and black
cotton soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acids.
Steps for Raising Productivity in Dry Farming

To boost the crop production under dry farming, we will have to efficiently manage our soil and
water resources in the respective areas as dry land fanning gets more complex and intractable
when droughts occur frequently. An efficient soil and water conservation system will playa vital
role in boosting the crop yield in dry fanning. The different interdisciplinary approaches which
are recommended for dry land fanning are categorized in to four major groups namely
engineering, physiological, genetic and agronomic approaches.

A. Engineering approaches

These approaches are aimed at soil and moisture conservation through regulation of run-off,
collection of surplus rain water checking evaporation and seepage losses of water. and recycling
of collected water as irrigation in times of critical need.

1. Contouring across the slope

Contouring is practiced on the lands with 3-5% slope. This system consists of constructing
earthen bunds and the distance between the two bunds ranges from 30-50 m depending on the
degree of slope. This is carried out with an object to provide a check to the flow of run-off water
which then gets accumulated in the bunded area and is absorbed by the soil. Thus, contour
bunding conserves moisture and prevents soil erosion.

a. Smoothening of contour inter-bund areas

This is practiced only in those areas which have a slope of less than 1 per cent The smoothening
may be achieved by running bullock drawn harrows or cultivators but small undulations are
leveled during the process so that impounding of water may take place and maximum water
absorption by the soil may be achieved.

b. Contour border strips method

This method is suitable for areas having a slope of 3-4 per cent In this case parallel strips across
the slope ranging from 10-15 m in width are laid down on contours and the soil surface is leveled
by scrapping and placing the soil according to the need of the spot It is done to reduce the run-off
and to conserve soil and water from the field. It is, however, an expensive method as it requires
culling and filling up the soil from higher spots to lower ones.

2. Scooping or land

In this practice, the land is generally scooped before the beginning of monsoon showers. By
scooping, the soil is exposed for proper absorption and conservation of moisture. However, this
is also a tedious as well as an expensive operation.

3. Opening or ridges and furrows

In this practice, the entire land is laid out into ridges and furrows across the slope. The ridges and
furrows are opened before onset of monsoon so that the flow of water may be reduced and
erosion may be controlled to the minimum. During rainy season, crops like maize, jowar, bajra,
etc. may be grown in the furrows and legumes like soybean, arhar, urd, mung, cowpea, etc. may
be grown on the ridges. After the monsoon is over the land is again leveled. This way the
furrows are used to accumulate maximum water which will supply moisture for winter season
crops.

4. Compartmental bunding

Areas having a slope of 1% or less are suitable for compartmental bunding. It helps in
accumulation of more water and a uniform spread of water in the entire area. Leveling is also
done with nominal or no additional expenditure.

5. Bedding system

In this system, small furrows are opened and the soil from the furrows is uniformly spread in
space left between the furrows. Thus, inter furrow spaces form the raised beds of about 4-5
metres width. This method helps in the conservation of soil, moisture and checking the excess
run-off of water.The raised beds, in this practice, are used for growing such crops which need
less water like legumes and oil seed crops, while the furrows are used for the crops which need
more water.

6. Broad-based bunding

This method is especially suitable for heavy black soil. Water is allowed to spread over a vast
area by constructing a broad- based bund on a sloppy side. The water stays for a longer time
because of high water holding capacity, lower leaching and seepage losses. The stored water may
be used for fish culture and also for [ providing life saving irrigation grown in surrounding areas
of catchment portion. These bunds are also called check dams and are I given a regulated drain
or outlet for protecting the bunds from breaking.

7. Deep summer Ploughing followed by surface tilling

The field is ploughed deep by mould hard plough soon after harvesting rabi season crop with the
objectives of (a) exposing the soil for perfect drying, (b) killing the disease pathogens, (c)
destroying eggs of insect pests, and (d) controlling weeds by sun drying. The surface tilling
during other seasons forms natural mulch and thereby reduces evaporation loss of water from
soil.

