10/5/2017

CERAMICS

Nature
Production
Application

VITRIFICATION
• Vitrification is the transformation of a substance into a glass
and ceramics
• Vitrification is usually achieved by heating materials until they
liquidize, then cooling the liquid, often rapidly so that it passes
through the glass transition to form a vitrified solid
• The glass transition is the reversible transition in amorphous
materials from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a
viscous state as the temperature is increased.
• The glass transition comprises a smooth increase in the
viscosity of a material within a temperature range of 500 K
without any pronounced change in material structure.
• This dramatic increase results in a glass exhibiting solid-like
mechanical properties on the timescale of practical
observation. This transition is in contrast to the freezing or
crystallization transition.

NATURE OF CERAMICS
• Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials formed by
the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Clay was one of the
earliest materials used to produce ceramics, as pottery, but many
different ceramic materials are now used in domestic, industrial and
building products
• Ceramic materials tend to be strong, hard, brittle, chemically inert,
and non-conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are made by shaping and then firing a nonmetallic mineral,
such as clay, at a high temperature.
• Firing drives out water and crystallizes some of the molecules in the
clay into a form of low-order glass. The process is known as
"vitrification" —
• A vitrified tile is harder and more water-resistant because glass,
does not absorb water.
• How much clay is crystallized depends on how long and how hot the
clay is fired. If fired for a long time at a high temperature, more
water is driven out and more vitrification occurs: resulting in a
denser, harder product more resistant to water absorption.

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PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
• In general, most ceramics are: hard, wear-resistant, brittle, heat
resistant ,thermal insulators, electrical insulators, oxidation
resistant, and chemically stable.

• Density around 2300 kg/ m³

• Thermal movement: 6 x 10 -6 /k
• Thermal conductivity (K value) 0.17 W/Mk
• Low ductility. Brittleness
• High corrosion resistance
• Harder than clay
• Virtually impermeable ( 0.5% water absorption. Clay 3-30%)
• Colour and texture variations

Porcelain tiles
• Made by heating materials, generally including clay in the form of
kaolin- Al2Si2O5(OH)4), - in a kiln to temperatures between
1,200 °and 1,400 °C).
• Tough, strong, and translucent
• Smooth, Polished glazed surface
• Slippery especially when wet

APPLICATION OF CERAMICS
• Floor finish
• Wall finish
• Sanitary fittings
– WCs
– Bidets
– Wash hand basins
– Bath tubs
– Soap dishes
– Toilet paper holders
• Interior Design fixtures, fittings & accessories
– Vases,
– Furniture, worktops

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GLASS
Nature
Production
Forming
Types
Application

GLASS TYPES
• Glass is an amorphous solid. which means that the structure of glass
lies between that of a crystalline material and a liquid
– Atoms and molecules are locked into place, but instead of forming neat,
orderly crystals, they arrange themselves randomly.
– As a result, glasses are mechanically rigid like solids, yet have the
disordered arrangement of molecules like liquids.
• Types of Glass
– Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica + sodium oxide (Na2O) + lime
(CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3) Is transparent, easily formed
and most suitable for window glass.
– Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boron trioxide (B2O3) + soda
(Na2O) + alumina (Al2O3).Stands heat expansion much better than
window glass. Used for household cookware
– Lead-oxide glass, crystal, glass lead glass: silica + lead oxide (PbO) +
potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina.
Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron density) it has a
high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant
("sparkle" )
– Aluminosilicate glass: silica + alumina + lime + magnesia+ barium oxide
(BaO) + boric oxide (B2O3). Extensively used for fiberglass, used for making
glass-reinforced plastics

GLASS MANUFACTURE
• Soda-lime-silica glass: composition is about 72 percent silicon dioxide, about 13
percent sodium oxide ,about 11 percent calcium oxide and about 4 percent minor
ingredients.
• It is manufactured from
– sand (silica),
– soda ash (sodium carbonate) and
– limestone (calcium carbonate)
– with small additions of calcium sulphate and dolomite (magnesian limestone).
• The raw materials are mixed and
undergo initial fusion before being
subjected to about 1600 deg. C
heat needed for vitrification
• The melting process in case of ordinary
soda-glass involves the following reactions:
– CaCO3+SiO2 CaSiO3 + CO2
– Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2SiO3 + CO2
• When all the carbon dioxide has escaped out of the molten mass, decolourisers such
as MnO2 are added to do away with ferrous compounds and carbon. The colouring
salts are added at this stage
• During manufacture, the addition of 25% broken glass (cullet) to the furnace mix
accelerates the melting process and recycles

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FORMING PROCESSES
ANNEALING
After forming to the shape required, glass must be cooled slowly
(annealing) to relieve the strains which would otherwise result. The
description annealed glass is used to distinguish ordinary glass from
the toughened glass
• Drawing (a)
– Glass is drawn up vertically from a tank of molten glass
into an annealing tower by wheels which grip the edges
of the sheet, the rate of drawing determining the
thickness of the glass. At the top of the tower, the glass
is cut into suitable lengths.
Sheet glass
• Rolling (b)
– Sheet glass and plate glass in particular, is by pouring
molten glass on a flat iron table and, with a metal
roller. Depending on roller finish the glass surface
could be rough cast, polished or patterned..
Plate glass

SHEET GLASS VS PLATE GLASS

• Sheet glass
– Formed by drawing
– Used in small panels of doors and windows
– Available in thicknesses of 2 – 6.5mm
• Plate glass
– Formed by rolling
– Stronger and more transparent
– Used for large panels such as shop
windows, mirrors etc
– Recommended for panels over 900mm
– Thickness of 3-3-32mm

FORMING GLASS

Float glass

• Floating to give parallel and flat surfaces so that

vision is not distorted.
– Glass is floated over a molten bed of tin which gives
very accurate and parallel surfaces.

