Life during the Sultanate

Period | Indian History

In this article we will discuss about the life of people during
the sultanate period.

The Society:
1. Different Sections:

Prior to the coming of the Muslims in India the Hindu society

itself was divided into different sections. When the Muslims
also settled here, additional sections were added to Indian
society. Among them, foreign Muslims constituted the ruling
class. It was the most respected and the privileged section of
the society.

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All high offices of the state were kept reserved for them; they
received extensive jagirs in return for their services; and, they
wielded great influence in society and administration. But
foreign Muslims were also not united. They belonged to
different nationalities such as the Persians, the Afghans, the
Arabs, the Turks, the Abyssianians, etc.

The Turks claimed and maintained their superiority over all

others up to the thirteenth century. When the Khaljis captured
the power of the state, superior position of the Turks was
broken up. Thereafter the changed political circumstances and
inter-marriages between different sections of foreign Muslims
brought them all on par with each other.

The next section was that of the Indian Muslims. They were
those Hindus who were either converted to Islam themselves
or were descendants of converted Muslims. The foreign
Muslims despised Indian Muslims because most of them were
converted to Islam from among low-caste Hindus.
The foreign Muslims regarded them neither of blue blood nor
conquerors of this country. Therefore, Indian Muslims were
not given equal status with foreign Muslims either in society
or in administration.

During the entire period of the Sultanate only some Indian

Muslims could get high offices of the state. Of course, there
was some improvement in their status from the beginning of
the fourteenth century, yet they could never claim equality
with foreign Muslims.

The caste-system of the Hindus affected the Muslims also

particularly Indian Muslims. They continued to maintain
divisions among themselves on the basis of their previous
castes. Thus, both the foreign and Indian Muslims were
divided among themselves on the basis of their different
nationalities and birth.

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The Muslims were also divided on the basis of religious sect,

education and professions. The Sunnis and the Shiahs differed
from each other on the basis of religious sects while soldiers
and scholars were divided among each other on the basis of
their professions. Yet, there was another class, that is, the
Ulema. They constituted the religious community among the
Muslims and claimed superiority over all others.

The Ulema claimed to be the only interpreter of Islamic laws

and therefore, wielded large influence not only among the
Muslim populace but also in matters of administration except
during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, Mubarak Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq Traders, shopkeepers, artisans,
peasants, etc. constituted the lowest cadre among the Muslims
in the society.

The Hindus constituted the majority of the Indian society. The

Hindus were divided among themselves on the basis of castes.
The Hindus had strengthened further the bonds of their castes
in order to safeguard themselves from the onslaughts of the
Muslims. That resulted into formation of new sub-castes and
further divisions among them.
Members of different sub-castes refused inter- dining and
inter-marriages with each other and each sub-caste claimed
superiority over others. Thus, the caste-system had become
more rigid. Yet, some liberality had grown in one respect.
While in the beginning of the Muslim invasions once a Hindu
got himself converted to Islam, he was not allowed to come
back to his old faith but afterwards there was some laxity in
this.

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Sultan Firuz Tughluq and Sikandar Lodi had to punish certain

Brahmanas who encouraged Muslims to accept Hinduism.
Harihara and Bukka, the founders of the Vijayanagara empire,
were also taken back to Hindu-fold.

But the Hindus suffered from certain social evils such as

untouchability, sacrifice of animals and even human beings,
Sati, etc. However, the Hindus, in general, were religious-
minded, simple and of noble character. But, during the entire
period of the Sultanate, the Hindus were treated as second
rate citizens of the state.

They were devoid of high offices of the state; they had to pay
higher taxes as compared to the Muslims; and the Muslims
were always after their beautiful women so that they had to be
always on the alert to safeguard their honour. However, the
services of the Hindus were essential in revenue department.

The same way, the Hindus mostly monopolised trade and

agriculture. The Hindus were recruited in the army as well
because of sheer necessity. Yet, the position of the Hindus
remained weaker because of their own social evils and by the
privileged position of the Muslims. Whatever they managed to
safeguard was because of their number and their
determination to resist onslaughts of the Muslims.

2. The Slave System:

ADVERTISEMENTS:
The slave system was prevalent both among the Muslims and
the Hindus and slaves were sold and purchased in open
market. The slaves were treated well though their property
and lives were the property of their masters.

The slaves of the Muslims were better off as compared to the

slaves of the Hindus. The Sultans and nobles kept slaves in
large numbers, provided education and gave them training
and opportunity to rise in their lives so that many of them rose
to positions of eminence in the state.

3. Position of Women:

The Hindu women enjoyed respect in their family,

participated in religious ceremonies, were educated and many
of them acquired scholarly fame as well. Yet, in general, their
status had deteriorated in the society and they suffered from
many social evils. Normally, monogamy was prevalent in the
society but, among the rich, a man could keep many wives.
The widows could not marry again.

They either became sati at the funeral pyre of their husbands

or passed their lives as women-hermits. The Muslims were
always prepared either to molest or to capture Hindu women
which resulted in child-marriages and purdah system. It also
adversely affected their education and movements in the
society.

Therefore, education could be provided to them only at homes

which could be afforded only by the rich. The birth of a
daughter was regarded as a bad omen and that resulted in the
practice of female-infanticide. However, the lower castes
remained free from many of these social evils. There was no
purdah system in them and their women were free to divorce
and remarry. Even widow-marriages were permitted among
them.

Devadasi system was another social evil which was prevalent

among the Hindus. Beautiful unmarried girls were offered to
images of gods in temples where they passed their lives as
maidservants of gods. It was not only serious injustice to their
lives but also resulted in corruption in temples. There were
certain other changes which the Hindus accepted because of
their contact with the Muslims.

The Hindus started to accept the converts back to the Hindu-

fold. There were changes in their clothing’s, food-habits, social
habits and certain customs as well. Besides, there was an
important and favourable change concerning the position of
Hindu women. Now they could be owners of certain type of
property besides what was called Stri-Dhan (property of wife).

Muslim women also did not enjoy a respectable status in the

society. Polygamy was widely prevalent among the Muslims.
Every Muslim had a right to keep at least four wives while the
rich among them kept hundreds or thousands as wives or
slaves. Purdah system was strictly observed among Muslim
women.

They were devoid of education because of this social custom.

However, they were better placed in certain respects as
compared to Hindu women. They could divorce their
husbands, remarry and could claim their share in the property
of their parents. There was no practice of sati among Muslim
women.

Thus, it can be concluded that the position of women in India

was much inferior to men during the period of the Sultanate
and they suffered from many social evils and other handicaps.
Primarily, the women were regarded as articles of pleasure.

4. Social Life:

The Hindus were divided into traditional four castes and many
sub-castes. They had strengthened their caste-bonds further.
However, according to Dr A.L. Srivastava, the Brahmanas
gradually liberalised their attitude towards the Sudras and
permitted them to listen to the recitation of the Puranas and
engage themselves in trade of certain articles.

In general, while the Hindus were mostly vegetarians, the

Muslims were non-vegetarians. Except war-like castes and the
Sudras, the Hindus used wheat, rice, pulses, vegetables, milk
and articles made of milk as their staple food. Among the
Muslims, the Sufis or the people who were under their
influence avoided meat-eating.

For the rest of them, meat was their desired food. Koran has
prohibited the use of liquor to its followers. Yet, liquor and
opium were consumed both by the Hindus and the Muslims.
Even the efforts of Ala-ud-din to check consumption of liquor
failed.

Life in cities was comfortable. Both the Hindus and the

Muslims built good houses for themselves where all comforts
of life were procured. However, there was no significant
change in the life of villages. The common people lived in
mud-houses, had limited desires and limited means to fulfill
them. Both the Hindus and the Muslims observed the practice
of entertaining their guests.

There was a marked progress in the use of clothing’s and

ornaments. Both the Hindus and the Muslims affected each
other in this field. All sorts of clothes made of silk, cotton and
wool were used by the people and there was improvement in
them.

Both the Hindus and the Muslims liked to use ornaments. All
types of ornaments from head to toe were used by both males
and females and were made not only of gold and silver but of
pearls, diamonds and other precious stones as well.