Water harvesting System

Water harvesting is a technology of utilizing the collected and conserved water for the purpose
of crop production. It includes tillage practices for an efficient use of moisture between and
within the crop rows. Frequent stirring of the land by surface tilling provides mulch and prevents
the evaporation loss of water from the soil.

Besides harvesting moisture from between and within the crop rows, run off losses are
considerably reduced. The store water is used for providing life sowing irrigation to the crops
grown in the surrounding areas. The water harvesting of this type can be done in areas situated
near hill and on greatly undulated lands. In these cases, check dam tanks, and other reservoirs are
constructed. The infiltration or percolation loss of water is prevented by spraying of asphalt
compounds or by covering the bottom of the tanks or ponds through thin plastic sheets. The
seepage loss may also be checked by providing a plastic lining. The evaporation loss of water is
controlled by pouring some burnt crude oil over water surface.

On a highly eroded soil or soils having very high slopes, terraces are made for providing a gentle
flow of run off water so that the soil is not further eroded and some crop may be grown on these
terraces.

B. Physiological approaches

Hardly 1 % of the water absorbed by the plant roots is used for the growth and development of
plants and remaining 99% is wasted through transpiration back to atmosphere. Thus one of the
greatest causes of soil water wastage is loss of water through transpiration.

The extent of transpiration can be greatly influenced by using certain chemicals. These chemicals
reduce transpiration, encourage root growth and protect the cytoplasmic proteins of the plants.
These chemicals bring about more drought resistance in the plants. These compounds, according
to their role, are classified as given below..

1. Anti-transpirants

Any chemical substance, which reduces rate of transpiration on its application to the plant
surface, is called anti-transpirant. Any j substance which reduces the vapour pressure gradient in
the stomatal cavity or increases stomatal resistance to water vapour diffusion, will act as anti-
transpirant These substances have been used for arresting water loss from plant body with
various degree of success. These are Phenylmercuric Acetate (PMA), Hydroxy Sulphonates
(HS), Alkenyl Succinic Acid (ASA), Adol:-52 (a formulation of alcohol), and S-600 (a plastic
transplanting spray).

2. Chemicals for improved cell membrane permeability of water

Dry fanning areas are characterized by scarce rainfall and usually the roots have lipid layers
which lower the absorption of water from the roots. Some chemicals like Alkenyl Succinic Acid
(ASA) and Decenyl Succinic Acid (DSA), when applied, penetrate into the root and increase its
water absorption power 8 times. Therefore, these chemicals are applied in the root zone for
increased water absorption along with some chemicals to retard the transpiration from foliage

3. Use of plant hormones and growth retardants

Some plant hormones like Indole acetic acid (IAA) and Abscissic acid (ABA) may be used for
reducing the frequency and period of stomatal opening thereby minimizing the water loss from
the plant body.

There are certain other chemicals known as growth retardants which either modify the plant
structure or dwarf the plants by considerably reducing the total water requirement of the plants.
The most important chemical of this group is cycocel or CCC (2- chlorocthyl trichloromethyl
ammonium chloride). This chemical t\ also induces moisture stress tolerance in plants. Cycocel
is presently used in cotton to encourage production of more fruiting branches (sympodial rather
than monopodial or vegetative branches) and , Ii thereby even under drought condition it results
in higher yield. In case of wheat, the use of Cycocel decreases the cell size and increases the
density of the cytoplasm which ultimately results into a drought resistance into the plants.

4. Use of chemicals

There are certain chemicals which are used for seed treatment to bring about drought resistance
in plants right from seedling stage. Soaking of seeds in calcium chloride solution (0.25%) for 20
hours soaking of seeds with frequent shaking results in better germination and drought resistance
in the plants.Boron solution is also used for soaking seeds. Agrosan is a fungicide but also
induces drought resistance in the plants when seeds are treated with this chemical.

