Parts of brain

Forebrain, also called prosencephalon, region of the developing vertebrate brain; it

includes the telencephalon, which contains the cerebral hemispheres, and, under these, the
diencephalon, which contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus. The
forebrain plays a central role in the processing of information related to
complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities. It
represents one of the three major developmental divisions of the brain; the other two are
the midbrain and hindbrain.
The cerebral hemispheres make up the uppermost portion of the brain and are involved in
sensory integration, control of voluntary movement, and higher intellectual functions, such
as speech and abstract thought. The thalamus is the main relay centre between the medulla
oblongata and the cerebrum; the hypothalamus is an important control centre for sex drive,
pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature, and other visceral functions.
The hypothalamus produces hormones that control the secretions of the anterior pituitary gland,
and it also produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone, which are stored in and released by the
posterior pituitary gland.
Midbrain

Midbrain, also called mesencephalon, region of the developing vertebrate brain that is
composed of the tectum and tegmentum. The midbrain serves important functions in motor
movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing. It is
located within the brainstem and between the two other developmental regions of the brain,
the forebrain and the hindbrain; compared with those regions, the midbrain is relatively small.

The tectum (from Latin for “roof”) makes up the rear portion of the midbrain and is formed
by two paired rounded swellings, the superior and inferior colliculi. The superior
colliculus receives input from the retina and the visual cortex and participates in a variety of
visual reflexes, particularly the tracking of objects in the visual field. The inferior
colliculus receives both crossed and uncrossed auditory fibres and projects upon the medial
geniculate body, the auditory relay nucleus of the thalamus.
The tegmentum is located in front of the tectum. It consists of fibre tracts and three regions
distinguished by their colour—the red nucleus, the periaqueductal gray, and the substantia
nigra. The red nucleus is a large structure located centrally within the tegmentum that is
involved in the coordination of sensorimotor information. Crossed fibres of the superior
cerebellar peduncle (the major output system of the cerebellum) surround and partially
terminate in the red nucleus. Most crossed ascending fibres of that bundle project to thalamic
nuclei, which have access to the primary motor cortex. A smaller number of fibres synapse on
large cells in caudal regions of the red nucleus; those give rise to the crossed fibres of the
rubrospinal tract, which runs to the spinal cord and is influenced by the motor cortex.
The substantia nigra is a large pigmented cluster of neurons that consists of two parts,
the pars reticulata and the pars compacta. Cells of the pars compacta contain the dark
pigment melanin; these cells synthesize dopamine and project to either the caudate nucleus or
the putamen, both of which are structures of the basal ganglia and are involved in mediating
movement and motor coordination. These two structures, in addition to the globus pallidus, form
the striatum. By inhibitingthe action of neurons in the caudate nucleus and the putamen, the
dopaminergic cells of the pars compacta influence the neuronal output of
the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). The neurons in turn project to the cells
of the pars reticulata, which, by projecting fibres to the thalamus, are part of the output system
of the corpus striatum.
The periaqueductal gray region of the tegmentum is made up of gray matter (neural tissue with
relatively few axons covered in myelin) and surrounds the cerebral aqueduct, a short canal that
runs between the third and fourth ventricles of the brain. The periaqueductal gray appears to
function primarily in pain suppression, a result of its naturally high concentrations of endorphins.
Also within the midbrain are the crus cerebri, tracts made up of neurons that connect
the cerebralhemispheres to the cerebellum. The midbrain also contains a portion of the reticular
formation, a neural network that is involved in arousal and alertness. Cranial nerves in the
midbrain that stimulate the muscles controlling eye movement, lens shape, and pupil diameter
form the nuclear complex of the oculomotor nerve and the trochlear nucleus.
Hind Brain
Hindbrain, also called rhombencephalon that is composed of the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum. The hindbrain coordinates functions
that are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm, motor
activity, sleep, and wakefulness. hindbrain helps coordinate specific functions
and activities. The medulla transmits signals between the spinal cord and the
higher parts of the brain; it also controls autonomic functions such as heartbeat
and respiration. The pons is partly made up of tracts that connect the spinal cord
with higher brain levels, and it also contains cell groups that transfer information
from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. Some of those cell groups are part of the
reticular formation, a network of neurons extending throughout
the brainstem that regulates alertness, sleep, and wakefulness. The medulla
likewise houses a portion of the reticular formation.
The third area of the hindbrain, the cerebellum, is enriched with Purkinje
cells and granule cells. Purkinje cells are large neurons that serve a critical role in
coordinating motor activity. Granule cells, in contrast, are very small neurons;
their function is unclear, though they are thought to have an important role in
motor learning.
The cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of the brain that covers the outer portion
(1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum. It is covered by the meninges and often
referred to as gray matter. The cortex also covers the cerebellum.

The cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows
or fissures called sulci. The cerebrum is the most highly developed part of
the human brain and is responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language. Most information processing occurs in the cerebral
cortex. The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes that each have a specific
function. These lobes include the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes,
and occipital lobes.
Cerebral Cortex Function

The cerebral cortex is involved in several functions of the body including:

 Determining Intelligence
 Determining Personality
 Motor Function
 Planning and Organization
 Touch Sensation
 Processing Sensory Information
 Language Processing

The cerebral cortex contains sensory areas and motor areas. Sensory areas
receive input from the thalamus and process information related to the senses.
They include the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, auditory cortex of the
temporal lobe, gustatory cortex and somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.
Within the sensory areas are association areas which give meaning to sensations
and associate sensations with specific stimuli. Motor areas, including the primary
motor cortex and the premotor cortex, regulate voluntary movement.

Cerebral Cortex Location

Directionally, the cerebrum and the cortex that covers it is the uppermost part of
the brain. It is superior to other structures such as the pons, cerebellum
and medulla oblongata.

