STATICS OF PARTICLES (3)

Force on a particle: A force represents the action of one body on another. It

may be exerted by actual contact or at a distance, as in the case of
gravitational forces and magnetic forces.
It is characterized by (a) its point of application (b) its magnitude and (c) its
direction; a force is represented by a vector.
The direction of a force is defined by the line of action (Refer fig. 1) and the
sense of the force. The line of action is the infinite straight line along which the
force acts; it is characterized by the angle it forms with some fixed axis. The
force itself is represented by a segment of that line. The arrow head indicates
the sense of the force.

By particle we mean a very small amount

of matter which may be assumed to
occupy a single point in space. In this
chapter, the forces acting on a particle are
considered. Since the particles are
occupying a single point in space, all the
forces acting on the body will have the
same point of application. Therefore, in this chapter, each force will be
completely defined by its magnitude & direction; point of application of
the force is not necessary.
The study of the statics of particles will be based on the
parallelogram law of addition and on Newton’s first law alone.
The parallelogram law for the addition of forces.
The parallelogram law states that two forces acting on a particle may be
replaced by a single force, called the resultant, obtained by drawing the
diagonal of the parallelogram which has sides equal to the given forces. The
diagonal is drawn from the point of intersection of the given two forces. The
resultant force will have the same effect on the particle as that of the two
forces put together.
Example: Let us consider the two forces P and Q acting on a particle as shown
figure 2 (a). These two forces may be replaced by a single force R which has the
same effect on the particle (fig. 2 (b).

This force is called the resultant of the forces P & Q and may be obtained
by constructing a parallelogram, as shown in fig. 2(c), using P & Q as two sides
of the parallelogram. The diagonal that passes through ‘A’, the point of
intersection of the two forces P and Q, represents the resultant. This is
known as the parallelogram law for the addition of two forces. This law is
based on experimental evidence; it cannot be proved or derived
mathematically.
Note: OTHER VECTORS, SAY, DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY,
ACCELERATION, AND MOMENTUM CAN ALSO BE ADDED BY
APPLYING THE PARALLELOGRAM LAW.
Review of basic trigonometry: The Law of cosine: Refer fig. 3 (a)
A2 = B2 + C2 – 2BC Cos α (OR) A2 = B2 + C2 + 2BC Cos 𝜀

B2 = A2 + C2 – 2AC Cos β (OR) B2 = A2 + C2 + 2AC Cos ψ

C2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB Cos γ (OR) C2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB Cos 𝛿

Note: There are two sets of equations given above. In the first set, the last term
(2BC cos α etc.,) is negative since angle inside the triangle is used. In the
second set of equations, this term is positive since the angle outside the
triangle is used. To explain this, +ve and ― ve signs are given in Fig. 3 (a).

The Sine law:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜸

Please note that

sin (180 ― 𝜀 ) = sin 𝛼.

Therefore the sine law

will give the same result whether we

use internal or external angles, but not the

cosine law.

In fig 3 (b), if P and Q are forces and R is the resultant, then the following
equations can be used.
R2 = P2 + Q2 – 2PQ Cos 𝛼
(OR)
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ Cos 𝜀

𝑹 𝑸 𝑷
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜸

Pythagoras theorem is a special case of the

cosine law. For example if one of the angles α = 900 then the triangle
becomes right angle triangle.
Therefore A becomes the hypotenuse and the equation modifies into
A2 = B2 + C2 – 2BC cos 900; A2 = B2 + C2; (Note: cos 900 = 0)
Pairs of angles in parallel lines:
Refer fig 3 (c): Please note the angles in the figure. Consider parallel lines ‘ab’
and ‘cd’. Line ‘ac’ is the traversal (a line that crosses the parallel lines). The
alternate angles cab = acd = 𝛽. In fig. 3 (d) ‘ad’ and ‘bc’ are parallel lines. With
‘ae’ as the traversal the corresponding angles dae = cbe = 𝜖. In fig. 3 (e)
consider parallel lines ‘ad’ and ‘bc’. With line ‘ac’ as the traversal the alternate
angles dac = acb = 𝛾. Combining figures c, d and e we get fig. 3 (f). Now in the
parallelogram the opposite angles adc = abc = 𝛼 and opposite angles dab = dcb
= (𝛾 + 𝛽)
NOTE: Derivation of the equation
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2 x P x Q cos 𝜽
Refer fig 4.

