Theory of Measurements

Prepared by
Ts. Hisyamsani Idris
 Measurement of length and time
accurate measurement
No measurement is ever perfectly accurate. Even with high
precision instruments, some error is inevitable.
There are two main types of errors:

Random Errors Systematic Errors

State • random • constant

• in all measurements • observers

• observers estimate consistently
Occurrence the last figure of a underestimate or
reading on an overestimate a
instrument reading

• reduced by • minimized by
Remedy averaging a large method of
number of readings differences
 Measurement of length
length
Length is the measurement of something from
one end to the other end.
 has a SI unit of meter (m)
 other units include centimeters (cm),
millimeters (mm) and kilometers (km)

One meter is the distance travelled by light in a

vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second.
 Measurement of length
length
Lengths can be measured by using the following:
 metre/half-metre rule

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 measuring tape

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 Measurement of length
parallax error
The eye must be positioned perpendicularly at the mark on
the scale to avoid parallax error.

8.3 cm
correct
8.2 cm
wrong
8.5 cm
wrong

Parallax error is due to

 incorrect positioning of the eye
 the object is not at the same level as the markings of the
scale
 Measurement of length
Zero error
Many instruments do not read zero exactly when
there is nothing being measured.

Reasons include:
 instruments are out of adjustment
 some minor fault is present in the instrument

Instruments are usually still accurate as long as

the zero error is added or subtracted from the
reading shown on the scale.
 Measurement of length
Vernier calipers
Vernier calipers measure small lengths accurately up to
0.01 cm.

inside jaws tail

vernier scale main scale

outside jaws
Accuracy = 0.1 mm / 0.01 cm
 Measurement of length
vernier calipers
AB C

main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable)
object being
9 mm
measured

reading on main scale (between A and B) = 2.4 cm

reading on vernier scale (C) = 0.08 cm
actual reading of object = 2.4 + 0.08
= 2.48 cm
 Measurement of length
Vernier calipers
When the two jaws of the vernier calipers touch each other,
both zero marks on the main scale and on the vernier scale
should coincide.

If not, there is a zero error in the vernier calipers.

 Measurement of length
Vernier calipers
If the two jaws touch each other, but the zero marks of the
main scale and vernier scale do not coincide as shown
below, the zero error is positive.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = +0.01 cm

supposing observed reading is 3.24 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 3.24 – (+0.01)
= 3.23 cm
 Measurement of length
Vernier calipers
If the two jaws touch each other, but the zero marks of the
main scale and vernier scale do not coincide as shown
below, the zero error is negative.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = -0.08 cm

supposing observed reading is 4.03 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 4.03 – (-0.08)
= 4.11 cm
 Measurement of length
Micrometer screw gauge
Micrometers measure small diameters or thicknesses.

Accuracy = 0.01 mm / 0.001 cm

anvil spindle sleeve thimble ratchet

frame

Anvil and spindle The thimble is The ratchet knob prevents

are use to grip the turned until the over tightening by making a
object which is to be spindle and anvil ‘tick’ sound when the
measured touches the object. micrometer is ready to read
 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge

sleeve thimble

reading on sleeve = 4.5 mm

reading on thimble = 0.12 mm
actual reading of object = 4.5 + 0.12
= 4.62 mm
 Measurement of length
Micrometer screw gauge
When the anvil and spindle of the micrometer
touch each other, the scales should read zero.

If not, there is a zero error in the micrometer.

 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
If the anvil and spindle touch each other, but the scales do
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is positive.

} 2 divisions

supposing observed reading is 2.37 mm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 2.37 – (+0.02)
= 2.35 mm
 Measurement of length
Micrometer screw gauge
If the anvil and spindle touch each other, but the scales do
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is negative.

} 3 divisions

supposing observed reading is 2.87 mm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 2.87 – (-0.03)
= 2.90 mm
 Physical quantities
are made up of may be
include

Numerical values Base quantities Vector

and suitable units Base SI units Scalar

such as for use

length (m) Measurement Prefixes
mass (kg)
time(s) e.g.
electric current (A)
temperature (K) e.g. of micro () 10-6
amount of substance (mol) milli (m) 10-3
luminous intensity (cd) centi (c) 10-2
deci (d) 10-1
kilo (k) 103
Length Time mega (M) 106

can be measured with can be measured with

metre rule pendulum clock

half-metre rule watch
measuring tape stopwatch
vernier calipers ticker-tape timer
micrometer screw gauge