Cerebral Cortex Disorders

A number of disorders result from damage or death to brain cells of the cerebral
cortex. The symptoms experienced depend on the area of the cortex that is
damaged. Apraxia is a group of disorders that are characterized by the inability to
perform certain motor tasks, although there is no damage to the motor or sensory
nerve function. Individuals may have difficulty walking, be unable to dress or
unable to use common objects appropriately. Apraxia is often observed in those
with Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson's disorders, and frontal lobe disorders.
Damage to the cerebral cortex parietal lobe can cause a condition known as
agraphia. These individuals have difficulty writing or are unable to write. Damage
to the cerebral cortex may also result in ataxia. These types of disorders are
characterized by a lack of coordination and balance. Individuals are unable to
perform voluntary muscle movements smoothly. Injury to the cerebral cortex has
also been linked to depressive disorders, difficulty in decision making, lack of
impulse control, memory issues, and attention problems.
 Various Nuclei

Neuro- Clinical
Nucleus transmitter Medication Location Relevance

Locus coeruleus NE Tofranil, Nardil, Brain stem Panic

Xanax, Inderal, disorder,
Depakote posttraumatic
stress disorder
(full
activation),
arousal,
anxiety,
learning
(moderate
activation)

Amygdala DA ACH Anticonvulsants, Limbic Involved in

antipsychotics system control of
emotional
tone.
Implicated in
inappropriate
rage, fear,
sexuality,
seizures

Suprachiasmatic 5-HT SSRIs Hypothalamus Internal

nucleus EAA pacemaker.
GABA Possibly
involved in
seasonal and
nonseasonal
affective
disorders.

Solitary nucleus NE 5- Tofranil, Nardil, Brain stem Involved in

HT(?) Inderal, SSRIs suffocation
alarm theory
of panic
disorder.
Dorsal raphe 5-HT BuSpar, Brain stem Involved in
Klonopin, decreasing
SSRIs anxiety. Site
of action of
Buspar

Corpus striatum DA Antipsychotics, Cerebral Mediates

(basal ganglia) L-DOPA hemispheres involuntary
muscle
movement,
tone. Site of
Parkinson’s
disease,
medication
side effects.
Involved in
affective
disorders and
OCD.

Hypothalamus NE DA 5- Almost all Immediately Directs

HT EAA psychotropics above the homeostasis,
brain stem mind-body
link, interface
of nerve,
hormone, and
immune
systems.
Regulates
autonomic
nervous
system.

Accumbens DA Antipsychotics Limbic Mediates the

system reinforcing
properties of
drugs of
abuse.
Involved in
deficit
schizophrenia.
Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the largest part of the mammalian brain, is the wrinkly gray outer
covering of the cerebrum. While the cortex is less than 1/4″ thick, it is here that all
sensation, perception, memory, association, thought, and voluntary physical actions
occur. The cerebral cortex is considered the ultimate control and information-processing
center in the brain.

The cortex is made of layers of neurons with many inputs; these cortical neurons
function like mini microprocessors or logic gates. It contains glial cells, which guide
neural connections, provide nutrients and myelin to neurons, and absorb extra ions and
neurotransmitters. The cortex is divided into four different lobes (the parietal, occipital,
temporal, and frontal lobes ), each with a different specific function.

Lobes of the brain: A diagram of the brain identifying the different lobes by color. Counterclockwise from
bottom: It contains the parietal lobe (green), the occipital lobe (red), the temporal lobe (yellow), and the frontal
lobe (blue).

The cortex is wrinkly in appearance. Evolutionary constraints on skull size brought

about this development; it allowed for the cortex to become larger without our brains
(and therefore craniums) becoming disadvantageously large. At times it has been
theorized that brain size correlated positively with intelligence; it has also been
suggested that surface area of cortex (basically, “wrinkliness” of the brain) rather than
brain size that correlates most directly with intelligence. Current research suggests that
both of these may be at least partially true, but the degree to which they correlate is not
clear.
The “valleys” of the wrinkles are called sulci (or sometimes, fissures); the “peaks”
between wrinkles are called gyri. While there are variations from person to person in
their sulci and gyri, the brain has been studied enough to identify patterns. One notable
sulcus is the central sulcus, or the wrinkle dividing the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe.

Sulci and gyri: As depicted in this diagram of brain structures, sulci are the “valleys” and gyri are the “peaks” in
the folds of the brain.

Cerebrum

Beneath the cerebral cortex is the cerebrum, which serves as the main thought and
control center of the brain. It is the seat of higher-level thought like emotions and
decision making (as opposed to lower-level thought like balance, movement, and
reflexes).

The cerebrum is composed of gray and white matter. Gray matter is the mass of all the
cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of neurons interlaced with one another, while white
matter consists of the long, myelin-coated axons of those neurons connecting masses
of gray matter to each other.
Grey matter and white matter: A sagittal cross-section of a human brain showing the distinct layers of grey
matter (the darker outer layer) and white matter (the lighter inner layer) in the cerebrum.

Cerebral Hemispheres and Lobes of the Brain

The brain is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes, each of which specializes in a
different function.

Brain Lateralization

The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. There is evidence that each
brain hemisphere has its own distinct functions, a phenomenon referred to as
lateralization. The left hemisphere appears to dominate the functions of speech,
language processing and comprehension, and logical reasoning, while the right is more
dominant in spatial tasks like vision-independent object recognition (such as identifying
an object by touch or another nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to exaggerate the
differences between the functions of the left and right hemispheres; both hemispheres
are involved with most processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity (the ability of a brain to
adapt to experience) enables the brain to compensate for damage to one hemisphere
by taking on extra functions in the other half, especially in young brains.

Corpus Callosum

The two hemispheres communicate with one another through the corpus callosum. The
corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers beneath the cortex that connects
the left and right cerebral hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication.
The corpus callosum is sometimes implicated in the cause of seizures; patients with
epilepsy sometimes undergo a corpus callostomy, or the removal of the corpus
callosum.

The Lobes of the Brain

The brain is separated into four lobes: the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.

The Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions and motor performance.
Executive functions are some of the highest-order cognitive processes that humans
have. Examples include:

 planing and engaging in goal-directed behavior;

 recognizing future consequences of current actions;
 choosing between good and bad actions;
 overriding and suppressing socially unacceptable responses;
 determining similarities and differences between objects or situations.

The frontal lobe is considered to be the moral center of the brain because it is
responsible for advanced decision-making processes. It also plays an important role in
retaining emotional memories derived from the limbic system, and modifying those
emotions to fit socially accepted norms.

The Temporal Lobe

The temporal lobe is associated with the retention of short- and long-term memories. It
processes sensory input including auditory information, language comprehension, and
naming. It also creates emotional responses and controls biological drives such as
aggression and sexuality.

The temporal lobe contains the hippocampus, which is the memory center of the brain.
The hippocampus plays a key role in the formation of emotion-laden, long-term
memories based on emotional input from the amygdala. The left temporal lobe holds the
primary auditory cortex, which is important for processing the semantics of speech.

One specific portion of the temporal lobe, Wernicke’s area, plays a key role in speech
comprehension. Another portion, Broca’s area, underlies the ability to produce (rather
than understand) speech. Patients with damage to Wernicke’s area can speak clearly
but the words make no sense, while patients with damage to Broca’s area will fail to
form words properly and speech will be halting and slurred. These disorders are known
as Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia respectively; an aphasia is an inability to speak.

Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas: The locations of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the brain. The Broca’s area
is at the back of the frontal lobe, and the Wernicke’s area is roughly where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe
meet.

The Occipital Lobe

The occipital lobe contains most of the visual cortex and is the visual processing center
of the brain. Cells on the posterior side of the occipital lobe are arranged as a spatial
map of the retinal field. The visual cortex receives raw sensory information through
sensors in the retina of the eyes, which is then conveyed through the optic tracts to the
visual cortex. Other areas of the occipital lobe are specialized for different visual tasks,
such as visuospatial processing, color discrimination, and motion perception. Damage
to the primary visual cortex (located on the surface of the posterior occipital lobe) can
cause blindness, due to the holes in the visual map on the surface of the cortex caused
by the lesions.

The Parietal Lobe

The parietal lobe is associated with sensory skills. It integrates different types of
sensory information and is particularly useful in spatial processing and navigation. The
parietal lobe plays an important role in integrating sensory information from various
parts of the body, understanding numbers and their relations, and manipulating objects.
Its also processes information related to the sense of touch.

The parietal lobe is comprised of the somatosensory cortex and part of the visual
system. The somatosensory cortex consists of a “map” of the body that processes
sensory information from specific areas of the body. Several portions of the parietal lobe
are important to language and visuospatial processing; the left parietal lobe is involved
in symbolic functions in language and mathematics, while the right parietal lobe is
specialized to process images and interpretation of maps (i.e., spatial relationships).
The Limbic System

The limbic system combines higher mental functions and primitive emotion into one
system.

The limbic system is a complex set of structures found on the central underside of the
cerebrum, comprising inner sections of the temporal lobes and the bottom of the frontal
lobe. It combines higher mental functions and primitive emotion into a single system
often referred to as the emotional nervous system. It is not only responsible for our
emotional lives but also our higher mental functions, such as learning and formation of
memories. The limbic system is the reason that some physical things such as eating
seem so pleasurable to us, and the reason why some medical conditions, such as high
blood pressure, are caused by mental stress. There are several important structures
within the limbic system: the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal
ganglia, and cingulate gyrus.

The limbic system: All the components of the limbic system work together to regulate some of the brain’s
most important processes.

The Amygdala

The amygdala is a small almond-shaped structure; there is one located in each of the
left and right temporal lobes. Known as the emotional center of the brain, the amygdala
is involved in evaluating the emotional valence of situations (e.g., happy, sad, scary). It
helps the brain recognize potential threats and helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight
reactions by increasing heart and breathing rate. The amygdala is also responsible for
learning on the basis of reward or punishment.

The amygdala: The figure shows the location of the amygdala from the underside (ventral view) of the human
brain, with the front of the brain at the top of the image.

Due to its close proximity to the hippocampus, the amygdala is involved in the
modulation of memory consolidation, particularly emotionally-laden memories.
Emotional arousal following a learning event influences the strength of the subsequent
memory of that event, so that greater emotional arousal following a learning event
enhances a person’s retention of that memory. In fact, experiments have shown that
administering stress hormones to individuals immediately after they learn something
enhances their retention when they are tested two weeks later.

The Hippocampus

The hippocampus is found deep in the temporal lobe, and is shaped like a seahorse. It
consists of two horns curving back from the amygdala. Psychologists and
neuroscientists dispute the precise role of the hippocampus, but generally agree that it
plays an essential role in the formation of new memories about past experiences. Some
researchers consider the hippocampus to be responsible for general declarative
memory (memories that can be explicitly verbalized, such as memory of facts and
episodic memory).

Damage to the hippocampus usually results in profound difficulties in forming new

memories (anterograde amnesia), and may also affect access to memories formed prior
to the damage (retrograde amnesia). Although the retrograde effect normally extends
some years prior to the brain damage, in some cases older memories remain intact; this
leads to the idea that over time the hippocampus becomes less important in the storage
of memory.

Hippocampus: This image shows the horned hippocampus deep within the temporal lobe.
The Thalamus and Hypothalamus

Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are associated with changes in emotional
reactivity. The thalamus, which is a sensory “way-station” for the rest of the brain, is
primarily important due to its connections with other limbic-system structures. The
hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located just below the thalamus on both sides
of the third ventricle. Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with several unconscious
functions (such as respiration and metabolism) and some so-called motivated behaviors
like sexuality, combativeness, and hunger. The lateral parts of the hypothalamus seem
to be involved with pleasure and rage, while the medial part is linked to aversion,
displeasure, and a tendency for uncontrollable and loud laughter.