The people engaged themselves in all sorts of entertainments.

Different sports, hunting, duels among men, fighting among
animals, Chaughan (horse-polo), etc. were their usual
entertainments. Different fairs and religious festivals both
among the Hindus and the Muslims also provided sources of
pleasure and entertainment to the people. Holi, Diwali,
Dashahra were the principal festivals of the Hindus while Id,
Naurauj and Shabbe-rat were the important festivals of the
Muslims.

The Hindus and the Muslims came in contact with each other
by sheer necessity and, thus, influenced each other in many
fields. The Ulema largely influenced the religious policy of
Sultan and therefore, most of them were intolerant towards
the majority of their subjects. Yet, the common people mixed
and influenced each other irrespective of differences of their
religious faith.

It brought about favourable changes in food, clothing’s and

social life of the people. But there was deterioration in morals
of the society. The Hindus were defeated politically and were
degraded in the society. Therefore, they lost their self-respect,
generosity and desire to grow. The Hindu society remained
defensive and therefore, it tried to safeguard everything—right
and wrong and, thus, lost the capacity to progress.

The Muslims, on their part, regarded themselves as victors

and enjoyed many privileges from the state. They, therefore,
developed arrogance and became careless towards their
advancement. It resulted in deterioration of the society in
general.

Neither the Hindus nor the Muslims remained free from this
decline in their character, attitudes, morals and efforts. Of
course, changes were there but this alone was not sufficient for
the progress of society. Thus, the period of the Sultanate was
not that of progress but of decline in the social field.

5. Improvement in Technology and its Impact on

Society:

Primarily India had been an agricultural country. But it would

be wrong to assume that India lacked industries. India had
well-developed industries from ancient times and also enjoyed
favourable foreign trade which had been the primary source of
its prosperity. Only agriculture could not be a source of
surplus production which could be utilised for the purpose of
foreign trade.

In ancient India, cloth, ivory, sea-pearls, medicinal herbs etc.

had good industrial production and India enjoyed brisk
foreign trade in them. The condition, however, changed a little
during the early medieval age which included the Rajput age
as well.
During this period, India lost direct contact with foreign
countries, due to the prevalence of feudalism, became more
dependent on agriculture, fell backward in industrial progress
and, thereby, suffered in foreign trade.

However, it has not been accepted that India had lost its
prosperity during this age. Strong forts and beautiful palaces
and temples were constructed during this age and wealth was
accumulated in treasuries of rulers and temples which spread
all over the country. Mahmud Ghaznavi looted so much wealth
in his every attack on India which can not even be imagined.

Therefore, India was a rich country even during this age is a

fact. Yet, modern scholars have expressed the opinion that
India had, certainly, fell backward during this age concerning
industrial progress and foreign trade. The caste- system
among the Hindus was also responsible for this deterioration.

By that time, the caste-system had become too rigid and

people of various professions like potter, tailor, cloth-weaver,
carpenter, etc. which were responsible for production in
different fields were placed among the Shudras who had no
chance of improving their social status.

Besides, all these professions were hereditary and there was

remote possibility of change in profession by an individual.
That, certainly, discouraged improvement in professional skill
which, in turn, adversely affected industrial progress.

Now, several modern historians have opined that conditions

changed during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. They have
maintained that technical progress was achieved during this
period in several aspects which helped in growth of several
industries resulting in growth of foreign trade as well. That
finally affected social conditions as well.

In a way, the new changes helped in weakening the caste-

system, and many lower castes tried to improve their social
status and succeeded as well. During this period, revenue was
the primary source of income of the state. Therefore, increase
in cultivable-land was always in the interest of the ruling-class
and that could be possible by increasing sources of irrigation.
It could be possible during this age.

It is largely believed that Rahat which was utilised for getting

water out of deep well for the purpose of irrigation came in use
in India only after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. It
resulted in the growth of cultivable-land. Thereby, many
castes took up the profession of agriculture and tried to
improve their social status accordingly.

For example, the jats in Punjab belonged to a caste whose

profession was cattle-breeding. They now took up agriculture
as their professions and, thereby, succeeded in improving their
social status as well. The same way, the Charkha also came in
use only during this age. It has been first referred to in Futuh-
us-Salatin written by Isami. The Charkha helped in the
production of coarse cloth.

It encouraged cotton production and, finally, in improving the

social status of weavers. The same way, better means were
found for improving silk cloth and production of carpets.
Paper was also introduced in India during this very period
which helped in spreading education as well as trade
transactions in the form of written hundis, mutual
correspondence and carrying out orders of the state to distant
places.

Dr Irfan Habib has opined that Qutubnuma which helped in

sea-voyages also came in use during this very age. It helped in
increasing foreign trade. Another technical advancement was
in the field of watches for calculating timings. Sultan Firoz
Tughluq constructed a water-watch and one sun-clock in the
city of Firozabad (Delhi).

Probably some other technical advances were also achieved

during this age in several other fields as well but not much is
known about them. This technical progress helped in
improving economy. It helped in progress of several
professions, beginning of some other professions, growth in
the number of professional people, development of cities and
progress in foreign trade.
That brought about changes in economic condition of the
country and that, certainly, helped in bringing out changes in
social conditions and religious outlook of the people. Sufis and
Saints of Hindu Bhakti-movement preached social and
religious equality. It was, certainly, the result of impact of
changed economic condition brought forth by technical
progress during this age.

6. Relations between the Hindus and the Muslims:

Historians have differed regarding the relations between the

Hindus and the Muslims during the period of the Sultanate.
One group among them does not regard it as the period of
religious intolerance. These historians emphasise on the
political motives of Sultans. They contend that the Hindus and
the Muslims came in contact with each other and influenced
each other in many fields.

This is a proof that the relations between the two were not of
conflict but that of understanding which could not be possible
if Sultans would have pursued a policy of religious persecution
or that of intolerance. Probably, their contention is based on
practical wisdom. In modern India, the religious tolerance has
not only grown up but is absolutely necessary for the
development of the country.

Therefore, the motive of their contention is correct that there

is no wisdom in emphasising the religious intolerance of the
past if any. Dr Rashid clearly accepts it.

He writes- “Thus, there were tendencies towards religious and

social synthesis and linguistic assimilation which could not but
pave the way for the evolution of a homogeneous nation. In
these days of national integration one need not enter into the
controversial questions. We should also avoid playing too
much on the records of clash and conflicts, mutual jealousy
and antagonism.”

The views of Dr Rashid and alike historians are perfectly

practical and, probably, the correct one according to modern
circumstances of India. But, there is another class of historians
who clearly state that the period of the Sultanate was that of
religious intolerance. According to them, the Hindus were an
oppressed class. Therefore, there was no question of good
understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Dr A.L. Srivastava writes- “Besides unimpeachable

contemporary evidence, we have unbroken tradition
coming down from hundred of years that the Turkish
rule was oppressive.”

Dr R.C, Mazumdar also contends:

“It is true that the Hindus occupied a large number of junior

posts and towards the close of the period, occasionally a few
high offices, in civil administration, and more rarely, in the
army. But they had no political status and lived on suffrage in
the land of their birth, which was regarded as, and publicly
declared to be a Muslim state and country.”

Different historians have given various facts and arguments in

favour and against of both the above views. Dr K.S. Lal has
assigned three basic causes of this problem under discussion,
namely, the nature of Indian conquest, bitterness between the
conquerors and the conquered, and lastly, the nature of
Muslim laws which were applied in a non-Islamic country.

These causes, described by Dr K.S. Lal, help us in finding out

some solution to this problem. It can clearly be accepted that
the Muslim rulers certainly took support of Islam in their
conquest of India. Therefore, their political aim was closely
linked with their religious aim. It, certainly, resulted in bitter
relations between the Hindus and the Muslims particularly
when there were wide differences between the religion, culture
and the values of life between the two.

