VSPK INTERNATIONAL

SCHOOL
BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
Genetic Engineering – Its Latest Applications

Submitted by: Palak Nagpal

Class: 12 -A
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that PALAK NAGPAL of Class XII has

satisfactorily completed the project work in Biology
prescribed by the Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE) for AISSSE course for the year 2018-2019.

Signature of the teacher:

Signature of the invigilator:

Name of the Candidate: Palak Nagpal

Class: 12-A
Date of Practical
 INDEX
1 Acknowledgement 1

2 Introduction 2

3 History of Genetic Engineering 4

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) 6

Genetically Modified Microbes 7

4
8
Genetically Modified Crops
9
Transgenic Animals

Genetic Engineering In Medicine 12

Artificial Blood 12
5
13
Cloned Pigs Modified for Use in Human Transplants
13
Genetically Engineered FSH

6 Bio-fuel – As an Alternative 14

7 Bio-weapon – A Challenge 15

8 Conclusion 16

9 Bibliography 16
 Acknowledgement

I would like to convey my sincere gratitude to almighty god. It is my

utmost pleasure to express deep sense of gratitude towards Ms. Jasbir
Kaur, my Biology teacher, as well as our respected Principal madam
who gave me the opportunity to do this wonderful project [genetic
engineering] which also helped me in doing a lot of research work and I
came to know a lot of things, I am really thankful to them. Their valuable
guidance, support and supervision are considerably responsible for helping
this project attain its present form.
I also wish to acknowledge my heart full thanks to my parents,
friends who helped me to complete the project in time.

Introduction
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 Genetic Engineering, also called Genetic Modification, is the direct manipulation
of an organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the
genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries
to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by
first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods
to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct
into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene
targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an
endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or
introduce point mutations.
An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be
a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria generated in 1973
and GM mice in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982
and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glow fish, the first GMO designed
as a pet was first sold in the United States December in 2003.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including
research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry
detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured
in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebra fish are
being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.
The century that we left behind has witnessed giant strides in almost all spheres of
human life. Currently, biotechnology is looked upon as one of the most promising branches
of science. And it is Genetic Engineering that makes most biotechnological applications
possible. Genetic engineering is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome
using modern DNA technology. It involves the introduction of foreign DNA or synthetic
genes into the organism of interest. The introduction of new DNA does not require the use of
classical genetic methods; however traditional breeding methods are typically used for the
propagation of recombinant organisms.

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through artificial
selection and more recently mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of
DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. Humans
have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through artificial selection and

2
more recently mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by
humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The most common
form of genetic engineering involves the insertion of new genetic material at an unspecified
location in the host genome. This is accomplished by isolating and copying the genetic
material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence
containing the required genetic elements for expression, and then inserting this construct into
the host organism. Other forms of genetic engineering include gene targeting and knocking
out specific genes via the most common form of genetic engineering involves the insertion
of new genetic material at an unspecified location in the host genome. This is accomplished
by isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to
generate a DNA sequence containing the required genetic elements for expression, and then
inserting this construct into the host organism. Genetic engineering alters the genetic
makeup of an organism using techniques that introduce heritable material prepared outside
the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with
the host. This involves using recombinant nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form
new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that
material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-
injection and micro-encapsulation techniques.

HISTORY OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective
breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection, and more recently
through mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans
outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic
engineering" was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island,
published in 1951 one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred
Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that
the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure.

3
 Paul Berg Rudolf Jaenisch

Although the concept of gene transfer is relatively simple, its execution presents
considerable technical obstacles. The first person to surmount these obstacles was the American
biochemist Paul Berg (1926), often referred to as the "father of genetic engineering." In 1973
Berg developed a method for joining the DNA from two different organisms, a monkey virus
known as SV40 and a virus called lambda phage.

4
 Although the accomplishment was clearly a breakthrough, Berg's method was difficult.
Then, later that year, the American biochemists Stanley Cohen (1922) at Stanford University
and Herbert Boyer (1936) at the University of California at San Francisco discovered an
enzyme that greatly increased the efficiency of the Berg procedure. The gene-transfer technique
developed by Berg, Boyer, and Cohen formed the basis for much of the ensuing progress in
genetic engineering.

In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA
from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. In 1973Herbert Boyer and Stanley
Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into
the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by
introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world’s first transgenic animal. These
achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic
engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of
the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant
DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.
In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer
and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein in E.coli.
Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980,
the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life
could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release
by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.
In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the
first synthetic bacterial genome. The researchers added the new genome to bacterial cells and
selected for cells that contained the new genome. To do this the cells undergoes a process called
resolution, where during bacterial cell division one new cell receives the original DNA genome
of the bacteria, whilst the other receives the new synthetic genome. When this cell replicates it
uses the synthetic genome as its template. The resulting bacterium the researchers developed,
named Synthia, was the world's first synthetic life form.