The Cingulate Gyrus

The cingulate gyrus is located in the medial side of the brain next to the corpus
callosum. There is still much to be learned about this gyrus, but it is known that its
frontal part links smells and sights with pleasant memories of previous emotions. This
region also participates in our emotional reaction to pain and in the regulation of
aggressive behavior.

The Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia is a group of nuclei lying deep in the subcortical white matter of the
frontal lobes that organizes motor behavior. The caudate, putamen, and globus
pallidus are major components of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia appears to serve
as a gating mechanism for physical movements, inhibiting potential movements until
they are fully appropriate for the circumstances in which they are to be executed. The
basal ganglia is also involved with:

 rule-based habit learning (e.g., initiating, stopping, monitoring, temporal

sequencing, and maintaining the appropriate movement);
 inhibiting undesired movements and permitting desired ones;
 choosing from potential actions;
 motor planning;
 sequencing;
 predictive control;
 working memory;
 attention.

Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to create new neural pathways to account for
learning and acquisition of new experiences.

Neuron

Neurons

Introducing the Neuron

Neurons are specialized cells that transmit chemical and electrical signals to facilitate
communication between the brain and the body.

The neuron is the basic building block of the brain and central nervous system. Neurons
are specialized cells that transmit chemical and electrical signals. The brain is made up
entirely of neurons and glial cells, which are non-neuronal cells that provide structure
and support for the neurons. Nearly 86 billion neurons work together within the nervous
system to communicate with the rest of the body. They are responsible for everything
from consciousness and thought to pain and hunger. There are three primary types of
neuron: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

Structures of a Neuron

In addition to having all the normal components of a cell (nucleus, organelles, etc.)
neurons also contain unique structures for receiving and sending the electrical signals
that make neuronal communication possible.

The structure of a neuron: The above image shows the basic structural components of an average neuron,
including the dendrite, cell body, nucleus, Node of Ranvier, myelin sheath, Schwann cell, and axon terminal.
Dendrite

Dendrites are branch-like structures extending away from the cell body, and their job is
to receive messages from other neurons and allow those messages to travel to the cell
body. Although some neurons do not have any dendrites, other types of neurons have
multiple dendrites. Dendrites can have small protrusions called dendritic spines, which
further increase surface area for possible connections with other neurons.

Cell Body

Like other cells, each neuron has a cell body (or soma) that contains a nucleus, smooth
and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular
components.

Axon

An axon, at its most basic, is a tube-like structure that carries an electrical impulse from
the cell body (or from another cell’s dendrites) to the structures at opposite end of the
neuron—axon terminals, which can then pass the impulse to another neuron. The cell
body contains a specialized structure, the axon hillock, which serves as a junction
between the cell body and the axon.

Synapse

The synapse is the chemical junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the
dendrites of the next. It is a gap where specialized chemical interactions can occur,
rather than an actual structure.

Function of a Neuron

The specialized structure and organization of neurons allows them to transmit signals in
the form of electric impulses from the brain to the body and back. Individually, neurons
can pass a signal all the way from their own dendrites to their own axon terminals; but
at a higher level neurons are organized in long chains, allowing them to pass signals
very quickly from one to the other. One neuron’s axon will connect chemically to another
neuron’s dendrite at the synapse between them. Electrically charged chemicals flow
from the first neuron’s axon to the second neuron’s dendrite, and that signal will then
flow from the second neuron’s dendrite, down its axon, across a synapse, into a third
neuron’s dendrites, and so on.

This is the basic chain of neural signal transmission, which is how the brain sends
signals to the muscles to make them move, and how sensory organs send signals to the
brain. It is important that these signals can happen quickly, and they do. Think of how
fast you drop a hot potato—before you even realize it is hot. This is because the sense
organ (in this case, the skin) sends the signal “This is hot!” to neurons with very long
axons that travel up the spine to the brain. If this didn’t happen quickly, people would
burn themselves.

Other Structures

Dendrites, cell bodies, axons, and synapses are the basic parts of a neuron, but other
important structures and materials surround neurons to make them more efficient.

Myelin Sheath

Some axons are covered with myelin, a fatty material that wraps around the axon to
form the myelin sheath. This external coating functions as insulation to minimize
dissipation of the electrical signal as it travels down the axon. Myelin’s presence on the
axon greatly increases the speed of conduction of the electrical signal, because the fat
prevents any electricity from leaking out. This insulation is important, as the axon from a
human motor neuron can be as long as a meter—from the base of the spine to the toes.
Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier. At these nodes, the
signal is “recharged” as it travels along the axon.

Glial Cells

The myelin sheath is not actually part of the neuron. Myelin is produced by glial cells (or
simply glia, or “glue” in Greek), which are non-neuronal cells that provide support for the
nervous system. Glia function to hold neurons in place (hence their Greek name),
supply them with nutrients, provide insulation, and remove pathogens and dead
neurons. In the central nervous system, the glial cells that form the myelin sheath are
called oligodendrocytes; in the peripheral nervous system, they are called Schwann
cells.
Neuron in the central nervous system: This neuron diagram also shows the oligodendrocyte, myelin sheath,
and nodes of Ranvier.

Types of Neurons

There are three major types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and
interneurons. All three have different functions, but the brain needs all of them to
communicate effectively with the rest of the body (and vice versa).

Sensory Neurons

Sensory neurons are neurons responsible for converting external stimuli from the
environment into corresponding internal stimuli. They are activated by sensory input,
and send projections to other elements of the nervous system, ultimately conveying
sensory information to the brain or spinal cord. Unlike the motor neurons of the central
nervous system (CNS), whose inputs come from other neurons, sensory neurons are
activated by physical modalities (such as visible light, sound, heat, physical contact,
etc.) or by chemical signals (such as smell and taste).

Most sensory neurons are pseudounipolar, meaning they have an axon that branches
into two extensions—one connected to dendrites that receive sensory information and
another that transmits this information to the spinal cord.