ac2 = ae2 + ce2 = (ab+ be)2 + ce2

= ab2 + be2 + 2 x ab x be + ce2
= ab2 + (bc cos 𝜃)2+ 2 x ab x bc cos 𝜃 + (bc
sin 𝜃)2
= ab2 + (bc cos 𝜃)2+ (bc sin 𝜃)2 + 2 x ab x
bc cos 𝜃
= ab2 + [bc2 ( cos2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃)] + 2 x ab x bc cos 𝜃 = ab2 + bc2 + 2 x ab x bc cos 𝜃
= R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 𝜽 = R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos (180―abc)
= R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ (― cos abc) = R2 = P2 + Q2 ― 2PQ cos 𝐚𝐛𝐜

PARALLELOGRAM LAW
EXAMPLE PROBLEM: Determine the resultant of the forces P and Q shown in
the Fig (5a) below.

Step 1: Determine the angle between the two forces to be added.

 The angle between P & Q is 90 — (20+10) = 600 = 𝜀

Step 2: To determine the magnitude of the resultant R.

In triangle abc,
R2 = P2 +Q2 + 2PQ Cos 𝜀 (Note 𝜺 is external angle. So + sign for the
term 2PQ Cos 𝜺)
R2 = P2 +Q2 + 2PQ Cos 600
= 432 +882 + 2(43) (88) Cos 600
= 1849 + 7744 + 7568 (0.5) = 9593 + 3784 = 13377
R = 115.7 N

Step 3 : To determine the direction of the resultant R:

To find the direction of R, that is cax, 𝛽 is to be calculated. Of the
three terms given in the equation below, select the term with  𝛽.
In triangle abc,
Q P R 88 43 115.7
{ = = }; { = = };
sin β sin γ sin α 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60
{ = = }; = ;
88 43 115.7 88 115.7
sin 60
Sin 𝛽 = x 88; Therefore 𝛽 = 41.200
115.7
The direction of the resultant must be mentioned with respect to some
known axis, say x or y axis
cax = cab + bax = 41.20 + 10 = 51.200
Ans : Magnitude of R = 115.7 N

Direction of R = 51.200 (OR) it can be written as ‘51.200

measured counterclockwise from + x axis’.
[Note: Always write the angle measured counter clockwise (CCW) from +x
axis. For example the same angle if it is in the third quadrant it can be
written as 180 + 51.20 = 231.200. So write as ‘direction of R = 231.200
measured CCW from +x axis’].

PARALLELOGRAM LAW: GRAPHICAL METHOD

The resultant of P & Q can be determined by the graphical method also.
Scale : 1cm = 10N
ab = 4.3cm ; ad = 8.8cm
Figure 6 shows the parallelogram drawn by graphical method
Draw ab for a length of 4.3 cm at an angle of 100 with x axis
Draw ad = 8.8 cm for at an angle of 200 with y axis.
Draw the parallelogram abcd.
Draw the diagonal ac. Draw the
arrow heads as shown.
‘ab’ represents force P; ‘ad’ represents
force Q; ‘ac’ is the resultant R;
Measure the length ‘ac’.
Length ac = 115 cm; ... R = 115 N
Measure the angle cax; cax = 500
Ans: Magnitude of R = 115 N

Direction of R = 500

NOTE: Analytical method gives the

accurate answers. There are always
errors inherent in graphical methods because of unavoidable errors in marking
the lengths and angles of the lines.
Subtraction of two forces: The subtraction of vectors is defined as the
addition of the corresponding negative vector. Thus the vector P — Q
representing the difference between the vectors P and Q is obtained by adding
to P the negative vector (— Q) as shown in fig. 7.
P — Q = P + ( — Q)