This is also a fact that Muslim rulers ruled over their Hindu
subjects according to Islamic laws and, in no way, tried to
shape their administration and judicial system on a secular
basis. Therefore, the Hindus could not expect to get justice or
equality from their Muslim masters. Besides, except Ala-ud-
din Khalji, all Sultans accepted the influence of the Ulema in
matters of the state.
In these circumstances, the Hindus neither could expect nor
receive equality, justice and respectable behaviour from
Sultans or the ruling class during this period. Therefore, the
relations between the privileged, i.e., the Muslims and the
non-privileged, the Hindus, could not be anything except that
of enmity—open or covert.

However, this is acceptable that the common people whether

the Muslims or the Hindus wished to lead a peaceful life and
they had either no political and religious ambitions or, if at all
they had, they were incapable to wield any influence over
others. Therefore, the common people preferred to live in
cooperation with their neighbours, be they the Hindus or the
Muslims.

The very spirit of the common people forced the Hindus and
the Muslims alike to live in harmony and influence each other
in different fields of life. The religious preachers and saints of
the Bhakti movement during this period and Sufi saints who
believed and preached religious toleration belonged mostly to
the class of the common people.

Thus, it can be reasonably accepted that the relations between

the Hindus and the Muslims were mostly that of conflict, the
primary responsibility of which rested with the ruling class
and the Ulema. However, a small section of saints,
philosophers and scholars emphasised the necessity of a life of
harmony between the Hindus and the Muslims.

The spirit of peaceful co-existence among the common people

and realization of its necessity also directed them towards the
way of co-existence. The elite of the society among the Hindus
and the Muslims also came into mutual contact because of
political necessity.

These circumstances forced the Hindus and the Muslims to

tolerate each other and, thereby, those changes in society and
religion could take place which are now given as proofs of
mutual understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims.
But, these changes were not of a serious nature.
The policy of religious intolerance of several Sultans and the
privileged positions of the ruling class and the Ulema did not
allow a happy synthesis between the culture and values of the
Hindus and the Muslims and did not permit happy relations
between the two. Besides, while the Hindus were tolerant in
religious affairs but were fanatic concerning affairs of their
society, the Muslims were intolerant in religious affairs while
liberal in social affairs.

These contradictory values of life regarding religion and

society between the Hindus and the Muslims also blocked the
way to their mutual happy relations. It all resulted in relations
of constant conflict between the Hindus and the Muslims
during the period of the Sultanate. So, there is no logic in
trying to hide this truth because the future cannot be built up
better by hiding the truth but by accepting it, learning from
mistakes of our predecessors and by not repeating them.

Economic Condition:
India was a rich country during that age. It was India’s
fabulous wealth which tempted Mahmud of Ghazni to invade
India many times and every time he got enormous booty from
here. Even when Timur attacked India at the end of the
fourteenth century, he got unimaginable wealth from only one
of its corners. Malik Kafur, during the reign of All-ud-din
Khalji, brought so much wealth in plunder from south India
that the value of currency fell down in the north.

Besides, we find that there were many beautiful and

prosperous cities and ports in every part of India. The Sultans
of Delhi, provincial governors, the Hindu kings, rulers of
independent provincial kingdoms, the nobility and the elite of
the society possessed vast wealth and enjoyed all comforts of
material life.

Many beautiful mosques, monuments, palaces, forts, and

temples were built during this period. All this could not have
been possible without economic prosperity of the country. All
foreign travellers who visited India during this period
described that the people used gold, silver, diamonds, pearls
and other precious stones profusely in form of ornaments.
Thus, there is no doubt that India remained rich throughout
this period.

The basic cause of this economic prosperity of India was its

fertile land, sufficient means of irrigation, both natural and
man-made, and the labour of Indian peasants which resulted
in good agricultural production. Primarily, India was an
agricultural country.

Yet, India could never amass wealth in such a large quantity as

we find there throughout the medieval period if it had
depended for its prosperity only on agriculture. India was also
an industrial and commercial country before the advent of
machines.

The products of India enjoyed name and popularity in the

markets of the South-East, West and Central Asia as well as in
Europe. India carried on brisk and favourable trade with
distant countries which was another primary reason of its
enormous wealth. The agricultural production and the foreign
trade of India remained good throughout the period of the
Sultanate and India, thus, enjoyed prosperity during this
period.

Cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, etc. were produced virtually

in every part of India. Ordinarily, two crops were produced
every year but at certain places, crops were produced even
thrice a year. Rich crops, such as, wheat, cotton, rice,
sugarcane, oilseeds, indigo, barley, maize, spices, cocoa-nuts,
ginger, betel-leaf, betelnut, fruits of many varieties like
mangoes, oranges, blackberries, etc. were produced in
different parts of India.

Rice of Sarsuti, sugar of Kannauj, wheat and betel-leaf of

Malwa, wheat of Gwalior, ginger and spices of Malabar, grapes
and pomegranates of Daultabad, betelnuts of the South and
large variety of oranges were famous and popular even outside
India. Barbosa wrote that in the Bhamani-Sultanate,
agriculture, animal husbandry and fruit- gardens were in a
very advanced stage because of which cities and even villages
enjoyed prosperity.

Tamil Nadu produced very good variety of rice and, in Gujarat,

every article was available in abundance at cheap rates. Every
foreign traveller who happened to visit the Vijayanagara
empire praised the high economic standard and widely
enjoyed prosperity of its people. Orissa was famous for its
animal husbandry and fruit-gardens and all articles were so
cheap there that no visitor desired to go back once he was
there.

According to Barbosa, Bengal produced rice, sugarcane, cotton

and ginger in abundance. The Ganga-Yamuna Doab remained
always famous for its fertility and large scale production of
agriculture. Thus, agriculture was in a most advanced and
prosperous state in every part of India which was one of the
primary reasons of its fabulous wealth.

Animal husbandry was also very popular and in an advanced

stage in India at that time which added to the prosperity of the
peasants. There were extensive pastures and forests in India.
Thus, India possessed all natural resources which were
fruitfully utilised by its people and that resulted in such a large
quantity of production of every thing which was not only
sufficient for the consumption of its people but also left a large
surplus for foreign export.

Indian industries were also quite advanced in that period.

Textile industry was the primary industry of India at that time.
Silk, cotton and woollen clothes of different quality and varied
colours were produced in large quantity. The clothes were
studded with gold, silver, pearls, diamonds and other precious
articles. Textiles of varied quality were primary items of export
of India at this time.

Besides, sugar industry, paper industry, metal work, stone-

cutting, pearl diving out of the sea, ivory and sandal-wood
work etc. were other important industries of India. The
Sultans of Delhi and other rulers of provincial dynasties had
their own workshops (karkhanas) to manufacture different
articles to furnish the needs of Sultans, nobles and other rich
people. The traders and industrialists were organized into
guilds which helped them in many ways and, thus, helped in
the growth of trade and industry of the country.

India carried brisk trade—both internal and foreign. Different

cities were trading centres of different articles and were well-
connected with each other by roads. Ibn Batuta described
Delhi as the foremost trading centre of the world. Daultabad
was famous for its pearl-trade. Brass was imported at the port
of Dabhol from where it was distributed all over India.

The port of Rander in Gujarat received all sorts of articles

from China and Malacca islands from where they were sent to
all parts of India. The Vijayanagara empire in the South was a
great centre of trade.

Goa, Diu, Chaula, Calicut, Cochin and Quilon were the

important ports on the western sea-coast of India while there
were equally important ports on the eastern sea-coast as well
as on the coast of the provinces of Bengal and Orissa.

India had trade relations with Iran, Arabia, European

countries, Africa, China, Malaya, Afghanistan, Central Asia,
etc. Cereals, cotton and silken cloth, opium, indigo, sea-pearls,
sandal-wood, saffron, ginger, sugar, cocoa-nuts, etc. were the
main items of Indian export while it imported, primarily,
horses, salt, gold, silver, rose-water, coloured velvets, etc.,
from other countries.

One noticeable feature of Indian foreign trade was that prior

to the coming of the Portuguese in India, the monopoly of
bringing and taking goods to and from India was in the hands
of Persian and Arab merchants except at Malabar coast.

The Indian traders limited their activities only up to the port.

This was, of course, a major weakness of the Indian foreign
trade. Yet, India enjoyed enormously favourable foreign trade
which was also one of the primary causes of its wealth.

