Pharmaceutical Calculations Guide

CALCULATIONS GUIDE
Jasvir Samra
Priyanka Dahele
Anoushka Walia
Preface
This book has been created to guide
students of all years through their
calculation assessments.
Each chapter consists of an explanation

of the topic, followed examples, tailored
to our own experienceof the tests.
Feel free to contact any of the creators of

this guide if you require additional help.
CONTENTS
TABLE OF
1 UNITS
4 ACCURACY OF MEASUREMENT
9 CONCENTRATIONS
14 DILUTIONS
19 FORMULATION PREPARATION
23 DOSING
28 DISPLACEMENT
31 MOLAR CALCULATIONS
35 FLOW RATES
PHARMACY CALCULATIONS
UNITS
Units are an essential aspect of pharmaceutical calculations.

Although converting units is not usually a question in its own
regard, it is essential to most calculations. Questions often give
values in one unit and expect an answer in another, thus, learning
to convert between units is vital. Remember, a number is
meaningless without units.
The most common units of measurements found in pharmacy are

those of mass and volume. The table below highlights the
relationship between various units.
Prefix Kilo Milli Micro
Mass 0.001 kg 1g 1000 mg 1000000 µg
Volume 0.001 kL 1L 1000 mL 1000000 µL
Mole - 1 mol 1000 mmol 1000000 µmol
For converting between metric measurements (see table above),

you must learn the conversion factors. Practice is the only way to
become comfortable with converting between units. However, with
other, less conventional units of measurements, the conversion
factor will be given.
1
EXAMPLE 1:
Convert 485765 micrograms to grams.
Step 1:
Convert to milligrams first.
First to milligrams by dividing by 1000
485765
= 485.765 m g
1000
Step 2:
Then convert to grams by dividing by 1000
485.765
= 0.485765 g
1000
Tip:
You can speed up this process by compounding the calculations
from both steps 1 and 2, and dividing by 1000000 instead.
485765
= 0.485765 g
1000000
Therefore, 485765 micrograms is equivalent to 0.485765 g
EXAMPLE 2:
Convert 3.4 pints into litres (conversion factor: 1 L= 1.76 pints).
2
Step 1:
First we need to set up proportions. We know that 1 L = 1.76 pints
and x litres = 3.4 pints.
x 1
=
3.4 1.76
We can then rearrange this formula to solve for x
3.4
x = = 1.93 L
1.76
Therefore, 3.4 pints is equivalent to 1.93L
3
ACCURACY OF MEASUREMENT
This chapter reviews rounding numbers, use of appropriate

significant figures and limits of measurement in pharmaceutical
calculations. This is extremely important to ensure measurements
are represented to the correct degree of accuracy.
ROUNDING NUMBERS
Rounding numbers makes figures more convenient to use in

calculations, however it must be noted that once rounded, a
number is only an approximation. Therefore, an exact number
cannot be obtained once calculations are based on a rounded
number.
In pharmaceutics, to understand the degree of accuracy obtained

from calculations carried out, knowledge of this concept is
important.
If the last figure is less than 4, the whole number will be rounded
down to the next lowest factor of the stated degree of accuracy. As
an example, 73 will be rounded down to the nearest 10 becoming 70.
If the last figure is between 5 and 9, the whole number will be

rounded up to the next highest factor of the stated degree of
accuracy
Rounded numbers can be used to simplify and make

calculations easier.
4
EXAMPLE:
In order to add 182 and 2847 we can round each number before
adding them together:
182 will round down to 180

2847 will round up to 2850
The total of the two rounded numbers is 3030 as opposed to the

total of the exact numbers which is 3029. Rounding can reduce
numbers to a more convenient and manageable size as a result.
SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
Considering the length of a room to be 19 metres and therefore

1900 centimetres (to 2 s.f.), the 1 meaning one thousand and the 9
being nine hundred. The 00 in 1900 does not mean 0 tens and 0
units, instead the 00 means that the number of tens and units have
not been stated so these figures simply act as space such that the 1
represents the thousands and the 9 represents the hundreds.
Therefore, in this example, the 00 are two figures which are not
significant whilst the 1 and 9 are significant figures.
EXAMPLE 1:
A bottle or oral suspension contains 0.07 L of liquid to the nearest
0.01 L. How many significant figures are there in this
measurement?
The 7 means 7 hundredths of a litre, this figure is significant. The 0

to the left of the 7 is only used so that space is created in order that
5
the 7 appears in the hundredths column, it is not significant.