C. Genetic approaches

Because of scanty and unreliable rains the farmers of dry farming areas are still practicing crop
husbandry on the basis of traditional approaches like low intensity cropping, little or no use of
fertilizers or manures, raising low value crops. Crop varieties grown till the recent past were
generally of long duration and slow growing. It, They were poor yielders too.

As nearly 70% of our total agricultural land is rainfed and 45% -of rainfed area is dryland, there
is no way out but to evolve suitable varieties as well as appropriate technology for getting the
most from our rainfed or dryland areas. As such, the concerted efforts of our plant breeders have
resulted in the cultivation of several new plant types which possess all the characters needed for
rainfed areas or dry lands. In terms of modem technology, such plant materials are called "Ideo
types". These are the suitable strains of dry land crops which are characterized by short growth
duration, effective and extensive root system, drought tolerance, high yield potential having
altered morphology of plants which are conducive to dry lands.

According to breeders, an ideal 'Ideo type" should have following qualities to give desired results
in dry farming:
i. Early in growth duration and early vigour.
ii. Deeper root system with maximum branching at deeper zones.
iii. Dwarf plant types with lesser number of erect leaves.
iv. Moderate tillering; as profuse tillering causes competition.
v. Good expression of ear heads even at higher planting density.
vi. Resistance to diseases.
vii. Bolder grains with moderate dormancy in them.
viii. Effective photos.

Agronomic approaches

The major objective of dry farming programme is to conserve the soil and moisture and to
achieve maximum production from the dry farn1ing areas. In the past two decades, we have been
able to' solve many hurdles in the aforesaid areas but there had been no break through as in case
of irrigated crop production. Now we have the promising crop varieties and technology available
with us about the maximum soil and water conservation. The agronomic approaches can be dealt
with under the following four heads based on land types. 1. Agronomic approaches for highly
undulating lands

These lands are confined to the hills of the locations which have suffered serious soil erosion
problems and have been divided into various gullies. The soils of these areas are more prone to
further erosion if they are not properly managed. Therefore, in this category, the crop
management practices are entirely different from other areas. The object of soil and crop
management under such situation should be :
a. to stabilize the soil by forestry and pasture management with a regulated grazing or no grazing
at all.
b. to level the land gradually through contour bunding, terracing, etc.
c. to practise strip cropping and pitcher farn1ing.

2. Agronomical approaches for marginal lands

Generally, marginal lands are very poor in fertility. The crop management in these lands is
carried out in lines of crop management for leveled lands or flat lands which will be discussed
later in this chapter.

3. Agronomical approaches for diara lands

Diara lands are located on either side of rivers or between two rivers and are often flooded by
these rivers. These diara lands are formed due to flood and may have deposition of fine to coarse
sands.

These areas often lack irrigation and need a careful crop management. Since the land of this
areas is highly susceptible to floods, kharif cropping is practically impossible. But certain fodder
crops can easily be grown soon after the onset of monsoon and harvested depending upon
position of floods. The harvesting or cutting of crops is started from close to the river beds and as
the water spreads the harvesting is also advanced. The life saving irrigations can be given by
lifting water from the river or by drilling cavity wells or bam boo borings. However, in most of
the cases these wells go out of order after a flood occurs. Therefore, the cavity wells or bamboo
borings are made at a distant location from river stream.