The period of the Delhi Sultanate was marked by some

technical advancement also which affected favourably the
economic life of the people. It is now largely believed that
Rahat which is used for taking out water from deep wells for
the purpose of irrigation was introduced in India during this
period. It, certainly, helped in agricultural production.

Another innovation was the introduction of the Charkha

which, according to Prof. Irfan Habib, was put to use in India
sometimes between 12th to 14th century. It helped in
increased production of coarse cloth. Besides, some new
techniques were evolved in the production of carpets and the
cultivation of silk-worms was also introduced in India during
this very period.

It helped in the production of better carpets and silk-cloth in

India. These technical advances, thus, helped in enriching
India further. Many scholars believe that production of paper
also started during the period of the Delhi Sultanate which
affected favourably the Indian economy and education.

Growth of cities, widespread use of currency which was a proof

of developed trade and availability of a large and varied type of
labourers which was referred by Babur in his autobiography
are some of the proofs of the developed Indian economy
during the period of the Delhi Sultanate which was the result
of technical advancement during that age.

Thus, affluent agricultural and industrial production and

foreign trade had enriched India and it maintained its
prosperity despite constant warfare of the Sultans of Delhi and
rulers of provincial dynasties. Mostly, Sultans and provincial
rulers contributed nothing directly towards the development
of trade and industry. It was all because of private enterprise.

Therefore, the achievements of the Indians in this field were

not only remarkable but also surprisingly successful. But the
fruits of this prosperity were not enjoyed by all people on a
just basis. The wealth of India was concentrated in the hands
of a small minority consisting of Sultans, kings, nobles, traders
and financiers.

Of course, the people were not devoid of necessities of life but

they enjoyed no luxuries. Mostly, the common people survived
on minimum necessities of existence. That is why whenever
there were famines or other natural calamity, the people died
in large numbers and the state provided charity and loans to
the people.

Religious Condition:
The one primary feature of Indian culture is and always had
been its extreme tolerance in religious affairs. The Hindus
absorbed many new features according to the circumstances
without destroying anything which once existed. In religion,
particularly, once a cult was developed, no attempt was made
to destroy it despite its nuisance value.

That is why, during the period of the Sultanate, we find all

ancient religious sects in India. Vedic religion, Buddhism,
Jainism, Vaishnavism, Saivism, worshippers of Shakti as
mother goddess, different Tantrik-sects etc. existed in India in
different forms.

The Buddhist were in fairly large number when the Muslims

began their attacks in India but gradually their number
decreased and became negligible during the period of the
Sultanate. Jainism was influential only in west India
particularly in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Among the Hindus, the most popular sects were Vaishnavism

and Saivism and their followers constituted the majority in
India. Among the Muslims, besides minor sects, the Sunnis
and the Shias constituted the majority. Thus, varied types of
religious sects existed in India at that time. However, the
novelties of this period were the progress of Sufism among the
Muslims and the Bhakti movement among the Hindus.

1. Sufism:

Sufism is an old religious sect. It had penetrated into India

prior to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. But once the
rule of the Muslims was firmly entrenched in India, a large
number of Sufi saints came to India and settled themselves in
different parts of the country and Sufism gained popularity.
Once Sufism settled down in India, it was influenced by Indian
environment and included within itself some Indian practices,
ideas and philosophy, and, in turn, affected Indian religious
thoughts as well. Love towards God, non-violence, Tapa
(practice of self-discipline), keeping apart from the material
comforts of life, etc. were common values accepted among the
Hindus, the Buddhist and the Jainas in India.

Sufi saints were influenced by these virtues and they accepted

them as their own. Besides, as they desired to convert the
Hindus as well to their faith, they accepted many customs and
practices which were popular among the Hindus. That also
influenced Sufism indirectly.

Many ceremonies and other practices such as remembering

God by singing and playing of musical instruments of sufi-
saints, particularly of Chisti sect, were of Indian origin and
were, certainly, because of Indian environment. Group singing
and remembering God in that way by the Sufis was like the
Kirtan of Chaitanya and his followers.

Love and liberalism were common to Sufism and Hinduism.

Mystic discipline in both meant moral development of
individual and the society as well so that these could rise above
the barriers of caste, colour, creed, wealth, power and position.
Like Hinduism, Sufism also aimed at the intellectual and
emotional communion with God as well as service to
humanity.

In turn, Sufism also influenced Hindu society and religion.

The saints of Bhakti-cult like Kabir, Nanak, Dadu and Dayal
were, certainly, influenced by Sufi-saints. Many among them
were influenced by monotheism of Islam. Efforts were made
by several of them to remove the barriers of caste. Probably
the concept of Guru or the preceptor among the saints of
Bhakti-cult was also influenced by the concept of Pir among
the Sufis.

The philosophy of Sufism believes in one God and regards

every individual and everything else as part of Him. The Sufi
saints preached that ‘God is one’, ‘all is in God’, ‘nothing is
beyond or outside Him’ and ‘one can find God by renouncing
everything except loving devotion to God.’

The Sufis were devout Muslims who moved within the Shariat
(laws of Islam) and believed it as the true way to attain
salvation. However, they attached no importance to dogmatic
formalism of Islam of the orthodox type but emphasised on
the inner spirit of the Islam, that is, while the orthodox
Muslims emphasised on external conduct, the Sufis
emphasised on inner purity and love to God as means of
searching God.

The Sufi saints led a simple or rather ascetic life and believed
in renunciation of all worldly possessions and pleasures. They
did not believe in image-worship of any form. They regarded
God as kind and benevolent and therefore, they did not fear
Him but loved Him. That is why they emphasised on loving
every living-being and avoided meat-eating.

They regarded Desire as the primary enemy of human being

and therefore, emphasised on giving it up. They believed in
leading an ascetic life, devotion to God and remembering Him
always. Music inspired them to remember God and therefore,
they engaged themselves in music and dance with ecstasy
while remembering God. They believed in Guru (Master)
whom they called Pir.

They believed that none can approach near God without the
assistance of a Guru. They observed Tauba (repentance over
bad deeds), Vara (non-acceptance of what was not given
freely), Juhud (kindness), Fakar (poverty), Sabr (tolerance),
Tauba (repentance of obligation), Khauf (fear), Raj (Hope),
Tawakhul (contentment) and Riza (surrender to God) in order
to achieve Vasl (salvation). They however did not believe in
Namaz (daily prayers), Rauzas (fasts) and pilgrimage to Haj.

Thus, the Sufi saints led their lives like Hindu ascetics
(Sanyasins). However, they did not live in forests. They
preferred to live in cities or near them. Primarily, they
emphasised on love to God like those Hindu Saints who
emphasised on Bhakti. The Sufis were divided into different
sects, most important of them being the Suravardi sect and the
Chisti sect.

The influence of Suravardi sect remained limited only to Sind,

Punjab and Multan but the Chisti sect became popular all over
India including Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bengal, Orissa and south India. Sufism became quite popular
in India in the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries.

Gradually evolving cooperation between the Hindus and the

Muslims during the later Muslim rule in India and the origin
and development of Urdu language immensely helped in its
popularity during this period. Many Sufi saints became quite
popular even during the period of the Sultanate itself.

The most important among them were Shaikh Muin-ud-din

Chisti, Baba Farid-ud-din, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud,
Nizamuddin Auliya, Chirag-i-Dehlvi, Khwaja Shaikh Taki-ud-
din, Muhammad Gaus of Gwalior and Malik Muhammad
Jaysi.

Different Sufi Orders:

The Sufis were organised into several orders or Silsilahs. Abul

Fazl mentioned fourteen such orders. Some of them became
quite popular in India.

i. The Chisti Order:

Among Sufi orders, the most popular one in India was the
Chisti order. It originated outside India and its founder saint
was Khwaja Abdul Chisti. In India, it was introduced by
Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti. Muinuddin Chisti was born in
Persia.

He visited different places of Islamic learning in Central Asia

and, finally, reached India in 1200 A.D. He settled himself at
Ajmer and became very popular all over northern India. Both
the Hindus and the Muslims paid homage to him.