Therefore, there is one significant figure in this number.
EXAMPLE 2:
The number 123 000 is stated to the nearest hundred. How many
significant figures in this number?
The number is stated to the nearest hundred, the 0 to the right of

the 3 shows that there are no hundreds and is therefore a
significant figure.
The number is stated to the nearest hundred, hence the following

00 means that the number of tens and units have not been stated
and are not significant. There are four significant figures in this
number.
When correcting to fewer significant figures we can incorporate the

rounding technique mentioned above:
EXAMPLE 1:
Correct 18 726 to 3 s.f. = 18 700
EXAMPLE 2:
Correct 71 263 to 3 s.f. = 71 300
EXAMPLE 3:
Correct 0.00753 to 2 s.f. = 0.0075
6
ACCURACY IN WEIGHING AND MEASURING
According to the European Pharmacopoeia, the quantity of

ingredient which is weighed may deviate by no more than 10% from
the stated quantity, and in addition an indicated degree of
precision will also be stated.
As an example, in reference to weighing, the degree of precision is

plus or minus 5 units after the last figure stated, therefore 0.75 g will
be interpreted as 0.745 g to 0.755 g.
It is also important to remember that the degree of precision is

implied by the number of significant figures.
EXAMPLE 1:
The European Pharmacopeia states that erythromycin ethyl
succinate (EES) should contain no more than 6.0% water
determined on 0.450 g by semi-micro determination of water and
not more than 0.7% of sulphated ash determined on 2.0 g.
What are the limits on the weights of erythromycin for the
determination of water?
First let us consider the weight which is being referred to; 0.450 g.
As stated previously, the precision of the required weighing is
indicated by the number of significant figures.
0.450 g is three significant figures. Therefore, our answer should

follow this degree of precision.
The amount of sample can vary by no greater than 10% (According
to the European Pharmacopoeia). If 0.450 g represents 100%, the
7
limits can be found by calculating 90% and 110%, the values for
10% more and 10% less than the stated weight.
90% of 0.450 =0.405

110% of 0.450 =0.495
Therefore, the actual weighing can be between 0.405 g and 0.495 g.
Both these answers must be expressed to the same number of

significant figures as the original value from which they were
calculated.
EXAMPLE 2:
An operator found that a 1.04 g sample of EES contained 0.0079 g
of sulphated ash. Is this acceptable?
In the information provided it was stated that the sample could

contain no more than 0.7% of sulphated ash.
1.04 g represents 100%, in order to calculate the maximum amount

of sulphated ash as stated 0.7% of 1.04 g is determined.
0.7% o f 1.04 = 0.00728
The sample contains 0.0079 g which is greater than 0.00728 g.

It does not comply with the European Pharmacopoeia
requirements.
8
CONCENTRATIONS
Pharmaceutical preparations are made up of a number of different

ingredients mixed with a vehicle in order to produce the
pharmaceutical product. The ingredients and vehicles used in a
product can be a variety of phases.
The concentration of pharmaceutical preparations usually

describes the strength of a drug in a preparation. As such, it is a
very important pharmaceutical calculation.
A preparation which is too strong would lead to toxic effects, and a

preparation too weak would lead to a sub-therapeutic response.
Concentration is an expression of the ratio of the amount of

ingredient to the amount of product. It can be expressed in several
ways:
w/w – Solid (g) ingredient in a Solid (g) vehicle

v/v – Liquid (ml) ingredient in a Liquid (ml) vehicle
w/v – Solid (g) ingredient in a Liquid (ml) vehicle
v/w – Liquid (ml) ingredient in a Solid (g) vehicle
There is an agreed convention that states that weight is expressed

in grams and volume is expressed in millilitres.
Concentrations are expressions of ratios, and therefore, can be

expressed in various forms. This includes amount strengths, ratio
strengths and percentage strengths.
1% w/w = 1g in 100g w/w = 1:100

1% w/v = 1g in 100ml w/v = 1:100
9
1% v/w = 1ml in 100g w/w = 1:100

1% v/v = 1ml in 100ml w/v = 1:100
Tip:
A percentage amount is the amount of ingredient in 100 parts of the
product (100 g of solid or 100 ml of liquid)
EXAMPLE 1:
How many milligrams of aluminium acetate are required to
prepare 500 mL of a 0.14% w/v solution?
Step 1:
0.14% w/v solution can also be written as 0.14 g in 100ml product.
This means that each 100ml of vehicle contains 0.14 g aluminium
acetate.
Step 2:
Whilst maintaining this ratio, we can calculate that we would have
0.7 g aluminium acetate in 500 ml product.
0.14 g in 100 ml
0.7 g in 500 ml
Step 3:
Convert 0.7 g into mg,
0.7g × 1000 = 700 mg
Therefore, 700 mg is required to produce the desired preparation.
10
Example 2:
What is the amount of potassium permanganate in 300 mL of a 1 in
25 solution?
Step 1:
A 1 in 25 solution means 1 g in 25 ml of solution.
Step 2:
Whilst maintaining this ratio, we can calculate that we would have
12 g potassium permanganate in 300ml solution.
1 g in 25 ml
12 g in 300 ml
Therefore, 12 g potassium permanganate would be found in 300ml