Multipolar and pseudounipolar neurons: This diagram shows the difference between: 1) a unipolar neuron;
2) a bipolar neuron; 3) a multipolar neuron; 4) a pseudounipolar neuron.
Motor Neurons

Motor neurons are neurons located in the central nervous system, and they project their
axons outside of the CNS to directly or indirectly control muscles. The interface between
a motor neuron and muscle fiber is a specialized synapse called the neuromuscular
junction. The structure of motor neurons is multipolar, meaning each cell contains a
single axon and multiple dendrites. This is the most common type of neuron.

Interneurons

Interneurons are neither sensory nor motor; rather, they act as the “middle men” that
form connections between the other two types. Located in the CNS, they operate
locally, meaning their axons connect only with nearby sensory or motor neurons.
Interneurons can save time and therefore prevent injury by sending messages to the
spinal cord and back instead of all the way to the brain. Like motor neurons, they are
multipolar in structure.

Stages of the Action Potential

Neural impulses occur when a stimulus depolarizes a cell membrane, prompting an

action potential which sends an “all or nothing” signal.

Neural Impulses in the Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) goes through a three-step process when it functions:
sensory input, neural processing, and motor output. The sensory input stage is when
the neurons (or excitable nerve cells) of the sensory organs are excited electrically.
Neural impulses from sensory receptors are sent to the brain and spinal cord for
processing. After the brain has processed the information, neural impulses are then
conducted from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, which is the resulting
motor output.

A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical

receptors. The effect upon the postsynaptic (receiving) neuron is determined not by the
presynaptic (sending) neuron or by the neurotransmitter itself, but by the type of
receptor that is activated. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor
as a lock: the key unlocks a certain response in the postsynaptic neuron,
communicating a particular signal. However, in order for a presynaptic neuron to
release a neurotransmitter to the next neuron in the chain, it must go through a series of
changes in electric potential.

Stages of Neural Impulses

” Resting potential ” is the name for the electrical state when a neuron is not actively
being signaled. A neuron at resting potential has a membrane with established amounts
of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions on either side, leaving the inside of the neuron
negatively charged relative to the outside.

The action potential is a rapid change in polarity that moves along the nerve fiber from
neuron to neuron. In order for a neuron to move from resting potential to action
potential—a short-term electrical change that allows an electrical signal to be passed
from one neuron to another—the neuron must be stimulated by pressure, electricity,
chemicals, or another form of stimuli. The level of stimulation that a neuron must receive
to reach action potential is known as the threshold of excitation, and until it reaches that
threshold, nothing will happen. Different neurons are sensitive to different stimuli,
although most can register pain.

The action potential has several stages.

1. Depolarization: A stimulus starts the depolarization of the membrane.

Depolarization, also referred to as the “upswing,” is caused when positively
charged sodium ions rush into a nerve cell. As these positive ions rush in, the
membrane of the stimulated cell reverses its polarity so that the outside of the
membrane is negative relative to the inside.
2. Repolarization. Once the electric gradient has reached the threshold of
excitement, the “downswing” of repolarization begins. The channels that let the
positive sodium ion channels through close up, while channels that allow positive
potassium ions open, resulting in the release of positively charged potassium
ions from the neuron. This expulsion acts to restore the localized negative
membrane potential of the cell, bringing it back to its normal voltage.
3. Refractory Phase. The refractory phase takes place over a short period of time
after the depolarization stage. Shortly after the sodium gates open, they close and
go into an inactive conformation. The sodium gates cannot be opened again until
the membrane is repolarized to its normal resting potential. The sodium-potassium
pump returns sodium ions to the outside and potassium ions to the inside. During
the refractory phase this particular area of the nerve cell membrane cannot be
depolarized. Therefore, the neuron cannot reach action potential during this “rest
period.”
Action potentials: A neuron must reach a certain threshold in order to begin the depolarization step of
reaching the action potential.

This process of depolarization, repolarization, and recovery moves along a nerve fiber
from neuron to neuron like a very fast wave. While an action potential is in progress,
another cannot be generated under the same conditions. In unmyelinated axons (axons
that are not covered by a myelin sheath), this happens in a continuous fashion because
there are voltage-gated channels throughout the membrane. In myelinated axons
(axons covered by a myelin sheath), this process is described as saltatory because
voltage-gated channels are only found at the nodes of Ranvier, and the electrical events
seem to “jump” from one node to the next. Saltatory conduction is faster than
continuous conduction. The diameter of the axon also makes a difference, as ions
diffusing within the cell have less resistance in a wider space. Damage to the myelin
sheath from disease can cause severe impairment of nerve-cell function. In addition,
some poisons and drugs interfere with nerve impulses by blocking sodium channels in
nerves.

All-or-none Signals

The amplitude of an action potential is independent of the amount of current that

produced it. In other words, larger currents do not create larger action potentials.
Therefore, action potentials are said to be all-or-none signals, since either they occur
fully or they do not occur at all. The frequency of action potentials is correlated with the
intensity of a stimulus. This is in contrast to receptor potentials, whose amplitudes are
dependent on the intensity of a stimulus.
Reuptake

Reuptake refers to the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a presynaptic (sending)

neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. Reuptake is
necessary for normal synaptic physiology because it allows for the recycling of
neurotransmitters and regulates the neurotransmitter level in the synapse, thereby
controlling how long a signal resulting from neurotransmitter release lasts.

Mechanics of the Action Potential

The synapse is the site at which a chemical or electrical exchange occurs

between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. Synapses

The synapse is the junction where neurons trade information. It is not a physical
component of a cell but rather a name for the gap between two cells: the presynaptic
cell (giving the signal) and the postsynaptic cell (receiving the signal). There are two
types of possible reactions at the synapse—chemical or electrical. During a chemical
reaction, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released from one cell into another. In
an electrical reaction, the electrical charge of one cell is influenced by the charge an
adjacent cell.