4. Agronomical approaches for plain lands

Plain lands form the main dry land tracts of the country. There has been major emphasis on
finding out ways and means through which the total soil productivity could be increased.
Following recommendations should be followed on plain lands for an improved crop
productivity and an efficient soil and water conservation.

a. Tillage requirements of the crops

Tillage starts with the seed red preparation and ends with mulching and control of weeds. Deep
ploughing during summer helps in destroying weeds and suppressing insect pests and diseases. It
also helps in an efficient root penetration very deep into soil Placement of seed at 5 cm and
fertilizers at 7.5 cm in the same furrow followed by soil compaction have resulted in better
germination, plant vigour, extensive root development and higher crop yields.

b. Selection or crops and varieties

There are a number of improved varieties of different crops which are drought tolerant or
resistant to water stress. The most commonly grown crops in dry lands are rice, maize, sorghum,
pearl millet. finger millet, wheat, barley, pulses, oilseeds, etc. The improved varieties of these
crops have already been described area-wise.

c. Sowing of crops
Sowing of crops deals with several associated factors namely sowing time, method of sowing,
depth of sowing etc. It is important in the sense that once the ideal plant population is achieved.
the crop is bound to give yield.

Sowing time can markedly influence the production and productivity of dry land crops. Early
sowing of kharif crops results in early crop maturity and thereby it facilitates early sowing of
succeeding rabi crops. Early sowing of rabi crops helps in overcoming the moisture stress at later
stages of plant growth, particularly at grain filling stage.

Broadcasting of seeds should be avoided as it involves several losses and seed does not properly
come in contact with moisture. Placing the seeds at about 5 cm depth through pora or seed drill is
desirable.

To get an ideal plant population it is necessary that about 25% higher than required seed rate
should be applied. Care must be taken to reduce plant competition for moisture by removing
excess plant population about 2-3 weeks after the sowing depending upon the crops.

d. Fertilizer management
Use of fertilizers in dry lands is limited as compared to irrigated areas. Today we use on 'an
average only 60kg/ha fertilizers in dry fanning areas as against 60 kg/ha national average.
Reasons for application of fertilizers in dry fanning are as follows: i. poor response because of
faulty method of application; ii. poor financial condition of fanners to purchase fertilizer; iii.
wrong concept of the fanners that fertilizers will burn the seedlings, and harm to the soil; and iv.
application of organic manure only, which can not meet the total nutrient requirement of the
crop.

There are different Schools of thoughts about the application of fertilizers in the dry lands. Some
people think that application of fertilizers in dry lands results in a better crop yield than that in
irrigated areas because in the latter case the soil becomes very poor in residual fertility due to
high intensity of cropping, whereas, the dry lands still preserve nutrients as they are not depleted
badly due to low cropping intensity. Some people think that fertilizer application in dry lands
aggravates the moisture problem, but truly speaking deep placement of fertilizers followed by
foliar application results in extensive rooting up to deeper soil layers where the plants extract
moisture to meet their demands.

a. Cropping systems

Cropping system refers to an arrangement in which various crops are grown together in the same
field. The cropping systems followed in dry lands differ from those followed under normal
conditions. Only those crops can be grown under dry land conditions which require less water to
complete their life cycle or which can stand or yield under drought conditions. This can include
both drought resistant and drought tolerant plants. In addition, plants can be grown only where
some water is available to sustain the growth of plants. Following are a few intercropping
systems for dryland areas:

Moong + Bajra
Guar + Bajra
Til + Guar/moth/mung

Mixed cropping is also followed to minimize the effect of unpredictability of rain. Mixed
cropping may have low yield potential but it works as a buffer against failure under possible
unfavourable conditions. Mixed cropping may be defined as sowing of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land in separate rows. Examples: Guar + Arhar + Moong,
Bajra + Arhar + Moong and Maize + Urd etc.

F. Cropping pattern

Cropping pattern is defined as sequence of growing crops in a particular field at a particular

period. The most common cropping pattern for dry land farming are discussed below:
For North Indian conditions
-Sorghum -Safflower/mustard
-Sorghum –Mung/urd/cowpea -Gram/wheat -Gram
-Rice -Gram (for low lying areas)
-Bajra -Gram + Linseed
-Bajra + Urd/Mung/soyabean -Wheat/barley +
-Gram/m ustard
-Maize-Gram/safflower

For central Indian condition

-Green gram -Rabi sorghum
-Green gram -Safflower

For Bhubaneswar region

-Rice -Horse gram
-Ragi -Red gram
-Groundnut -Niger
-Maize-Niger
G. Weed control

Presence of weeds in the crop field, especially in case of dry lands, cause a severe crop weed
competition for water, nutrients and light The reduction in yield due to weeds varies from 30-
75% depending upon the crop and nature and extent of weed infestation. Weeds may be
controlled by hand weeding, intercultural operations and herbicidal application or by adopting an
integrated approach.