of a 1 in 25 solution.
Example 3:
You are required to make 100 mL of double strength chloroform
water. Single strength chloroform water is made up of 1 part
chloroform water concentrate + 39 parts water. What volume of
water in mL is needed to make the required solution?
Step 1:
The question is asking us about double strength chloroform water,
whilst giving us the concentration of single strength solution. We
already know that single strength chloroform water comes in the
strength of 1 in 40, and so double would come in the strength of 1 in
20.
11
Step 2:
After this slight adjustment, we would need to multiply out by 5, as
20 multiplied by 5 gives us the required 100ml of solution.
1ml concentrate in 20ml water
whilst maintaining the ratio, we’d find:
5 ml concentrate in 100ml water
Step 3:
Knowing that we require 5ml of concentrate in 100ml of product, it
would mean we have 95ml of water in this final solution, as:
# 100 − 5 = 95 ml
Therefore, the answer would be 95ml of water
EXAMPLE 4:
Rectogesic® rectal ointment (glyceryl trinitrate 0.4 %) is applied to
the anal canal for the treatment of anal fissures. 1 application is 2.5
cm in length and contains 1.5 mg of glyceryl trinitrate.
How many applications are contained in a 30 g tube of Rectogesic®
rectal ointment?
Step 1:
0.4% w/w glyceryl trinitrate means 0.4 g glyceryl trinitrate in 100 g
product. This would mean we would have 0.12 g glyceryl trinitrate
in the 30 g tube of Rectogesic® rectal ointment
12
Step 2:
We now know we have 0.12g drug in our 30g tube. We want to know
how many applications of 1.5mg (0.0015g) we can obtain from this.
# 0.12 ÷ 0.0015 = 80
Therefore, the answer is 80 applications
13
DILUTIONS
This chapter addresses problems arising from the quantitative

relationship between specific ingredients and the pharmaceutical
preparation as a whole.
During a dilution, the weight of active ingredient remains the same

before and after dilution. However, since the volume changes the
concentration of the solution also changes.
Therefore, you can use the formula:
# C1.V1 = C2.V2
C= concentration
V= volume
EXAMPLE 1:
How many mLs of a 0.6% w/v stock solution are required to make
2L of a 0.06% solution, using water as the solvent?
In order to apply the above formula, three variables must be known.

In this example problem, C1 (0.6%), V2 (2 L), and C2 (0.06%) are
known.
The unknown variable which needs to be determined is V1. To solve

the problem, insert the numerical values into the formula and solve
for V1.
It is important to remember that you should work with similar

units while performing these calculations. In this case, the final
14
answer is to be stated in mL; thus, 2 L should be converted to mL

prior to using the formula.
V1 = ?
C1 = 0.6%
V2 = 2000 mL
C2 = 0.06%
(V1)(0.6) = (2000)(0.06)
V1(0.6) = 120
V1 = (120 ÷ 0.6) = 200 mL
Therefore, 200 mL of a 0.6% stock solution is required to compound

the liquid. Now, we must determine how many mL of solvent are
necessary. To calculate the amount of solvent (water) to include in
the compound, simply subtract the volume of the stock solution
from the final volume of the compound.
2000 mL (final volume of the compound) – 200 mL (volume of stock

solution) = 1800 mL of water
Thus, 200 mL of the 0.6% stock solution and 1800 mL of solvent

(water) are required to make 2000 mL, or 2 L, of 0.06% solution.
15
EXAMPLE 2:
What is the new concentration of a 750 mL, 50% v/v dextrose
solution that is diluted to 1500 mL with water?
V1 = 750 mL
C1 = 50% v/v
V2 = 1500 mL
C2 = ?
(750)(50) = (1500)(C2)
37500 = (1500) (C2)
C2 = 37500 ÷ 1500 = 25%
By diluting 750 mL of a 50% v/v dextrose solution to 1500 mL with

water, the resulting concentration of the dextrose solution is 25% v/
v. Notice there is no change in the quantity of active ingredient, but
we are doubling the volume, as a result, the concentration of the
solution decreased by half.
In certain situations, two or more strengths of product must be

mixed in order to produce the final formulation.
16
EXAMPLE 3:
What is the final % v/v of a solution if 400 mL of 30% v/v solution
is added to 200 mL of 40% v/v solution?
When the two volumes are added together the final volume of
product becomes 600 mL. It is necessary to work out the amount of
active ingredient in each of the two separate volumes in order to
calculate the total present in the final volume of 600 mL.
30% v/v = 30 mL in 100 mL

Therefore 120 mL in 400 mL
40% v/v = 40 mL in 100 mL

Therefore 80 mL in 200 mL
In 600 mL there is therefore 120 mL + 80 mL of active ingredient.