After his death, he was buried at Ajmer itself. The Mughal

emperor, Akbar paid homage at his Dargah and even, in
modern times, his Dargah is visited by lakhs of devotees both
the Hindus and the Muslims. Another famous Chisti saint was
Shaikh Farid or Baba Farid.

He raised the Chisti order to the status of an all-India

organization. However, the most famous Chisti saint was
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya who was the disciple of Baba Farid.
He settled himself near Delhi. He had the chance of watching
reigns of several Sultans of Delhi.

Some historians have blamed him of becoming a party to the

murder of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughluq though the majority of
historians have rejected the view. But, certainly, Sultan
Muhammad Tughluq revered him. Yet Shaikh Nizamuddin
kept himself away from the court of the Sultan. One of his
disciples, Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib settled himself at
Daultabad in the Deccan and gathered a large number of
followers around himself.

Another famous disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin was Shaikh

Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi who settled down at Delhi. He
also earned all-India reputation. One of the disciples of
Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, Khwaja Muhammad Gesudaraz settled
down at Gulbarga in 1398 A.D. and got admiration of Sultan
Ahmad Shah Bahmani.

One popular Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti who was
revered by the Mughul emperor, Akbar. He died in the lifetime
of Akbar and was buried at Fatehpur Sikri where a beautiful
marble mausoleum was constructed on his grave.

The saints of Chisti order led a life of simplicity or rather,

poverty. Their simple and pure lives were responsible for the
popularity of Sufism in India. The Chisti order remained
popular in India. The Chisti order remained popular in larger
part of India both in the North and the South.

ii. The Suravardi Order:

The Suravardi order of the Sufis was established by Shaikh

Shahabuddin Suravardi at Baghdad. Several of his disciples
came to India and preached the philosophy of Sufism here.
The Suravardi order of the Sufis became popular in the north-
western part of India. The first popular saint of the Suravardi
order was Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya who settled down at
Multan. He differed from Chisti saints in several respects.

He did not observe simplicity, led a comfortable life and

received wealth and land from his rich disciples. He
emphasized the external form of Islam and rejected the
practice of bowing before Shaikhs and certain other
ceremonies which the Chisti order had accepted from its
Indian environment. He also did not believe in fasting, self-
mortification, etc. with a view to purify souls.

Another Suravardi-Sufi Saint, Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya

Manairi propagated Sufi-doctrines in Bihar. He was a good
scholar and compiled several books. He laid great stress on the
service of humanity.

iii. Qadri Order:

The Qadri order of the Sufis was introduced in India by Shah

Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani. They lived
towards the middle of the 15th century. Shaikh Musa and
Shaikh Abdul Qadir of Agra and Shaikh Daud Kirmani and
Shaikh Abdul Mali Qadri of Lahore were also among the
popular sufi Saints of Qadri order.

iv. The Naqshbandi Order:

The Naqshbandi order of the Sufis was introduced in India by

Khwaja Baqi Billah in the 16th century. This Order
emphasized on observance of the laws of Shariat and
denounced all innovations which were added afterwards to
Islamic doctrines. It decried several assumptions of other Sufi-
orders.

It observed that the relation between man and God is that of

slave and Master and not that of lover and beloved as was
believed by other Sufis. Some other prominent saints of this
order were Shaikh Abdul Latif, Shaikh Burhan, Shah
Waliullah, etc. One more important saint of this order was
Khwaja Mir Dard. He, however, was liberal in his views. He
considered himself to be both a slave and a lover of God.

Thus, several Sufi-orders flourished in different parts of India

all throughout the medieval period.

2. The Bhakti Movement:

The Bhakti movement in Hinduism was one remarkable

feature of the medieval age. This movement remained
influential for many centuries and has left deep impact on
modern Hinduism. Different scholars have expressed different
opinions regarding the sources of this movement.

Eminent European scholars like Weber and Grierson

expressed that the idea of Bhakti as a means to attain salvation
and the monotheistic doctrine of Hinduism have been
borrowed by the Hindus from Christianity. But no modern
scholar takes their view seriously now.

But now another idea has been substituted in its place, that is,
the Islam influenced Hinduism directly or indirectly and that
resulted in the Bhakti movement of the medieval age.

It has been contended that Ramananda, who formed the basis

of this movement, had acquired knowledge of Islamic ideas
and was inspired by them particularly by the principles of
universal brotherhood and human equality of the Islam. There
are other scholars who have even contended that the
monotheistic doctrine of Sankaracharya was influenced by the
Islam. But even this view is not acceptable to modern scholars.

It is not at all logical to accept that Sankaracharya or

Ramananda were influenced by the Islam. Sankaracharya
propounded his philosophy of monism on the basis of ancient
Hindu Vedanta-philosophy while Ramananda and Ramanuja
were followers of Vaishnavism who emphasised on Bhakti as a
means to attain salvation and drew their inspiration for it from
those ancient Hindu texts which denied idol-worship but
emphasised on the unity of God.
It is also wrong that the principles of universal brotherhood
and human equality of Islam influenced the saints of Bhakti
movement. It was impossible in view of the fact that the
Muslims discriminated against the Hindus in practice. It is
also not logical that Sufism inspired the Bhakti movement. On
the contrary, it was the Bhakti movement which influenced
Sufism.

In fact, Bhakti movement was a movement within Hinduism

itself.

According to Hinduism there are three ways to attain

salvation:

(1) Gyan (Knowledge),

(2) Karma (Duty), and

(3) Bhakti (Devotion).

Different Hindu religious preachers and saints emphasised the

one, the other or the third at different times. During medieval
period, Hindu saints emphasised on Bhakti as a means to
attain salvation and that resulted in the Bhakti movement.

The Hindus had their own philosophy of Bhakti since ancient

times and therefore, had nothing to borrow either from
Christianity or Islam. It would also be wrong to say that it was
entirely a new movement within Hinduism.

The Bhagvata movement had its birth along with Buddhism

and Jainism in the sixth century B.C., but at that time this
movement could not become strong. Buddhism, at that time,
gained momentum and became widely popular in India.

Even the revival of Hinduism during the period of mighty

Guptas, failed to check the influence of Buddhism. Thereafter,
Hinduism failed to revive its intellectual or emotional appeal
to the people for a long time. It was only during the 8th
century A.D. that Sankaracharya revived the supremacy of
Hinduism and its philosophy of monism on logical and
intellectual plane.
The result was that Hinduism remained the most popular
religion throughout the Rajput age. The warlike spirit of the
Rajputs was also against the principles of Buddhism and
therefore, they encouraged Hinduism. But, the spirit of
romance and chivalry of the Rajputs and their polity based on
feudalism was in no way favourable to any sort of intellectual
movement.

Therefore, the philosophy of Gyan remained no more

attractive and understandable to the common people. The
Muslim invasions took place under such conditions of Hindu
religion and Islam threw a strong challenge to Hindu society
and more particularly to religion. The Hindus were devoid of
their political, social and economic privileges because of the
conquest of India by Islam.

Therefore, they found solace only in religion and for that chose
the easiest means to attain salvation, that is, Bhakti. We find a
similar movement in the 19th century when Hinduism was
challenged by Christianity.

Of course, there is no parallel between the Bhakti movement

and the social and religious movements led by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand and Swami Vivekanand which
were based on logic and could flourish on the western concept
of democracy, equality and liberty. Yet, the reasons of both the
movements were the same.

While in the 19th century, Hinduism fought against the

challenge of Christianity and gave birth to different religious
reform- movements, Hinduism fought against the onslaughts
of Islam during medieval period and gave birth to the Bhakti
movement. Probably, the preachers of this movement opposed
the caste-system simply because of this reason.

They also did not emphasise on image-worship for the same

reason and some of them, afterwards, preached that Hinduism
and Islam were simply two ways to attain the same God. The
Bhakti movement became popular during the medieval age
because of the same reason, i.e., Hinduism had to face the
challenge of Islam.
The saints of this movement emphasised on certain similar
principles. None of those saints attached themselves to any
social or religious sect and none attempted to start a new
religion. Most of them had no blind faith in any religious-text
and did not believe in any priestly ritual. They believed in one
God who could be called by different names such as Ram,
Krishna, Shiva or Allah.