• Moulded glass blocks

– Made by moulding solid brick or
– 2 pieces joined together to form hollow block/brick

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FORMING GLASS
• Extrusion, blowing and drawing of fibres for insulation
– It is possible to produce glass fibres by drawing out molten glass
to diameters of less than a hundredth of a millimetre .
– Woven into textile fabrics, glass fibres make excellent drapery
and upholstery materials because of their chemical stability,
strength, and resistance to fire and water.
• Foaming
– Foam glass, is made by adding a foaming agent to finely ground
glass and heating the mixture to the softening point. At that
point the foaming agent releases a gas that produces a
multitude of small bubbles within the glass.
– Used as insulation

SAFETY GLASS
Tempered glass is manufactured to withstand greater than normal
forces on its surface.
– Because glass breaks as a result of tensile stresses that originate across a
small surface scratch, compressing the surface increases the amount of
tensile stress that can be endured before breakage occurs.
– By heating the glass almost to the softening point and then cooling it
rapidly with an air blast or by plunging it into a liquid bath.
– The surface hardens quickly; the subsequent contraction of the slower-
cooling interior of the glass pulls the surface into compression. Surface
compressions 3-5 times those of ordinary glass are produced.
– When it breaks, it shatters into small pieces to reduce hazard.
– Tempered glass is used for safety in most public places when glass
because of the safe way it breaks. It s also use for security because of its
strength.
•

SAFETY GLASS
•
Laminated glass
– These are produced by a sandwich construction usually with a bonded
layer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene-vinyl acetate
(EVA)between two or more panes of glass that prevents and helps
keep the glass from disintegrating on impact.

– The layers of plastic sheet adhere to the glass so that, if broken, it will
remain in one piece. This property of the laminated glass makes it
perfect as a safety and security glass.
– It is widely use to make bullet proof glass as well as in bank and
jewelry stores windows and show cases. Once broken the glass Stays
together and it is very hard to penetrate.

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SAFETY GLASS
Wire mesh glass

• Wire mesh glass has a grid or mesh of thin

metal wire embedded within the glass.
• Weaker than unwired glass due to the
incursions of the wire into the structure of the
glass.
• Used for fire-resistant abilities in fire escape
doors

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
• Appearance
– Ordinary glass is transparent and more or less colourless. Transparent,
translucent, opaque glasses and tinted glass is achieved by additives
during manufacture.
– Density 2560 kg/m3 for comparison: steel 7850 kg/m3
• Light transmission
– Average percentage values for ordinary glass is 80 – 92% for directed light
– Refractive index of glass is 1.52
– Ordinary glass transmits a very small proportion of the sun’s U-V rays.
Most ordinary glass will cut down the UV content of light by about 50%
• Strength Properties
– Ordinary glass is elastic right up to its breaking point, so that it will safely
deflect up to 1/125th of its span. It is however completely brittle.
– Strength in tension is very dependent on minute flaws, particularly those
on the surface,
– Glass is subjected to continuing loads through wind pressure and has an
ability to deform elastically & then return to its original shape. It fails in
bending after the elastic limit is exceeded .

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
• Thermal movement
– Because the coefficient of thermal movement for
glass, of 8x 10-6 is lower than that of materials in which
it is normally fixed, allowance should be made for
movement. Also thermal stresses arise where one part
of a pane is a different temperature from other parts
can lead to breakage.
• Thermal Insulation
– Although glass is dense and a good conductor of heat
(k=1.05 W/mK), its surface resistances are high so that
doubling the thicknesses only marginally increases
resistance. Double glazing with 20mm gap almost
halves the heat loss through a single pane

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DURABILITY OF GLASS
• Durability
– Glass is extremely durable in normal conditions.
– It is however attacked by hydrofluoric acid and phosphoric acid s and
by strong alkalis e.g. caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)), Alkaline
paint removers which are not properly cleaned off, and even water
running onto glass from new concrete, may cause trouble.
– Glass can be damaged by permanent condensation in unventilated
cavities between sheets of glass and they should be allowed to remain
wet when stacked face to face.
• Behaviour in Fire

– Although non-combustible, ordinary glass breaks

– melts in fires. (Melting point : Appr. 1500 ° C. Steel 1900 ° C
– As a good heat conductor heat and radiation from glass can ignite any
combustible material and also render escape routes impassable.
– Cracking of glass provides pathways for fires

WORKS ON GLASS
• Glass appliqué
– Rich decorative effects are obtained by sticking together
with transparent adhesive coloured pieces of glass.
• Fusing glass
– A wide range of interesting rich visual effects are obtained by melting pieces of
coloured glass together
• Glass bending
– Flat glass is made first and then reheated and cooled around metal moulds to
produce different shapes e.g. rectangular or circular domes or curved windows
• Edge work
– Cut edges may be ground and smoothened and polished.
– Flat, round, full round, arissed or bull nosed
for free standing glass e.g. screens, counter tops, frameless doors
• Surface work For signage, decoration and controlling light transmission
– Using film
– acid etching using hydrofluoric acid
– Silvering by deposition of metal on rear surfaces to form mirrors
– Sand blasting – compressed air is used to blow sand particles against glass
surface

APPLICATION OF GLASS
• Glazing windows and doors
• Partitions
• Insulation
• Roof cover
• Reinforcing plastics
• Railings
• Cabinet and table tops
• Mirrors Glass blocks

Sandblasted Glass