The electrical response of a neuron to multiple synaptic inputs: Synaptic responses summate in order to
bring the postsynaptic neuron to the threshold of excitation, so it can fire an action potential (represented by the
peak on the chart).

All synapses have a few common characteristics:

  Presynaptic cell: a specialized area within the axon of the giving cell that transmits
information to the dendrite of the receiving cell.
 Synaptic cleft: the small space at the synapse that receives neurotransmitters.
 G-protein coupled receptors: receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and
thereby activate signals within it.
 Ligand-gated ion channels: receptors that are opened or closed in response to the
binding of a chemical messenger.
 Postsynaptic cell: a specialized area within the dendrite of the receiving cell that
contains receptors designed to process neurotransmitters.

The Electrical Synapse

The stages of an electrical reaction at a synapse are as follows:

1. Resting potential. The membrane of a neuron is normally at rest with established

concentrations of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) on either side. The
membrane potential (or, voltage across the membrane) at this state is -70 mV,
with the inside being negative relative to the outside.
2. Depolarization. A stimulus begins the depolarization of the membrane.
Depolarization, also referred to as the “upswing,” occurs when positively charged
sodium ions (Na+) suddenly rush through open sodium gates into a nerve cell. If
the membrane potential reaches -55 mV, it has reached the threshold of
excitation. Additional sodium rushes in, and the membrane of the stimulated cell
actually reverses its polarity so that the outside of the membrane is negative
relative to the inside. The change in voltage stimulates the opening of additional
sodium channels (called a voltage-gated ion channel), providing what is known as
a positive feedback loop. Eventually, the cell potential reaches +40 mV, or the
action potential.
3. Repolarization. The “downswing” of repolarization is caused by the closing of
sodium ion channels and the opening of potassium ion channels, resulting in the
release of positively charged potassium ions (K+) from the nerve cell. This
expulsion acts to restore the localized negative membrane potential of the cell.
4. Refractory Phase. The refractory phase is a short period of time after the
repolarization stage. Shortly after the sodium gates open, they close and go into
an inactive conformation where the cell’s membrane potential is actually even
lower than its baseline -70 mV. The sodium gates cannot be opened again until
the membrane has completely repolarized to its normal resting potential, -70 mV.
The sodium-potassium pump returns sodium ions to the outside and potassium
ions to the inside. During the refractory phase this particular area of the nerve cell
membrane cannot be depolarized; the cell cannot be excited.

The Chemical Synapse

The process of a chemical reaction at the synapse has some important differences from
an electrical reaction. Chemical synapses are much more complex than electrical
synapses, which makes them slower, but also allows them to generate different results.
Like electrical reactions, chemical reactions involve electrical modifications at the
postsynaptic membrane, but chemical reactions also require chemical messengers,
such as neurotransmitters, to operate.

Neuron & chemical synapse: This image shows electric impulses traveling between neurons; the inset shows
a chemical reaction occurring at the synapse.

A basic chemical reaction at the synapse undergoes a few additional steps:

1. The action potential (which occurs as described above) travels along the
membrane of the presynaptic cell until it reaches the synapse. The electrical
depolarization of the membrane at the synapse causes channels to open that are
selectively permeable, meaning they specifically only allow the entry of positive
sodium ions (Na+).
2. The ions flow through the presynaptic membrane, rapidly increasing their
concentration in the interior.
3. The high concentration activates a set of ion-sensitive proteins attached to
vesicles, which are small membrane compartments that contain a
neurotransmitter chemical.
 4. These proteins change shape, causing the membranes of some “docked” vesicles
to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell. This opens the vesicles, which
releases their neurotransmitter contents into the synaptic cleft, the narrow space
between the membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic cells.
5. The neurotransmitter diffuses within the cleft. Some of it escapes, but the rest of it
binds to chemical receptor molecules located on the membrane of the
postsynaptic cell.
6. The binding of neurotransmitter causes the receptor molecule to be activated in
some way. Several types of activation are possible, depending on what kind of
neurotransmitter was released. In any case, this is the key step by which the
synaptic process affects the behavior of the postsynaptic cell.
7. Due to thermal shaking, neurotransmitter molecules eventually break loose from
the receptors and drift away.
8. The neurotransmitter is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell and repackaged
for future release, or else it is broken down metabolically.

Differences Between Electrical and Chemical Synapses

 Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses because the receptors do
not need to recognize chemical messengers. The synaptic delay for a chemical
synapse is typically about 2 milliseconds, while the synaptic delay for an electrical
synapse may be about 0.2 milliseconds.
 Because electrical synapses do not involve neurotransmitters, electrical
neurotransmission is less modifiable than chemical neurotransmission.
 The response is always the same sign as the source. For example, depolarization
of the presynaptic membrane will always induce a depolarization in the
postsynaptic membrane, and vice versa for hyperpolarization.
 The response in the postsynaptic neuron is generally smaller in amplitude than the
source. The amount of attenuation of the signal is due to the membrane
resistance of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
 Long-term changes can be seen in electrical synapses. For example, changes in
electrical synapses in the retina are seen during light and dark adaptations of the
retina.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron across a synapse
to a target cell.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell
across a synapse. When called upon to deliver messages, they are released from their
synaptic vesicles on the presynaptic (giving) side of the synapse, diffuse across the
synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic (receiving)
side.

An action potential is necessary for neurotransmitters to be released, which means that

neurons must reach a certain threshold of electric stimulation in order to complete the
reaction. A neuron has a negative charge inside the cell membrane relative to the
outside of the cell membrane; when stimulation occurs and the neuron reaches the
threshold of excitement this polarity is reversed. This allows the signal to pass through
the neuron. When the chemical message reaches the axon terminal, channels in the
postsynaptic cell membrane open up to receive neurotransmitters from vesicles in the
presynaptic cell.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell (that is,

decreasing the voltage gradient of the cell, thus bringing it further away from an action
potential), while excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization (bringing it closer to
an action potential). Neurotransmitters match up with receptors like a key in a lock. A
neurotransmitter binds to its receptor and will not bind to receptors for other
neurotransmitters, making the binding a specific chemical event.