They were against the caste system and image-worship and

emphasised on Bhakti as the only means to attain salvation.
They believed that as an individual loved his close relation, the
same way one could love God provided he had a broader
vision. In the last stage of devotion, a devotee’s love towards
God was like the love of a lover towards his beloved where
there was no place for any other person or article between the
two.

They believed that God did not reside in temples but in the
heart of every human being and the Truth lay in the person of
every individual. These saints believed that a devotee should
have direct communication with God through Bhakti.

However, it was necessary for the person who pursued Bhakti

that his mind and body should be free from every desire and
temptations of human life. Besides, a devotee needed the help
of a Guru (Master) who could help and guide him to attain
salvation though that could be achieved only by one’s own
efforts.

These saints preached these ideas among the people by means

of their teachings in simple language, poems or prayers. But,
the most effective means of the propagation of their teachings
was their personal dedicated lives to God. These saints
preached their ideas not in Sanskrit but in regional languages
of the people.

The centres of gatherings of the people where they preached

were mostly temples, public places and village-assemblies. The
efforts of these saints succeeded and Bhakti-cult became the
most popular cult of the Hindus at that time and is still the
most popular form of worship among the Hindus.
During the medieval period, different saints gave their
message to the people at different times and different places.
One among them was Ramanuja, who flourished in the early
years of the twelfth century. Ramanuja was born at Tirupati in
Andhra Pradesh. He believed in a Sagun God and regarded
Bhakti as the only means to attain salvation.

He believed that the path of Karma (Duty) entangled a person

into Maya (worldly possessions which, in fact, have no
existence) and therefore, his salvation was not possible. The
same way, the path of Gyan (Knowledge) could make a person
only free from desires and worldly possessions and therefore,
was incomplete. It was, therefore, by Bhakti (Devotion) alone
that a person could attain salvation or go to heaven.

He allowed even Sudras to visit temples on fixed days within a

year and assured them that they could also attain salvation
through Bhakti to their Guru and God. Another Saint,
Nimbakara also flourished in the twelfth century. He was a
devotee of Radha-Krishna and regarded Krishna as an
incarnation of God.

Another saint, Madhavacharya flourished in the thirteenth

century. He believed in the philosophy of Dualism, i.e., God
and Soul were different. He was a devotee of Laksmi-
Narayana. He preached that a person should love only God
and then he could attain salvation with the assistance of his
Guru and his Bhakti towards God.

All the above-mentioned saints belonged to the Vaishnava sect

of Hinduism. They were pioneers of the Bhakti movement but
they could not popularise the movement very much. This task
was left to Ramananda who flourished in the fourteenth
century. Ramananda was a Brahmana by caste and was born
at Allahabad. He studied at Banaras under his teacher,
Raghavananda. He drew his ideas from the Ramanuja sect and
made them quite popular in north India.

Ramananda influenced Vaishnavism and the Bhakti

movement from three points of view. Firstly, he emphasised
on the Bhakti of Rama-Sita. Secondly, he preached in Hindi
which helped in the formation of Hindi literature. Thirdly, he
gave equal status to both male and female of every caste.

Though he was a Brahamana, yet he welcomed people of all

castes within his sect and dined with them without making any
distinction of high or low birth. Thus, though he never
preached against the caste-system, he denied it in actual
practice. The same way, he gave the traditional Vaishnavism a
new turn by his reforms and, thus, occupies a unique place in
the history of religion in medieval India.

Ramananda had twelve famous disciples who further

popularised the Bhakti movement and Vaishnavism in India.
One of them was Dhanna who was a jat, another one Saindas
was a barber, another one Raidas was a cobbler and another
one Kabir was a weaver.

The preachings of Ramananda enhanced the status of lower

castes and women in the society. He and his disciples made
the Bhakti- cult popular among the masses. It would be quite
correct to say that, in fact, the religious movement of medieval
India began with Ramananda.

The most famous disciple of Ramananda was Kabir. He was a

contemporary of Sultan Sikandar Lodi and rumours described
that the Sultan attempted to get him killed several times but
failed every time. Again, his birth is shrouded in mystery
though hearsays described that he was born to a Brahamana
widow who left him near a pond. He was picked up by the wife
of a Muslim weaver.

Niru, who brought him up as his own child. Kabir became a

disciple of Ramananda and mostly lived at Banaras. He was
married and had a son and a daughter. He never left his
family, continued his profession of weaving and thus,
remained a householder-saint. Kabir believed that every man
should earn money for his livelihood.

However he preached that a man should have only limited

amount of money and should never be greedy of it. Thus, he
conveyed the message that economic efforts were a must for
the society and, therefore, never advised anybody to become a
wandering saint. It appears from his teachings that he
possessed knowledge of Hindu philosophy and was a devotee
of Lord Rama. Kabir was against priestly rituals, the caste-
system and differences of religions.

He tried to bring harmony between the Hindus and the

Muslims. He used to say that ‘Kabir is the child of Allah and
Rama.’ He made a sincere, though unsuccessful, attempt to
remove the differences which separated the Hindus and the
Muslims. He also said that ‘in the beginning there was no Turk
nor Hindu—no race, nor caste.’

Kabir also emphasised on Bhakti as the only means to attain

salvation. Kabir gave his teachings in the shape of small poems
which have been collected in a book called the Bijaka, now the
sacred book of the Kabir-panthis. He got his disciples both
from among the Hindus and the Muslims.

The teachings of Kabir can be ascertained by some

examples as given below:

1. Sanskrit is the water in a well, the language of the people is

the flowing stream.

2. If by worshipping stones one can find God, I shall worship a

mountain.

3. If salvation could be possible by bathing, frogs would have

got it first.

4. If Hari could be obtained by remaining naked, dears would

have obtained Him first.

5. Oh Qazi, give up the book, adore Rama.

6. A man cannot be a Pandit even after reading hundreds of

books. A Pandit is one who understands the two and a half
letters which form the word Prem (love).

7. Be truthful, be natural. Truth alone is natural. Seek this

truth within your own heart and that can be recognised
through love.
8. The differences between religions and Gods are that of only
names. Gold is alike. It gets different names when it is
converted into ornaments.

9. Forget the quarrel over names. Be devoted to God because

that is the truth and the only way to attain salvation.

10. Those who fight because of religious differences are

ignorant of truth.

Kabir started no new religious sect and his son also refused to
do so. Yet, his followers started a new sect called the Kabir-
Panthis. Both the Muslims and the Hindus became its
members. It is said that when he died, his Hindu and Muslim
followers quarrelled among themselves over the question of
the disposal of his body.

While the Hindus wanted to burn it, the Muslims desired to

bury it. But when the sheet covering the dead body was
removed, nothing was found except a heap of flowers which
was equally distributed between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Another saint who lived the life of a house-holder and tried to

bring together the Hindus and the Muslims in a common fold
of spiritual and social brotherhood was Nanak (1469-1538
A.D.). Nanak was born in a Khatri family at Talwandi (modern
Nankana) situated about thirty-five miles to the south-west of
Lahore.

He was married at an early age and had two sons. He was,

however, not interested in agriculture or any other profession
and mostly passed his life in travelling to distant places. It is
said that he visited Ceylon in the South and Mecca and
Madina in the West. He also gave his message in the form of
small poems which have been collected in the form of a book
called Adi-Grantha.

He also opposed priestly ritualism, blind faith in religious

texts, theory of incarnation of God, the caste-system, outward
religious practices and differences over religion. He believed in
the unity of God and advised the Hindus and the Muslims to
forget their differences. He preached universal toleration and
personal love for God. He also had faith in Guru-Bhakti and
himself regarded Kabir as his spiritual guide.

He was against image-worship. He believed in the principle of

transmigration of soul and the theory of Karma. He believed in
leading a simple, honest and virtuous life and emphasised on
charity, kindness, generosity, truth and moral life.

He believed that an individual should obey his Guru, lead a

moral life and constantly remember God in order to attain
salvation. He, therefore, emphasised on the purity of character
and conduct and a high ethical code rather than any dogma or
creed of any sect.