200 mL of active ingredient in a 600 mL solution results in a
concentration of 33% v/v.
CONCENTRATED WATERS
Concentrated waters such as rose water and peppermint waters are

diluted to produce single or double strength formulations.
The pharmaceutical definition of concentrated water is one that is

40X stronger than single-strength water therefore, single-strength
is equal to 1 part concentrate to 39 parts water or 1 part concentrate
in 40 parts water.
17
EXAMPLE 1:
How much concentrated rose water should you use to
produce 440 mL of single-strength rose water?
Concentrated water is 40X stronger than single strength, therefore

is 1/40 of the total volume. Hence 11 mL of concentrated rose water
is needed.
EXAMPLE 2:
How much water needs to be added to 50 mL of concentrated
peppermint water to produce double-strength peppermint water?
Double strength is 1 part concentrated water to 19 parts water,

therefore 50 mL is equal to 1/20 of the total volume. Hence 950 mL
is water needs to be added to 50 mL of concentrated peppermint
water to provide 1000 mL of solution.
18
FORMULATION PREPARATIONS
Ingredients of a formulation may be given to you as a list of

amounts, parts or percentages, in a given quantity. You may be
required to adapt this list of ingredients to the amount specified on
the prescription. It is important for these calculations to be carried
out accurately as any errors could be harmful to the patient.
Tip:
The different ingredients of the formulae must be kept in ratio at all
times. Checking the ratios match in the same way before and after
quantity conversion is a good way to accuracy check your
calculations.
Example 1:
A prescription requires 200mL of Chalk Mixture, Paediatric BP.
The formula is:
Chalk 20g
Tragacanth powder 
2g
Cinnamon water, concentrated 4ml
Syrup 
100ml
Chloroform water, double

500ml
strength
Water for preparation to 1000ml
19
Step 1:
The formulae provided to us is for a quantity of 1000ml, as water is
added in order to make the preparation up to 1000ml.
Step 2:
It can be seen that we must divide the total formulae, of 1000ml
quantity, by 5 in order to obtain our prescribed amount of 200ml.
We must also divide the quantity of every ingredient by 5.
Step 3:
Divide every ingredient by 5
MASTER PRESCRIBED
Chalk 20 4
Tragacanth powder 
2 0.4
cinnamon water,
4 0.8
concentrated
syrup 
100 20
chloroform water,
500 100
double strength
water for
1000 200
preparation
20
EXAMPLE 2:
Find the quantities of ingredients needed to produce 50g of
product using the formula (given in parts):
calamine 2 parts
yellow soft paraffin 38 parts
Total 50 parts
Step 1:
We can calculate that the total parts of the formulae is 40 parts.
Step 2:
After calculating this, it would be preferable to convert this
formulae into one with a total of 50 parts. This would make the
further calculations easier, as it would mean 1 part would equal 1g.
(50 parts in a 50g quantity)
Multiply all ingredients out by 1.25 (because 1.25 x 40 = 50)
calamine 2.5 parts
yellow soft paraffin 47.5 parts
Total 50 parts
Therefore, we would require 2.5g calamine and 47.5g yellow soft

paraffin (because 1 part is equal to 1 gram)
21
EXAMPLE 3:
Find the amount of ingredients required to make 50g of the
following formulation:
calamine 
6% w/w
liquid paraffin 
7% w/w
yellow soft paraffin to 100% w/w
Step 1:
Looking at the formulae, we can see that all the quantities have
been given in % w/w. We know that this means g in 100g, and
therefore, we know how much of each ingredient would be found in
a 100g preparation.
calamine 
6g in 100g
liquid paraffin 
7g in 100 g
yellow soft paraffin to 87g in 100g
Tip:
Note that when ‘to’ is stated, this means that the formulation is
made up to the specified quantity using this ingredient. Therefore,
in this question, when we have ‘yellow soft paraffin to 100% w/w’,
this indicates we require only 87g of yellow soft paraffin to
22
accompany our other 13g of ingredients, as opposed to the common