5
 Process

Polymerase chain reaction is a powerful tool used in molecular cloning

Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to
insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier
research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to
identify the best candidates. The development of microarrays, transcriptomes and genome
sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the round-up ready
gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide.
Gene isolation and cloning
The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is
purified. The gene is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel
electrophoresis. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already
be accessible from a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are
available, it can also be artificially synthesised. Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is
then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited
copies of the gene are available.
Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements.
These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription. A selectable
marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance, so researchers can easily
determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage
for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant
DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning.

Inserting DNA into the host genome

6
A gene gun uses ballistics to insert DNA into plant tissue

There are a number of techniques available for inserting the gene into the host genome. Some bacteria
can naturally take up foreign DNA. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or
electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either
integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells
using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus,
or through the use of viral vectors.
In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated recombination taking advantage of
the Agrobacterium T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other
methods include ballistics, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into
young plant cells, and electroporation, which involves using an electric shock to make the cell membrane
permeable to plasmid DNA. Due to the damage caused to the cells and DNA the transformation efficiency
of ballistics and electroporation is lower than agrobacterial transformation and microinjection.
As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that
single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to
ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Bacteria consist of a single cell and
reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate
transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism,
although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the
mature transgenic plant.

7
A. tumefaciens attaching itself to a carrot cell

Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an
organism contains the new gene.[67]These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy
number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at
appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and
protein) are also used. These include northern hybridization, quantitative RT-PCR, Western
blot, immunofluorescence, ELISA and phenotypic analysis.[68]
The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific
location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a
specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and
generally requires the use of selectable markers. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly
enhanced through genome editing. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create
specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell’s endogenous
mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and no
homologous end-joining. There are four families of engineered nucleases: mega nucleases, zinc finger
nucleases, transcription activator-like effecter nucleases (TALENs),[73][74] and the Cas9-guideRNA system
(adapted from CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own
advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more
efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce
mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout.

8
Applications
Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on
a wide range of plants, animals and micro organisms. Bacteria, the first organisms to be genetically
modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that
process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance,
virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible
vaccines. Most commercialized GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically
modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or
pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked
out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in
their milk.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

A genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically engineered organism

(GEO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering
techniques. Plants, animals or micro organisms that have changed through genetic engineering
are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. Bacteria were the first organisms to be
genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be inserted into the bacterial cell
and the bacteria will then express those genes.
These genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates.
Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced
nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines. Most
commercialized GMO's are insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically
modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural
or pharmaceutical products. They include animals with genes knocked out, increased
susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their
milk.
These techniques, generally known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA
molecules from different sources, which are combined into one molecule to create a new set of
genes. This DNA is then transferred into an organism, giving it modified or novel genes.
Transgenic organisms, a subset of GMOs, are organisms which have inserted DNA that
originated in a different species.

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 GMOs are used in biological and medical research, production of pharmaceutical drugs,
experimental medicine (e.g. gene therapy), and agriculture (e.g. golden rice). The term
"genetically modified organism" does not always imply, but can include, targeted insertions of
genes from one species into another. For example, a gene from a jellyfish, encoding a
fluorescent protein called GFP, can be physically linked and thus co-expressed with mammalian
genes to identify the location of the protein encoded by the GFP-tagged gene in the mammalian
cell. Such methods are useful tools for biologists in many areas of research, including those
who study the mechanisms of human and other diseases or fundamental biological processes in
eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells.

Example of Genetically Engineered Bacteria – Production of

Human Insulin
An example of genetically engineered bacteria is in the production of human insulin.
Insulin is a protein hormone produced in the pancreas which has an important function in
the regulation of blood sugar levels. Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose into cells. A
deficiency in insulin is one of the causes of the disease diabetes mellitus or sugar diabetes
in which the sugar levels in the blood become raised resulting in harmful consequences.
At least 3% of the world’s population is affected by diabetes mellitus and sufferers of the
disease require insulin injections to manage the disease.

Before genetic engineering, insulin used for treatment was sourced from the pancreas of
slaughtered pigs and cattle. This source of insulin had minor differences in the amino acid
composition to the insulin produced in humans and also contained trace impurities. As a
result some patients were allergic to insulin sourced from animals and had damaging side
effects as a result of treatment from these injections. The solution to this problem was
solved by genetic engineering.