He stressed on love (Bhakti) to Almighty God to attain

salvation. He believed that every man would get results
according to one’s activities (Karma) but salvation was
possible only by the grace of God. Nanak did not believe that
the world was false (Maya). On the contrary, he believed in its
existence though regarded it only transitory. Therefore, he,
like Kabir, also believed that a man should be economically
self-dependent.

Some of his teachings were as follows:

1. Religion consisted not in ear-rings worn, or a shaven head

or in the blowing of horns or bathing at places of pilgrimages
or sitting in attitudes of contemplation but by abiding pure,
amid the impurities of the world.

2. On meeting a true guru doubt dispelled and the wanderings

of the mind restrained. Abide pure amid the impurities of the
world, thus shalt thou find the way of religion.

3. The real temple was the house in which the Lord’s praises
were ever sung and the Lord’s name continually repeated.

Thus, Nanak like other saints of Bhakti movement stressed on

the purity of mind and conduct, faith in Guru and intense love
and devotion (Bhakti) towards God to attain salvation. Nanak
himself did not desire to create a separate sect. He simply had
disciples who called themselves Sikhs. It was only afterwards
that Sikhism developed into a separate religious sect because
of political reasons.

Another saint who made this movement popular was

Vallabhacharya (1479- 1531 A.D.). He was a worshipper of
Krishna and therefore, an exponent of the Krishna cult. His
father, Lakshman Bhatt was a Telugu Brahman who had
settled himself at Banaras where Vallabhacharya was born.

His father died when he was only eleven years of age and his
mother expired when he was only twelve. He was, however, a
very talented child and completed the study of four Vedas, six
Shastras and eighteen Puranas at an early age. After
completing his education, he went back to his home-state, the
Vijayanagara empire in the South.

There he defeated several scholars of Shavisim in religious

discussions and found recognition at the court of King
Krishnadev Raya. He became the pioneer of making
Vaishnavism popular in the Vijayanagara empire. He was also
a householder-saint. His wife was Mahalaksmi who gave birth
to his several sons.

Vallabhacharya believed in separate identity of Atma and

Pramatma and, technically, his philosophy has been called
that of Shudha-dwaita. He believed in the worship of Lord
Krishna in the form of Srinathji. He wrote many religious texts
among which Subodhini and Siddhanta Rahasya became most
popular. During later part of his life, he mostly lived either at
Mathura or Banaras He regarded Krishna an incarnation of
Brahma, Purshottam or Parmananda.

He believed that the only way to attain salvation was love and
devotion (Bhakti) towards Krishna. Though he was highly
literate and a scholar, yet he had an entirely emotional
approach of love towards God. Therefore, he emphasised
music, dance, compilation of poems, painting, etc. and, thus,
helped in their progress. He also popularised the childhood
activities of Krishna with Gopis (village women). His son,
Vitthalnath further popularised the Krishna Bhakti cult.
The Mughal emperor, Akbar was pleased with Vitthalnath and
assigned him the jagirs of Gokul and Jaitpura. The idol of
Srinathji was transferred to Udaipur during the period of the
Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb. There it became popular as Lord
Nathdwara. The Krishna-cult became quite popular in India
because of the efforts of the father and the son though their
disciples afterwards gave corrupt forms to the childhood
activities of Krishna with Gopis in the 18th and the 19th
century.

Another remarkable and popular saint of Bhakti movement

was Chaitanya. His original name was Visambhara though
afterwards he adopted Krishna- Chaitanya as his known name.
Chaitanya was born at Nadia in West Bengal. He was married
twice. However, a saint Isvarapuri gave him Krishna-mantra
at the age of twenty-two and he became a wandering monk at
the age of twenty- four.

He travelled all over India though passed most of his life-time

at Puri in Orissa. Chaitanya was a very emotional devotee of
Krishna. He used to utter the name of Krishna incessantly,
sometimes laughed, sometimes wept and often fell into
trances. He gave importance to Kirtan viz., recitation of the
name of Krishna in groups and gatherings of the people in
chorus to the accompaniment of loud instrumental music. He
and his followers paraded the streets singing and dancing
wildly in a mood of ecstasy.

Vrindaban was revived as a place of pilgrimage simply because

of the efforts of his disciples. Chaitanya, probably, was deeply
impressed by the devotional songs of poets Chandi Das and
Jayadeva sung in love to Radha-Krishna. Chaitanya
emphasised on love and Bhakti to God.

For him love was a spiritual awakening which alone could lead
to salvation of an individual. Probably, he could understand
that the love of Radha-Krishna could be misused by the people
and therefore, advised men and women not to mix up with
each other. He was not against religious-texts or image-
worship but certainly disliked priestly rituals and mere
outward observance of religious practices.
He adopted a middle course towards the caste-system. He was
neither in favour of it nor against it. He believed that each
person, irrespective of caste or religion, could engage himself
in the worship of Krishna though was not in favour of allowing
the Muslims and the Sudras in temples. However, image-
worship was not important for him. He believed more in
remembering God and singing in His praise. He preached that
all people should tolerate and love each other.

Therefore, people of all castes and faiths were welcomed in his

Kirtan assemblies. Chaitanya was not a social reformer and
did not pay any attention towards social evils. However, he
believed that every person was equal before God.

Chaitanya has been regarded as one of the greatest saints of

medieval India. He popularised the Bhakti movement not only
from the point of view of love and Bhakti towards God but also
brought it to a spiritual plane while his Kirtan assemblies were
accepted as popular forms of worship to God in Vaishnavism.

Chaitanya neither collected his teachings in form of a book nor

established any religious sect. However, his disciples compiled
his teachings after his death. The best source of knowing about
the life and teachings of Chaitanya is Chaitanya-Charitama
written by Kaviraja Krishnadas in the late 16th century.

Bhakti movement was popularised in Maharashtra by another

preacher, Namadeva in the fifteenth century. He did not
believe in casteism and accepted people of all castes and
classes, including Muslim-converts to Hinduism as his
disciples. He was, however, against image-worship and
priestly-rituals.

Besides, saints and preachers mentioned above, there were

other numerous saints who gave the message of Bhakti to the
people all over the country. The Bhakti-cult continued to be
popular even during the period of rule of the Mughals and we
find a host of saints during that period like Janeswara,
Tukaram, Janatirtha, Vidyadhiraj, Ravidas, Malukdas,
Vidyapati, Mira Bai, Sur Das, Tulsi Das etc.
All these saints and many others gave their messages to the
people from time to time which maintained the continuity of
the popularity of Bhakti movement throughout the medieval
period. The Bhakti-cult remained very popular for centuries in
India and is the most popular form of worship among the
Hindus even in present-day India.

Besides, it affected the whole of India from Punjab in the west

to Bengal in the east and the Himalayas in the north to Cape
Camorin in the south. The popularity of this movement can be
compared only with the popularity of Buddhism at one time in
India.

The only other social and religious movement in India

occurred in the 19th century but its scope and long-term effect
remained much less than the Bhakti movement. There were
two primary causes which led to this movement of medieval
period. One was the necessity of saving Hinduism from the
attack of the Islam.

The second was the necessity of reform in Hindu society and

religion. It can also be said that its primary cause, probably,
was the first one which gave birth to the second cause as well.
Yet, there remained one cause more.

Probably, the Hindus felt very much aggrieved because of the

oppressive policies of foreign invaders and, as they could not
find any political solution to it, they tried to find out an easy
solution to attain God and, thus, a way out to find consolation
in religion and that resulted in Bhakti movement.

There was no image-worship among the Hindus in the

beginning. They introduced it afterwards. But the conquest of
India by Islam put obstructions to image- worship by the
Hindus and therefore, the Hindu saints of medieval India
denied the necessity of image-worship to attain salvation.

Again, as Islam was gaining large scale converts because of the

oppression of upper castes over lower castes of the Hindus, the
Hindu saints tried to break up the barriers of casteism in order
to safeguard the Hindu society.
Besides, as the Muslims tried to destroy not only Hindu
temples but Hindu educational institutions and centres of
learning as well, the Hindus not only lost command over
Sanskrit language and, thereby, their store of ancestral
knowledge but also the capacity to grow in intellect and
knowledge. Therefore, they lost their capacity to pursue the
path of knowledge (Gyan) while their faith in the path of
Karma was already shaken because of their failure to check the
Muslim conquest of India.