H. Plant protection measures

In light textured soils of arid and semi arid regions termites and white grubs cause extensive
damage to emerging seedlings and also to grown up plants. Use of BHC 10% dust@ 25-30 kg or
Aldrin 5% dust@ 10-15 k/ha, in the soil and incorporating it well into the soil at the time of the
last ploughing will control termites. The white grubs may be controlled by drilling of Thimet 200
granules @ 15 k/ha along with seeds.

Aphids in mustard are very destructive, therefore, they are controlled by spraying 0.2%
Metasystox or Dimecron. Similarly, the pod borers in pulses are controlled by spraying 0.05%
Endosulfon.

The viral diseases of pulses should be controlled by seed treatment and spray of some fungicides
to kill the insect vectors.

VII. Agro-forestry and Dryland Agriculture

Agroforestry is the cultivation of trees in association with crops. It has assumed a great
importance in order to solve a number of problems of dryland farmers. The twin objectives of
Agroforestry are to increase the farmers income and sustain the ecological! Environmental
balance. Agroforestry, as it provides fuel wood to the fanners, enables them to save the animal
dung and use it as manure. The following points should be considered while choosing trees for
cultivation in association with crops:

-The tree should grow fast and stand repeated prunings.

-Its roots should explore soil layers not tapped by agricultural crops.
-The crown should not be too large to prevent sun light from reaching the crop.
-The peak period of flush and leaf fall should not be detrimental to the crop grown in association.
-As far as possible, the tree species should be a legume, the root nodules of which accommodate
nitrogen manufacturing bacteria.
-The branching should be sparse and light.
-The tree should meet the socio-economic and ecological needs of the region.

viou VIII. Recommendations for Dry Farming Areas

The research programmes of all India coordinated research projects for dry land agriculture have
concluded into certain recommendations to the farmers of dry land areas which are described
below.

1. Bunding across the slope and leveling the land should be done before onset of monsoon.

2. Deep summer ploughing should be followed by surface tillage during monsoon months and
also rest of the year.

3. Application of organic manures like FYM compost. etc. @ 15-20 tonnes/ha or green manuring
should be done. These manures should be applied about 20-25 days before sowing and should be
well mixed in the soil.

4. Fertilizers should be basal placed at a depth of7.5 to 10cm in the soil and the seeds should be
sown in the same furrows about 3 cm. above the fertilizers. This is important especially during
winter season. The nitrogen (20-50% of total) should be top dressed by side or band placement
method at about 10- 15 cm apart. The crop rows should be done soon after the rains but if there
is not sufficient moisture in the soil, the nitrogen should betrayed over the foliage with urea
solution containing 3-5% nitrogen. Zinc and sulphur should be applied as basal if needed.

5. Soil application of BHC (10%) dust @ 25-30 kg/ha for termites and Thimet 20 G @ 15 kg/ha
for white grub should be done. These chemicals must be mixed with soil properly while
ploughing or at the time of sowing.

6. Selection of suitable crops and their varieties should be done I according to their suitability to
a particular region/micro climate.

7. Seeds must be treated with a suitable fungicide and that of legume with Rhizobium culture
before sowing. Soaking seeds in plain water for rabi sowing helps in getting higher gem1ination,
better seedling vigour and an early maturity within weeks time.

8. Proper crop rotation should be followed which should preferably have at least one legume
every year.

9. For better seed soil moisture contact through soil compaction should be done by running a
plank or roller especially for rabi crop.