misconception of 100g.
Step 2:
We know how much is required in 100g, and we need to calculate
the quantities in 50g. We therefore need to simply half the
quantities we have.
calamine 
3g in 150g
liquid paraffin 
3.5g in 50 g
yellow soft paraffin to 43.5g in 50g
Tip:
When being asked a question about % quantities, this would be the
same as assuming the total formulae is equal to 100 parts, and that
1% is equal to 1 part.
23
DOSING AND DISPENSING
Dosing calculations are one of the most common questions you will
come across in pharmacy practice and as such is an important skill
to master.
Dosing questions often include dosing abbreviations and

terminology. Use the list below as a guide when answering dosing
questions.
Abbreviation Definition
OD, BD, TDS, QDS Once daily, twice daily, three times daily,
four times daily
EOD Every other day
ON/Nocte At night
OM In the morning
Mitte/Rx Give/Take
qxh (e.g q4h) Every x hours (e.g. every 4 hours)
AC Before food
PC After food
Amp Ampoule
Gtt Drops
x/7 (e.g. 5/7) Days (e.g. 5 days)
24
x/52 (e.g. 3/52) Weeks (e.g. 3 weeks)
x/12 (e.g. 2/12) Months (e.g. 2 months)
Month 28 days
IM/IV Intramuscular/ Intravenous
Inf. Infusion
prn When required
Single strength 1 in 40
Double strength 2 in 40
Triple Strength 3 in 40
EXAMPLE 1:
You are presented with a prescription for one month supply of
Microgynon tablets, OD from day 1 to 4, BD from day 5 to 24 and
OD for the rest of the month. How many tablets do you dispense
and supply to the patients?
Step 1:
OD from day 1 to 4 = 1 tablet per day for 4 days
Step 2:
BD from day 5 to 24: = 2 tablets per day for 20 days
Step 3:
OD from day 25 to 28: = 1 tablet per day for 4 days
25
Step 4:
Total up the tablets
Tip:
Be systematic and write down each step. Remember, a ‘month’ is
always 28 days.
EXAMPLE 2:
A patient has been prescribed Otravine nasal spray, two puffs in
each nostril twice a day on alternate days and other days one puff
in each nostril twice a day. If there is 240 puffs in one Otravine
nasal spray, how long does one nasal spray last?
Step 1:
Day 1: 2 puffs 2 times daily 2 (for both nostrils) = 8 puffs
Day 2: 1 puff 2 times daily 2 (for both nostrils) = 4 puffs
So, in 2 days, the patient uses up 12 puffs

Therefore, in 1 day, the patient will use 6 puffs
Step 2:
Finally, we would need to divide the total puffs of the product by
the number days
Therefore, the nasal spray will last 40 days.
EXAMPLE 3:
Mr Thompson brings in a prescription: 200 mg of ibuprofen
suspension BD 2/52. What volume of 250 mg/ 5 mL ibuprofen
suspension would you dispense?
Step 1:
We would first need to work out the volume of suspension per dose.
26
We know the weight of the ibuprofen we want per dose, but we want
to find out the volume:
We would consider ratios to set up the following equation:
200 250
# =
x 5
5 × 200
x# = = 4 m l
250
Therefore, there is 4ml of suspension per dose prescribed.
Step 2:
We first need to determine how much to dispense. We do this by
first calculating the number of doses required:
BD 2/52 = Twice a day for 14 days = 28 doses
Volume of suspension to be dispensed:
# × 28 = 112 m l
4
Therefore, there is 4ml of suspension per dose prescribed.
EXAMPLE 4:
The doctor has prescribed oral ranitidine 6 mg/kg/day in two
divided doses, to treat reflux oesophagitis in a 1 year old child, who
weighs 10 kg. You are going to dispense 75 mg/5 mL oral solution.
What volume of the oral solution would the child receive at each
dose?
27
Step 1:
We would first calculate total quantity of drug prescribed to the
child.
The child weighs 10 kg, so:
# × 10 = 60 m g /d a y
6
Step 2:
The question states the drug was prescribed dose, so:
# ÷ 2 d o s es = 30 m g p er d o s e

60
Step 3:
Finally, the question requires us to calculate the volume of 75mg/
5mL oral solution needed to be administered to the child per dose.
75mg/5mL, can be simplified to:
15mg/1mL, which can then be converted to:
30mg/2mL
Therefore, each dose would consist of 2ml of the dispensed 75 mg/