There are several systems of neurotransmitters found at various synapses in the

nervous system. The following groups refer to the specific chemicals, and within the
groups are specific systems, some of which block other chemicals from entering the cell
and some of which permit the entrance of chemicals that were blocked before.

Cholinergic System

The cholinergic system is a neurotransmitter system of its own, and is based on the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). This system is found in the autonomic nervous
system, as well as distributed throughout the brain.

The cholinergic system has two types of receptors: the nicotinic receptor and the
acetylcholine receptor, which is known as the muscarinic receptor. Both of these
receptors are named for chemicals that interact with the receptor in addition to the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotine, the chemical in tobacco, binds to the nicotinic
receptor and activates it similarly to acetylcholine. Muscarine, a chemical product of
certain mushrooms, binds to the muscarinic receptor. However, they cannot bind to
each others’ receptors.

Amino Acids

Another group of neurotransmitters are amino acids, including glutamate (Glu), GABA
(gamma-aminobutyric acid, a derivative of glutamate), and glycine (Gly). These amino
acids have an amino group and a carboxyl group in their chemical structures. Glutamate
is one of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins. Each amino acid neurotransmitter
is its own system, namely the glutamatergic, GABAergic, and glycinergic systems. They
each have their own receptors and do not interact with each other. Amino acid
neurotransmitters are eliminated from the synapse by reuptake. A pump in the cell
membrane of the presynaptic element, or sometimes a neighboring glial cell, clears the
amino acid from the synaptic cleft so that it can be recycled, repackaged in vesicles,
and released again.

The reuptake process: This illustration shows the process of reuptake, in which leftover neurotransmitters are
returned to vesicles in the presynaptic cell.

Biogenic Amines

Another class of neurotransmitter is the biogenic amine, a group of neurotransmitters

made enzymatically from amino acids. They have amino groups in them, but do not
have carboxyl groups and are therefore no longer classified as amino acids.

Neuropeptides

A neuropeptide is a neurotransmitter molecule made up of chains of amino acids

connected by peptide bonds, similar to proteins. However, proteins are long molecules
while some neuropeptides are quite short. Neuropeptides are often released at
synapses in combination with another neurotransmitter.

Dopamine

Dopamine is the best-known neurotransmitter of the catecholamine group. The brain

includes several distinct dopamine systems, one of which plays a major role in reward-
motivated behavior. Most types of reward increase the level of dopamine in the brain,
and a variety of addictive drugs increase dopamine neuronal activity. Other brain
dopamine systems are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of several
other important hormones.

Effect on the Synapse

The effect of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic element is entirely dependent on

the receptor protein. If there is no receptor protein in the membrane of the postsynaptic
element, then the neurotransmitter has no effect. The depolarizing (more likely to reach
an action potential) or hyperpolarizing (less likely to reach an action potential) effect is
also dependent on the receptor. When acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic receptor, the
postsynaptic cell is depolarized. However, when acetylcholine binds to the muscarinic
receptor, it might cause depolarization or hyperpolarization of the target cell.

The amino acid neurotransmitters (glutamate, glycine, and GABA) are almost
exclusively associated with just one effect. Glutamate is considered an excitatory amino
acid because Glu receptors in the adult cause depolarization of the postsynaptic cell.
Glycine and GABA are considered inhibitory amino acids, again because their receptors
cause hyperpolarization, making the receiving cell less likely to reach an action
potential.

The Right Dose

Sometimes too little or too much of a neurotransmitter may affect an organism’s

behavior or health. The underlying cause of some neurodegenerative diseases, such as
Parkinson’s, appears to be related to overaccumulation of proteins, which under normal
circumstances would be regulated by the presence of dopamine. On the other hand,
when an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine blocks glutamate receptors,
disorders like schizophrenia can occur.

Neural Networks

Neural networks consist of a series of interconnected neurons, and serve as the

interface for neurons to communicate with each other.

Mechanism of neurotransmission
The transmission of impulses through synapses involves the release of endogenous
chemical substances called neurotransmitters that are present within synaptic vesicles.

1. A nerve impulse or an action potential reaches a terminal bouton (presynaptic

terminal).
2. Voltage-sensitive calcium channels are opened up so that there is an influx
of calcium ions leading to a series of chemical changes.
3. Synaptic vesicles pour the neurotransmitters stored in them into the synaptic
cleft (gap between two synapsing surfaces, for example between two neurons or a
neuron and muscle tissue) in a process called “kiss and run” recycling, thus
releasing the neurotransmitter into the gap between the presynaptic surface and
the postsynaptic surface.
4. The postsynaptic surface becomes depolarized (under the influence of the
neurotransmitter) resulting in a nerve impulse in the postsynaptic neuron, and the
neurotransmitter reaches and binds onto the receptor molecules present in the
postsynaptic membrane. This alters the permeability of the postsynaptic
membrane to ions of calcium, sodium, potassium, and chloride leading to
depolarization.
Synaptic cleft
However, permeability is also dependent on the type of neurotransmitter involved. In the
case of an inhibitory synapse, the presence of the neurotransmitter
causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter released
into the synaptic cleft acts only for a very short duration, minutes or even seconds. It is
either destroyed by enzymes, such as acetylcholine esterase or is withdrawn into the
terminal bouton of the presynaptic neuron. The best-known neurotransmitters responsible
for such fast, but short-lived action are acetylcholine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline, as
well as inhibitory neurotransmitters such as GABA(gamma-aminobutyric acid).