Under these circumstances they readily accepted the third

course in religion, that is, Bhakti to attain salvation. The
Hindu saints realised their fact and therefore, emphasised on
Bhakti as the only means of salvation by an individual.
Probably, these conclusions need the support of more
historical facts. But, these certainly deserve consideration
because these have been drawn from the underlying spirit of
entire dependence on God in the Bhakti-cult.

The Hindus who were left politically defeated and down-

trodden in society and religion, were probably, left with no
alternative except to surrender themselves to the grace of God.
The absence of determination to fight against the misfortunes
of life in the Bhakti movement provides the logic to the above
mentioned conclusions.

A comparison with the social and religious movement of the

19th century also points out in the same direction. The Hindus
were enslaved in the nineteenth century by the British. But
they could not be reduced to impotency in administration,
politics and intellect.

On the contrary, they were progressing in all these fields

because of their contact with western education and new ideas
in politics and society. Therefore, the social and religious
reformers of the nineteenth century did not suffer from the
feeling of despondency but tried to bring about reforms in
their society and religion by logic, intellect and organisation
among their co-religionists.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the emphasis and
acceptance of Bhakti-cult during the medieval period was the
result of the feeling of despondency of the Hindus as the result
of their being on defence in politics, society and religion.

The Bhakti movement tried to achieve two practical objects.

The one that it tried to reform Hinduism. Therefore, it
emphasised to neglect image-worship and the caste-system.
The movement succeeded partially in this objective. But the
success was neither permanent nor widely accepted. Hinduism
failed to leave image-worship and casteism.

Much against the wishes of different saints, their disciples

organised themselves into small distinct religious sects and,
thereby, limited their power and resources. Therefore, each of
these sects failed to bring about any permanent and
widespread improvement in Hindu society and religion.

Among these new sects, Sikhism proved to be the strongest.

But, its strength is not due to its spiritual strength but because
of certain other reasons, politics being the most important
among them.

Besides, it is surprising that Sikhism which primarily grew and

developed in defence of Hindu religion organised itself into a
separate religious sect. Yet, this movement had its importance.
It kept not only the spirit of Hinduism alive but also
strengthened it further.

The other objective of this movement was to harmonise the

relations of the Hindus and the Muslims. The movement failed
entirely to achieve this object. The movement achieved very
little in this field in its own times while it had no permanent
effect at all.

However, the movement had another important result.

Different saints and preachers prepared poems and prayers
and gave their messages to the people in different regional
languages. This provided incentive to the growth of literatures
in different regional languages like Hindi, Marathi, Bengali,
etc.
Thus, though the Bhakti movement failed to achieve success in
its primary objectives, yet was quite important in certain other
respects and, therefore, has been regarded as one important
feature of its age.

Music:
Islam prohibits encouragement to music and some early
Sultans offered no patronage to it. Yet, some other Sultans like
Balban, Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Ala-ud-din Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq patronized music and musicians at their
respective courts. M.W. Mirza has written about Balban
thus- “Balban was a great patron of music. He has
spoken of Indian music in the highest terms and
regarded it as superior to the music of any other
country.”

Balban’s son Bughra Khan also loved music. He founded a

society for musicians, dancers and actors. Jalal-ud-din Khalji
patronized musicians and maintained a royal orchestra at his
court. Ala-ud-din Khalji called Gopal Nayak, the famous
musician from the South, to his court and patronized the
famous poet and musician, Amir Khusrav.

Khusrav made judicious combination of the Persian and

Indian melodies and has been considered responsible for
introducing certain new ragas (melodies) like Iman, Zilf and
Sazagari. He also introduced a new variety of music in Qawali.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq was, however, against music and
banned it within his kingdom. But his son and successor,
Muhammad Tughluq, again revived it and gave it due
encouragement.

He held a number of musical meetings in which both Hindu

and Muslim musicians participated. Firuz Tughluq was also
interested in music and it has been said that when he ascended
the throne, he arranged for musical recitals for twenty-one
days for the entertainment of general public.

Music was patronized by different rulers of provincial

kingdoms as well. The Sultans of Jaunpur were patrons of
music and a text on music entitled Ghunyal-ul-Munyas was
written in 1375 A.D. by a Muslim scholar under their
patronage. Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was himself a great
musician and contributed the melody, Khayal to the Indian
music.

Besides, the Sangeet Sromani, a great work on music was

compiled by several scholars under his patronage. The rulers
of Gujarat and Malwa also patronized music. Sultan Baz
Bahadur of Malwa was a great lover of music while his wife
Rupmati was a great musician herself. Zain-ul-Abidin, Sultan
of Kashmir was an accomplished musician and patronized
musicians including Buddi Datta who wrote a treatise on
music.

In Bihar, Chintamani became famous in music and was named

Bihari Bulbul, while in Tirhut, Vidyapati was one of the most
popular singers. One of Vidyapati’s song Kajri attained wide
popularity. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great musician
himself and a patron of musicians. The musicians at his court
introduced Rag Dhrupad in the Indian music. Several eminent
musicians like Baksu and, probably, Baiju-Bavvra also
received patronage from Raja Man Singh.

The rulers in South India also gave encouragement to music.

Firuz Shah Bahmani and Mahmud Shah Bahmani were
devoted to music. In Bijapur, Yusuf Adil Shah and his son
were great patrons of music while, at Ahmadnagar, it was
patronized by Chand Bibi who herself was a great musician.
The rulers of Vijayanagara also patronized music and it
flourished at their court.

Several saints of Bhakti-cult and Sufism also helped in the

progress of music. In Bengal, Chaitanya composed devotional
songs in praise of Lord Krishna and gave impetus to music by
engaging in group music, e.g., Kirtana.

Chandi Das was another great poet of his age who sang songs
of the love between Radha and Krishna. The same way, in
Assam, the name of Shankar became famous who produced
Barr songs. Sufi-saints also encouraged music by engaging
themselves in collective singing.

Several famous texts on music were also produced during this

period. Sarangdeva wrote the Sangita Ratnakara which has
been described as an encyclopaedia of Indian music. It has
dealt with various styles of music prevalent at that time in
different parts of India and has enumerated fifteen types of
melodies from which all other types of minor melodies have
sprung.

Another great text produced during this period was the

Ragatarangini written by Locana Kavi. In it, he has described
twelve basic melodies of Indian music e.g., Bhairvi, Todi,
Gauri, Karnata, Kedara, Yamana, Saranga, Megha-raga,
Dhanasari, Purvi, Tukhari and Diyaka. Raja Man Singh of
Gwalior also wrote a treatise on music entitled the Mana-
Kutubala in which he dealt with important features of the
Indian music prevailing in northern India.

Thus, we find that during the period of the Delhi Sultanate

Indian music continued to flourish even when Islam forbade
it. Therefore, it has been remarked that ‘music both of secular
and spiritual character seems to have reached a high level of
perfection during this period.’

It is also certain that the art of dance too must have continued
to flourish along with music during the period of the Delhi
Sultanate.

Painting:
By the middle of the 20th century, it was believed that the art
of painting was totally neglected during the period of the Delhi
Sultanate. Of course, Mohammed Abdulla Chagtai, in the late
19th century, had tried to establish the fact that the art of
painting existed during the period of the Delhi Sultanate and
supported his view by giving references to Indo-Persian
literature of that time. But the majority of the scholars did not
accept his view. It was in 1947 A.D. that Hermann Goetz
described in one of his articles published in The Journal of the
Indian Society of Oriental Art that the art of painting existed
during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. After that several
other scholars also subscribed to his view. They have
supported their view mostly on the basis of references given in
various literary writings concerning paintings. Besides, some
paintings on certain manuscripts and some frescoes of minor
sizes too have been described as belonging to this period.
Therefore, opinion has now veered towards this, fact that the
art of painting did not die out during this period but existed at
least in certain provincial kingdoms and, probably, under the
patronage of some Sultans of Delhi as well. Yet, sufficient
evidences are lacking to confirm this view. Therefore, efforts
are being made in this direction.