5mL oral solution
28
DISPLACEMENT
During dissolution, displacement volume is the cubic measure of

solvent that will be displaced by a set mass of a solid. This can be
conceptualised as the space of the solvent the solute will occupy
after a solution has formed.
This understanding of displacement volumes is required to

calculate the volume of a solvent that must be added to an already
known mass of solute such that an exact volume of solution can be
determined.
For instance, if 10 mL of water is added to 90 mL of water then there

would be a volume of 100mL of water. Yet if 10g of salt was added to
the 90 mL of water and the mixture was stirred until the salt had
dissolved, the volume would increase to more than 90 mL also. The
final volume after the salt is dissolved would be the:
Initial Volume of Solution + Displacement Volume of salt
In pharmacy displacement volumes are important and so are often

published. When used correctly, displacement volumes are vital for
ensuring injection solutions are formulated to the correct volume.
For example, diamorphine has a displacement volume of 0.12 mL/10

mg. This means that 10mg of diamorphine displaces 1.2mL of water.
These figures can be used to calculate the correct volume of water

to add to diamorphine powder in order to make a required volume
of injection at a known concentration.
29
Example 1:
Calculate the required volume of water for injections required to
produce 1mL of an injection containing 10mg diamorphine.
A tube containing 10mg of diamorphine powder and water for

injections is available.
The displacement volume is 0.12 mL/10mg and so the volume

occupied by 10mg of powder would be equivalent to 0.12mL.
This would mean:
Volume of water required = 1mL – 0.12mL = 0.88mL
Example 2:
Drug X has a displacement volume of 0.07mL/5mg. Calculate the
volume of KCl needed to produce 1mL of injection containing 5mg
of drug X.
Drug X has a displacement volume of 0.07mL/5mg – meaning that

5mg of drug X displaces 0.07mL in solution.
We need to calculate the volume of KCl needed to produce 1mL of

injection. Given that drug X displaces 0.07mL, it means that 0.93mL
is required to produce 1mL of injection.
In other words, the drug’s displacement of 0.07mL, plus the KCl of

0.93mL, gives us the volume of injection needed.
30
Example 3:
68 mL of water is needed to produce 100mL of a mixture
containing 250mg of drug X in every 5mL dose. Calculate the
displacement volume for a quantity of powder equivalent to the
250mg dose of drug X.
If there is 250mg in each 5mL dose, 100mL has 20-times this – that
is to say, 5,000mg.
If 68mL is needed, it means 5,000mg displaces the remaining 32 mL

of water.
Thus, 5,000mg displaces 32 mL in 100mL; therefore, 250mg

displaces 1.6mL in a 5mL dose.
Example 4:
What volume of diluent is needed such that, when added to 80mg
of drug X, it produces a concentration of 4mg/mL. The
displacement volume of drug X is 0.5mL/40mg.
The final volume can be calculated by considering the following,

if the required concentration is 4mg in 1mL, then 20mL is needed
for 80mg of drug X.If 40mg displaces 0.5mL of solution, 80mg will
displace 1mL.
In order to determine the volume of diluent required, subtract the

displacement volume from the final volume, 20 mL – 1 mL therefore
19 mL of diluent is required.
31
MOLAR CALCULATIONS
Calculations involving molecular weights are not commonplace in

all areas of pharmacy. However, molecular calculations are
important in formulation studies and electrolyte balancing.
Example 1:
Calculate the molecular weight of aspirin, given that the empirical
formula of aspirin is C9H8O4. Atomic weights: C= 12, H=1, O=16.
Step 1:
Molecular weights are expressed in grams and are calculated as the
sum of all the atomic weights of the individual atoms in a molecule.
So first, we multiply each atomic weight by the number of atoms of
that element in the molecule.
Carbon: 9×12=108 g
Hydrogen: 8 ×1=8 g
Oxygen: 4 ×16=64 g
Step 2:
Then we can calculate the sum of the atomic weights of all the
atoms present in order to give us the molecular weight.
108+8+64=180 g
Tip:
These two steps can be combined. However if one does not have a
calculator it is easier to break it up into two stages as it leaves less
room for error.
32
Example 2:
The empirical formula of ferrous fumarate is C4H2FeO4. Calculate
the weight of ferrous fumarate that will give 100 mg of iron. Atomic
weights: C= 12, H=1, O=16, Fe=56.
Step 1:
First calculate the molecular formula of ferrous fumarate.
12×4+1×2+56×1+16×4=170
Step 2:
Secondly, we must convert 100 mg into grams so that all of the
weights are in the same units.
100 mg ÷1000=0.1 g
Step 3:
Then we can set up the equations. We know there is 56 g of iron in
170 g of ferrous fumarate. However, we require 0.1 g of iron in an
unknown (x) mass of ferrous fumarate. This gives us the equation:
56/170 = x/0.1
Step 4:
Finally, we can solve for x by rearranging the equation above.
x= 56/170 * 0.1
x=0.033 g
33
Example 3:
Calculate the amount (in moles) of sodium chloride that is
required to make 50 mL of a 0.25 molar solution. What mass of
sodium chloride salt would be required to make this solution?
(Atomic masses: Cl =35.5 g, Na=23 g)
Step 1:
First we set up the equations. We want the final solution to have a
molar concentration of 0.25. It is important to remember that molar
means moles per litre, so 0.25 molar solution is 0.25 moles in 1 litre
or 0.25 in 1000 ml. We also know the required volume of the final
solution, 50 mL, but the moles is unknown (x)
0.25 moles/1000 ml = x / 50 ml
12.5/1000 = x
x = 0.0125 moles
This answers the first part of the question.