Vesicles (left) and neurotransmitter molecules (right) highlighted in green

Repeated synaptic activities can have some long-lasting effect on the receptor neuron,
including structural changes such as the formation of new synapses, alterations in the
dendritic tree, or growth of axons. Such effects produced under the influence of chemical
substances like neurotransmitters or any other synapse-associated substance are
described as neuro-mediation and the chemical substances concerned are called
neuromediators. Other associated chemical substances include neurohormones
synthesized in neurons and poured into the bloodstream through terminals resembling
synapses in structure. Similar chemical substances are also poured into the cerebrospinal
fluid or into the intercellular spaces to influence other neurons in a different manner.

Classification

Neurotransmitters can be classified as either excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory

neurotransmitters function to activate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and
enhance the effects of the action potential, while inhibitory neurotransmitters function in a
reverse mechanism. The following are the most clearly understood and most common
types of neurotransmitters:

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter occurring throughout the nervous system

and is the most well understood and studied. It was the first neurotransmitter to be
discovered and was isolated in 1921 by a German biologist named Otto Loewi, who later
won a Nobel Prize for his work. Acetylcholine has many functions ranging from the
stimulation of muscles, including the muscles of the gastrointestinal system to vital
organs. It is also found in sensory neurons and in the autonomic nervous system and has
a part in scheduling the “dream state” while an individual is fast asleep. Acetylcholine
plays a vital role in the normal functioning of muscles. For example, the plant poisons,
curare, and hemlock cause paralysis of muscles by blocking the acetylcholine receptor
sites of myocytes. The well-known poison botulin works by preventing the vesicles in the
axon ending from releasing acetylcholine, thus leading to paralysis of the effector muscle.

Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is an excitatory neurotransmitter secreted
by the adrenal glands. It acts to increase the alertness of the nervous system as well as
to stimulate the processes in the body. For example, it is very important in the
endogenous production of epinephrine. It was first identified by a Swedish biologist called
Ulf von Euler in 1946. Norepinephrine has been implicated in mood disorders such as
anxiety, in which case its concentration in the body is abnormally high. Alternatively, an
abnormally low concentration of it may lead to an impaired sleep cycle.

Epinephrine

Also known as adrenaline, epinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by the

adrenal glands and released into the bloodstream. It prepares the body for the fight or
flight reaction. That means that when a person is highly stimulated (fear, anger etc), extra
amounts of epinephrine are released into the bloodstream. This release of epinephrine,
increases the heart rate, the blood pressure and the glucose production from the liver
(glycogenolysis). In this way, the nervous and the endocrine system prepare the body for
dangerous and extreme situations.

Dopamine

Dopamine is considered a special type of neurotransmitter because its effects areboth

excitatory and inhibitory. It was discovered in the 1950s by another Swede, Arvid
Carlsson. It is strongly associated with the reward mechanisms in the brain, and drugs
such as cocaine, opium, heroin, and alcohol can temporarily increase its levels in the
blood, leading to abnormal firing of nerve cells, which may sometimes manifest as
intoxication, or several manners of consciousness/focus issues (such as not
remembering where we put our keys, or forgetting what a paragraph said when we have
just finished reading it, or simply daydreaming and not being able to stay on task).
However, an appropriate secretion of dopamine in the bloodstream plays a role in the
motivation or desire to complete a task.

GABA

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter isolated in 1950 by

Eugene Roberts and J. Awapara. An abnormally low secretion of GABA may cause
conditions like anxiety. Because it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA acts as a brake
to the excitatory neurotransmitters, and thus when it is abnormally low this can lead to
anxiety. It is widely distributed in the brain and plays a principal role in reducing neuronal
excitability throughout the nervous system.

Glutamate

Glutamate is another neurotransmitter with an excitatory effect and usually ensures

homeostasis with the effects of GABA. It is the most common neurotransmitter in
the central nervous system; however, excessive levels of it can be toxic to the nerve cells
and may lead to conditions like stroke.

Serotonin

Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that has been found to be intimately involved in

emotion and mood. It was discovered by Vittorio Erspamer in the 1930s but was first
found in blood serum in 1948 by Irvine Page who named it serotonin (meaning “serum-
tonic”). Adequate amounts of serotonin are necessary for a stable mood, and also to
balance any excessive excitatory neurotransmitter effects in the brain. Like
norepinephrine, serotonin also regulates many processes in the body, such as
carbohydrate cravings, the sleep cycle, pain control, and the digestion of food. An
insufficient secretion of serotonin may result in decreased immune system function, as
well as a range of emotional disorders like depression, anger control problems,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, and even suicidal tendencies.

Histamine

Histamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by basophils and is found in high

concentrations in the blood. It is involved primarily in the inflammatory responses, as well
as a range of other functions such as vasodilation, and regulation of the immune
response to foreign bodies. For example, when allergens are introduced into the
bloodstream, histamine assists in the fight against these microorganisms causing itching
of the skin or irritations of the throat, nose and or lungs. It also plays a role in the
wake/sleep cycle, by increasing wakefulness.
In addition to the above classification, neurotransmitters can also be classified based on
their molecular types. Dopamine, adrenaline, noradrenaline, and 5-hydroxytryptamine
(the indoleamine serotonin) are classified as monoamines. Glycine, glutamate, and GABA
are classed under amino acids.

alleviate some of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

A chronic reduction of GABA in the brain can lead to epilepsy and Huntington’s disease.
Similarly, an imbalance in serotonin can lead to depression, suicidal ideation, impulsive
behavior, and aggrempairment of synaptic transmission of neurotransmitters, particularly
acetylcholine, at a neuMajor Classes of Neurotransmitter
romuscular junction leading to fatigue and muscular weakness without atrophy. Most
often, myasthenia gravis results from circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine
receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the excitatory effects of
acetylcholine on nicotinic receptors at the neuromuscular junctions. Also, in a much rarer
form, muscle weakness may result from a genetic defect in some part of the
neuromuscular junction that is inherited, as opposed to developing through passive
transmission from the mother's immune system at birth or through autoimmunity later in
life.