10. At the event of total crop failure during kharif season a suitable catch crop like urd (T-9) or
toria etc should be sown.

11. Intercropping of oil seeds and pulses should be done with jowar, bajra and maize crops for
the purpose of making best use of soil and inter row moisture harvesting.

12. Line sowing by drilling the seed at a depth of7.5 to 10cm or even more depending upon the
situation should be practiced because it helps in better seed germination. This also helps in
stabilizing the required plant population and thereby in getting better yield.

13. Proper weed management practices should be followed by adopting integrated weed control
measures.
14. Mulching should be done by providing frequent interculture and pulverizing the soil. If
intercultural operations are not possible then use of artificial mulches like covering the surface
with tree leaves, uprooted weeds, sugarcane leaves, saw dust or polythene sheets are used to
check the evaporation of water from the soil.

15. Water harvesting between the rows should be done by growing some pulse crops and run
off water should be collected in some nearby located ponds and used as life saving irrigation.

16. An efficient plant protection measure should be adopted to protect the crop from insect pests
and disease damage.

17. The crop should be harvested at proper physiological maturity so that the following or
succeeding crop may be sown slightly earlier than the scheduled time and best use of rain water
or residual moisture may be made for crop production.

18. Crops like cotton, chilies, etc. should be sprayed with CCC or cycocel and groundnut should
be sprayed with planofix for modified growth, higher drought resistance and better yield.

IX. Conclusion

Even after utilizing all the available water resources, about 50% of our culturable area will still
depend on rains. Therefore, our agricultural scientists, policy formulators and farmers should
appropriately realize the magnitude of role that. rainfed agriculture or dryland farming can play.
They should thoroughly examine the problems of dry land agriculture from different view points
and evolve appropriate technologies, crop varieties, etc. for these areas to better the economic
position of the farmers. Dry farming areas, therefore, need a much closer attention.

Farmers should utilize well in time whatever improved technology and varieties suitable for dry
farming are available. They should be extra careful about the utilization of available rain water,
selection of crops and protection of crops from different harmful physiological or biological
agencies. And only then they can make dry farming as profitable as irrigated farming itself.

INTRODUCTION TO WATER STRESS IN PLANTS

Water stress is generally regarded as a dry spell of weather and a sustained period of
significantly subnormal water or soil moisture supply to the plants. Miller defined drought
as a condition of soil or atmosphere or both that prevents the plant in obtaining sufficient
water for its function. For farmer drought is a period of water scarcity when his newly
seeded crop germinates but fails to survive.
Effects of Water Stress in Plants
 Deficiency of water in the soil and the atmosphere effects both physical and
physicological components.Some of the effects os water stress are as follows:
1. Deficiency of water in the soil results decrease in cellular growth and the synthesis
of cell wall components so that the cell becomes smaller in size. The leaf
enlargement also comes to complete halt.
2. Activity of certain enzymes decreases. It results decrease in nitrogen fixation and
its reduction.
3. Decrease in soil moisture results increase in abscissic acid level with ultimately
closes down the stomatal apparatus to their minimum. Closure of stomata results
fall in transpiration.
4. Protochlorophyll formation is inhibited and the process of photosynthesis declines
and reaches to its maximum at wilting point.
5. Deficiency of soil moisture results increase in the level of amino acid-proline.
6. The physiological process such as respiration, translocation of assimilates, etc
decreases.
7. Loss of water results increase in the activity of hydrolytic enzymes. It is also
followed by destruction of RNA disruption of protein. A change in cell pH has
also been observed.
8. Wilting in mature leaves is associated with carbohydrate depletion due to
mobilization and export. It is followed by leaf senescence.
Adaptation to Water Stress in Plants
Plants growing in the deserts and arid regions are usually drought resistant. They escape, resist,
avoid or endure the dry periods in order to survive under adverse conditions. They withstand the
drought by maximizing water uptake and minimizing loss of water