Step 2:
Next calculate the molecular mass of sodium chloride.
35.5 + 23 = 58.5
Step 3:
Finally, in order to calculate the mass of sodium chloride we
multiply the moles by the molecular mass.
34
0.0125 ×58.5=0.73
Thus 0.73 grams of salt would be required to make the solution.
Tip:
The diagram below may be useful in visualising the
relationship between amount (moles), mass and molecular
mass.
M n
Where:
• m = mass in grams
• n = amount in moles
• M= molecular mass in grams
35
RATE OF FLOW OF INTRAVENOUS SOLUTIONS
A very common route of administration, frequently found in the

hospital scenario, are IV infusions. This involves the drug being
introduced directly into a vein as a sterile aqueous solution, over
period a time. Not to be confused with injections, which are
administered all in one go.
In order to ensure the drug is administered to the patient at a

constant rate, a device is used to control the flow rate of the
infusion.
It is often necessary to calculate the volume of solution that is

delivered over a period of time, infusion time or volume of solution
that will deliver a known quantity of drug.
EXAMPLE 1:
Mr Jones is a 54 year old man, weighing 70 kg. He has been
prescribed IV sodium valproate at a dose of 30 mg/kg to be
administered over 5 minutes. The sodium valproate injection that
will be used contains 100 mg/mL.
Calculate the rate in mL/min at which the sodium valproate

injection should be administered?
Step 1:
Firstly, we would need to work out the total quantity of drug that
has been prescribed to Mr Jones. He has been prescribed 30 mg/kg.
We therefore would multiply his weight of 70kg by 30mg.
30 x 70 = 2100mg
36
Therefore, Mr Jones has been prescribed a total of 2100 mg of

Sodium Valproate.
Step 2:
The question is asking us for the rate of infusion of drug into Mr
Jones in mL/min. We therefore need to calculate the volume
required to carry out the infusion.
This can be done using the quantity of drug calculated above, and
the information provided to us about the nature of the sodium
valproate injection being used.
The injections come in a concentration of 100 mg/mL, and so to

work out the total volume of IV solution required, we would need to
divide total amount of drug by concentration of the injection.
Therefore, we require 21ml of drug solution for the infusion.
Step 3:
Finally, the question is asking about the rate of infusion over a 5
minute period in ml/min.
As a result, we need to divide our total volume of drug solution by

the time of infusion.
Therefore, the drug is to be administered at a rate of 4.2 ml/min.
EXAMPLE 2:
20 mL of Addiphos solution and 10 mL of multivitamin infusion
are added to 500 mL of glucose 5% solution. The resultant solution
37
is to be administered over 4 hours. The administration set is

calibrated to 20 drops/mL.
Calculate the number of drops per minute to be given if the
patient is to receive all of the solution in the specified time.
Step 1:
Firstly, we would need to calculate the total volume of the infusion
solution:
20ml + 10ml + 500ml = 530ml
Step 2:
As we have been given an administration time of 4 hours, but a
infusion rate of dops/ml, we would then need to convert the
administration time into minutes also.
4 hours x 60 = 240 minutes
Step 3:
The administration set is calibrated to 20 drops/mL. Therefore we
need to convert our total volume into ml:
530 x 20 = 10600 drops
Step 4:
We have been asked to calculate the rate of infusion in drops per
minute, over the administration time provided. We can do this by
dividing the total volume,in drops, by the total time of infusion in
minutes.
38
100600/240 = 44.17
The infusion fluid should be administered at 44 drops per minute.
EXAMPLE 3:
A 56-kg female patient requires amphotericin by IV infusion at a
dose of 250 micrograms/kg. The concentration of the final
solution must not be more than 100 micrograms/mL. A vial of
amphotericin contains 50 mg.
Calculate the dose of amphotericin and the volume of IV solution

required by the patient if the solution contains the maximum
concentration. If the solution has to be delivered in 2.5 hours, what
is the rate in mL/minute?
If a 50-mg vial is used to prepare the IV solution, what is the total