Bioreactors
The process of genetically engineering insulin on the large scale takes place in
bioreactors. These are large vessels usually constructed from stainless steel in which the
bacteria are grown. They are also referred to as fermentation vessels as they provide the
correct nutrients and controlled conditions in which the bacteria can grow and multiply
rapidly. For insulin production the bioreactors are strictly controlled and kept in clean

10
environments. On completion of the fermentation cycle the insulin is extracted and
purified.

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 I. Genetically Modified microbes
Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple
genetics. These organisms are now used for several purposes, and are particularly important in
producing large amounts of pure human proteins for use in medicine. Genetically are used to
produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes. Similar bacteria have been used to produce clotting
factors to treat hemophilia and human growth hormone to treat various forms of dwarfism.
Bacteria synthesize products such as;

 Insulin
 Hepatitis B vaccine
 Tissue plasminogen activator
 Human growth hormone
 Ice-minus bacteria
 Interferon’s

In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used to construct more
environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery.
Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure disease into
human cells. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has
been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency.
In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically-modified virus that exploits the selfish
behavior of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumors.

Genetically modified virus and bacteria

II. Genetically Modified Crops

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 Transgenic plants have been engineered to possess several desirable traits, such as
resistance to pests, herbicides, or harsh environmental conditions, improved product shelf life,
and increased nutritional value. Since the first commercial cultivation of genetically modified
plants in 1996, they have been modified to be tolerant to the herbicides glufosinate and
glyphosate, to be resistant to virus damage as in Ring spot virus-resistant GM papaya, grown in
Hawaii, and to produce the BT toxin, an insecticide that is non-toxic to mammals. Most GM
crops grown today have been modified with "input traits", which provide benefits mainly to
farmers. Golden Rice is a transgenic variety of rice, with genes for the synthesis of b-carotene
taken from the temperate garden favorite Narcissus pseudo narcissus (daffodil) and inserted into
the genome of a temperate strain of rice, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens as the vector, to
affect the transfer. The gene construct also contains some genes for enzymes of the
biosynthetic pathway of b-carotene, from another bacterium Erwinia Uredovora.

Genetically Modified Foods (GM foods or GMO foods) are foods derived
from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Genetically modified organisms have had
specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering techniques. These
techniques are much more precise than mutagenesis (mutation breeding) where an organism is
exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques
by which humans modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal
breeding, and soma clone variation.GM foods were first put on the market in 1996. Typically,
genetically modified foods are transgenic plant products: soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed
oil. Animal products have also been developed, currently on the market.
In 2006 a pig was controversially engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids through the
expression of a roundworm gene. Researchers have also developed a genetically-modified breed
of pigs that are able to absorb plant phosphorus more efficiently, and as a consequence the
phosphorus content of their manure is reduced by as much as 60%.

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 Genetically Engineered Roses

III. Transgenic Animals

A transgenic animal is one that carries a foreign gene that has been deliberately inserted
into its genome. The foreign gene is constructed using recombinant DNA methodology.
Transgenic animals are used as experimental models to perform phenotypic and for testing in
biomedical research. Genetically Modified (Genetically Engineered) animals are becoming
more vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases.
By altering the DNA or transferring DNA to an animal, we can develop certain proteins that
may be used in medical treatment. Stable expressions of human proteins have been developed
in many animals, including sheep, pigs, and rats.
Some examples are: Human-alpha-1-antitrypsin, which has been developed in sheep and
is used in treating humans with this deficiency and transgenic pigs with human-histo-
compatibility have been studied in the hopes that the organs will be suitable for transplant with
less chances of rejection. Transgenic livestock have been used as bioreactors since the 1990s.
Many medicines, including insulin and many immunizations are developed in transgenic
animals. In March 2011, the bioactive recombinant Human Lysozyme was expressed in the
milk of cloned transgenic cattle. This field is growing rapidly and new farming uses are being
discovered and developed. The extent that transgenic animals will be useful in the medical field
as well as other fields is very promising based on results thus far.

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The Glow Fish - A fluorescent red zebra fish sold as a novel pet, has become the first transgenic animal
sold to U.S. consumers. In 1999, Dr. Zhiyuan Gong and his colleagues at the National University of
Singapore were working with a gene called green fluorescent protein (GFP), originally extracted from
a jellyfish, that naturally produced bright green fluorescence. They inserted the gene into a zebra fish
embryo, allowing it to integrate into the zebra fish’s genome, which caused the fish to be brightly
fluorescent under both natural white light and ultraviolet light. Their goal was to develop a fish that
could detect pollution by selectively fluorescing in the presence of environmental toxins. The
development of the constantly fluorescing fish was the first step in this process. Shortly thereafter, his
team developed a line of red fluorescent zebra fish by adding a gene from a sea coral, and orange-
yellow fluorescent zebra fish, by adding a variant of the jellyfish gene. Later, a team of researchers at
the National University of Taiwan, headed by Professor Huai-Jen Tsai succeeded in creating
a medaka (rice fish) with a fluorescent green color, which like the zebra fish is a model organism used
in biology.

Fruit flies
In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) are model
organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development.[Fruit flies are often preferred
over other animals due to their short life cycle, low maintenance requirements, and relatively simple
genome compared to many vertebrates.

Mosquitoes
In 2010, scientists created "malaria-resistant mosquitoes" in the laboratory. The World Health
Organization estimated that Malaria killed almost one million people in 2008. Genetically modified
male mosquitoes containing a lethal gene have been developed in order to combat the spread
of Dengue fever. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the single most important carrier of dengue fever, were
reduced by 80% in a 2010 trial of these GM mosquitoes in the Cayman Islands. Around 50 - 100
million people are affected by Dengue fever every year and 40,000 people die from it.

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Mammals
Genetically modified mammals are an important category of genetically modified organisms.
Transgenic mice are often used to study cellular and tissue-specific responses to disease. In 1999,
scientists at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada created the genetically engineered Enviropig.
The Enviropig excretes from 30 to 70.7% less phosphorus in manure depending upon the age and diet.
In February 2010, Environment Canada determined that Enviropigs are in compliance with the
Canadian Environmental Protection Act and can be produced outside of the research context in
controlled facilities where they are segregated from other animals.
In 2009, scientists in Japan announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into
a primate species (marmosets) and produced a stable line of breeding transgenic primates for the first
time. Their first research target for these marmosets was Parkinson's disease, but they were also
considering Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease.
In 2011, scientists in China released news that they have introduced human genes into 300 dairy
cows to produce milk with the same properties as human breast milk. Aside from milk production, the
researchers claim these transgenic cows to be identical to regular cows.

Cnidarians
Cnidarians such as Hydra and the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis have become
attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity and certain developmental
processes. An important technical breakthrough was the development of procedures for
generation of stably transgenic hydras and sea anemones by embryo microinjection.

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 Sea Anemone Jellyfish

GENETIC ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE

Genetic engineering is becoming a major force in conventional medicine. It has got
numerous applications in medicine ranging from vaccines to transgenic organ transplants.
1. The Artificial Blood

The artificial blood is a genetically engineered form of hemoglobin, the complicated

protein that enclosed in red blood cells--carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the
body. Many companies have been searching for an artificial blood because of the annual
worldwide shortage of about 100 million units of blood and the military's need for blood
replacements that can be stored in field conditions without refrigeration. An artificial blood also
would virtually eliminate the risk of contracting AIDS, hepatitis and other viral diseases
through transfusions. Development of emulsion technologies resulted in the production of
compounds which utilized smaller chain per fluorocarbon molecules to more effectively
emulsify the per fluorocarbons, allowing higher concentrations of active agent in the emulsion
and thus higher oxygen carrying capabilities.

Artificial Haemoglobin Artificial Blood Cells

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 2. Cloned Pigs Modified for Use in Human Transplants
Two competing teams have cloned pigs that have been genetically modified to produce
organs more suitable for transplantation into humans. Pig organs are well suited for
transplantation; they are approximately the same size as human organs and have similar
plumbing, which makes reconnecting blood vessels much easier. Also, the size of pig litters
tends to be large and pigs reproduce quickly, raising the prospect of a large supply of "spare"
organs. A problem with using pig organs, however, is that they are coated with sugar molecules
that trigger acute rejection in people. Human antibodies attach themselves to these sugar
molecules and quickly destroy the newly transplanted pig organ. To circumvent the rejection,
scientists are working to produce pigs that lack the sugar-producing gene.

3. Genetically Engineered FSH

FSH is produced by the pituitary gland and directly stimulates the ovaries to recruit and
support ovarian follicles, each containing one egg. The hypothalamus adjusts the
production of FSH depending upon the levels of other hormones such as estrogen. FSH is
used in stimulated IUI and assisted reproductive technology cycles (IVF) because it
causes the development of numerous follicles. More follicles are needed in ART cycles
because some do not fertilize or do not continue to develop. Banana Vaccines

Research being done on potatoes show that genes can be put successfully into potato plants
that will make vaccines against cholera, diarrhea and hepatitis B. Scientists hope to be able
to genetically engineer bananas to cause of death in young children.

BIOFUEL – AS AN ALTERNATIVE
Algae Fuel – It might be an alternative to fossil fuel and uses algae as its source of
natural deposits. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce
capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable.[ Harvested
algae, like fossil fuel, release CO2 when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO2 is taken out of the
atmosphere by the growing algae. High oil prices, competing demands between foods and other
biofuel sources, and the world food crisis, have ignited interest in alga culture(farming algae)
for making biodiesel, bioethanol, biogasoline, biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuels, using
land that is not suitable for agriculture.

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 Biodiesel - Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in
the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using
algae to produce biodiesel may be the only viable method by which to produce enough
automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace
the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a land mass of 57.3 million
hectares would be required. This compares highly favourable to other biofuels. Microalgae have
much faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is
estimated to be from between 5,000 to 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to
18,000 m3/km2·a). This is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, Chinese
tallow (700 US gal/acre·a or 650 m3/km2·a).
Studies show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in the
form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient
access to water, CO2 and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large
amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photo bioreactors.
This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in automobiles.

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Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic
benefits to rural communities.[19]
The National Algae Biofuel Technology Roadmap emphasizes the role of genetic
engineering to find, adjust and deploy optimized algae species for biofuel development.

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 BIOWEAPON - A CHALLENGE

Rapid developments in biotechnology, genetics and genomics are undoubtedly creating a variety of
environmental, ethical, political and social challenges for advanced societies. But they also have severe
implications for international peace and security because they open up tremendous avenues for the creation of
new biological weapons. The genetically engineered 'superbug'—highly lethal and resistant to environmental
influence or any medical treatment—is only a small part of this story. Much more alarming, from an arms-
control perspective, are the possibilities of developing completely novel weapons on the basis of knowledge
provided by biomedical research—developments that are already taking place. Such weapons, designed for new
types of conflicts and warfare scenarios, secret operations or sabotage activities, are not mere science fiction,
but are increasingly becoming a reality that we have to face.
The history of biological warfare is nearly as old as the history of warfare itself. In ancient times,
warring parties poisoned wells or used arrowheads with natural toxins. By using genetic engineering, biological
researchers have already developed new weapons that are much more effective than their natural counterparts.
Countless examples from the daily work of molecular biologists could be presented here, not least the
introduction of antibiotic resistance into bacterial pathogens, which today is routine work in almost any
microbiology laboratory. Indeed, many research projects in basic science show—sometimes unwillingly and
unwittingly—how to overcome current scientific and technological limits in the military use of pathogenic
agents. Furthermore, genetic engineering is not merely a theoretical possibility for future biowarfare: it has
already been applied in past weapons programmes, particularly in the former Soviet Union. One example is the
USSR's 'invisible anthrax', resulting from the introduction of an alien gene into Bacillus anthracis that altered its
immunological properties. Existing vaccines proved to be ineffective against this new genetically engineered
strain.
The global norm against biological weapons, laid down in the 1925 Geneva Convention and the 1972
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, clearly contributed to the fact that few countries have been engaged
in research into offensive biowarfare during recent decades.

This moral barrier seems to be lower for 'non-lethal' weapons that are targeted against materials or
drug-producing plants. Indeed, today's technical possibilities are creating a new interest in this area that
might be leading to a new biological arms race
New technological possibilities met new military concepts in the USA and led to a renewed interest in
weapons that, until recently, had been banned and rejected.

In 1998, it became public that the US Naval Research Laboratory in Washington DC was developing
genetically engineered fungi with offensive biowarfare potential. They isolated natural microorganisms
that degrade a variety of materials, such as plastics, rubber and metals, and used genetic engineering to
make them more powerful and focused—one of these genetically engineered microbes can destroy
military paints in 72 hours.

Microbes that are composed of synthetic or artificial components, such as DNA or RNA or codos or amino
acids can be tailored for use as biological warfare agents. As examples, if DNA used xDNA were to be
coupled with synthetic codons, with synthetic anti-codons, etc. then such microbes used as biological
warfare agents would be synthetic biological warfare agents.

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 CONCLUSION
We have discussed the promising aspects of Genetic Engineering that can bring
about tremendous changes in human life. However the manipulation of living organisms by the
human race cannot go on any further without regulation. Some ethical standards are required to
evaluate the morality of all human activities that might help or harm living organisms. Going
beyond the morality of such issues the biological significance of such things is also important.
Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredictable results when such organisms are
introduced into the ecosystem.
Every new technology aims to improve man’s life. It is for man to make the judicious use
of its applications…

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.wikipedia.com

 www.encyclopedia.com

 Britannica Encyclopedia

 Tell Me Why Magazine

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