volume of the solution prepared?
Step 1:
Firstly, we would need to calculate the total dose of drug prescribed
to the patient. We can do this multiplying the dose of 250
micrograms/kg by the patient’s weight of 56kg.
250 x 56 = 14000 mcg
Step 2:
The question then asks to calculate the volume of IV solution
required by the patient if the solution contains the maximum
concentration of 100 mcg/ml.
39
We therefore need to divide our total dose of 14000 by 100mcg.
14000/100 = 140ml
Step 3:
The question then asks the rate of infusion in ml/min, to deliver
140ml of the infusion solution in 2.5 hours.
2.5 hours = 150 minutes
We would then divide the total volume of infusion solution by the

time of 150 minutes.
140ml/150 = 0.93 ml/min
Step 4:
Lastly, The total volume to contain the amphotericin at a
concentration of 100 micrograms/mL needs to be calculated.
We would need to convert 50mg into mcg.
50mg = 50000 mcg
We then to calculate the total volume of vehicle required to contain

the drug at a concentration of 100mcg/ml. To do this, we would
need to divide the total amount of drug in the vial, by the
concentration of 100 mcg/ml.
50000 mcg / 100 = 500ml
Therefore, the 50 mg needs to be dissolved in up to 500 mL of

solvent.
40
Tip;
This question may seem confusing, as only 140ml of infusion
solution is required for administration. Although, this question is
concerned with the preparation of the infusion solution, in the
scenario where only vials containing 50mg of drug compound are
available. Of this prepared solution, only 140ml of the prepared
solution will be administered to the patient.
EXAMPLE 4:
Phenytoin has a recommended dose of 18 mg/kg of body weight to
be infused at a rate not exceeding 50 mg/minute. Assume that the
patient is a woman weighing 50 kg. The prescriber would like an
infusion volume of 100mL and a dose rate of 25mg/minute.
How much 0.9% saline would be required to make up the injection
to 100ml and what is the flow rate per minute?
Step 1:
Firstly, we would need calculate the total dose of drug being
administered to our patient.
18mg x 50kg = 900m

Step 2:
The injection contains 50mg/ml,
900/50 = 18 ml
We therefore require 18ml of solution.
100ml – 18ml = 82ml
We therefore require 82ml of 0.9% saline to make up the solution.
41
Step 3:
We are then required to calculate the flow rate per minute. The
prescriber would like a dose rate of 25mg/min, and so we will need
to calculate the volume of infusion solution which contains 25mg of
Phenytoin. We know that in our prepared solution, we have a total
of 900mg in 100ml.
Therefore, 2.78 mL contains 25 mg of phenytoin. Thus the flow rate

of the infusion should be set at 2.78 mL/minute.
EXAMPLE 5:
The required dose of furosemide by slow IV infusion is 50 mg at a
rate not exceeding 4 mg/minute. Furosemide injection contains
10mg furosemide in 1mL.
Calculate the volume of furosemide injection required and the

infusion rate, i.e. mL/minute, if the patient is to receive the correct
dose.
Step 1:
Firstly, we are asked for the volume of Furosemide injection
required. The Furosemide injections contain 10mg in 1ml.
Therefore:
50mg / 10mg/ml = 5ml
Therefore, we require 5ml of Furosemide injection.
Step 2:
We are then asked to calculate the infusion rate in ml/minute.
42
Firstly, we need to divide the total dose of drug by the maximum

rate of infusion.
50mg / 4mg/min = 12.5 minutes
Therefore, it would take 12.5 minutes to administer all the injection

solution at 2mg/min.
Step 3:
Lastly, to calculate the infusion rate, we need to divide the
administered 5ml of drug solution by the infusion time calculated
of 12.5 minutes.
5/12.5 = 0.4 ml/min
Therefore, the drug solution needs to be administered at a rate of

0.4ml/min in order to deliver the correct dose of drug.
43
44

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CALCULATIONS GUIDE

Each chapter consists of an explanation

Feel free to contact any of the creators of

Units are an essential aspect of pharmaceutical calculations.

The most common units of measurements found in pharmacy are

Prefix Kilo Milli Micro

Mass 0.001 kg 1g 1000 mg 1000000 µg

Volume 0.001 kL 1L 1000 mL 1000000 µL

Mole - 1 mol 1000 mmol 1000000 µmol

For converting between metric measurements (see table above),

Therefore, 485765 micrograms is equivalent to 0.485765 g

We can then rearrange this formula to solve for x

Therefore, 3.4 pints is equivalent to 1.93L

This chapter reviews rounding numbers, use of appropriate

Rounding numbers makes figures more convenient to use in

In pharmaceutics, to understand the degree of accuracy obtained

If the last figure is between 5 and 9, the whole number will be

Rounded numbers can be used to simplify and make

182 will round down to 180

The total of the two rounded numbers is 3030 as opposed to the

Considering the length of a room to be 19 metres and therefore

The 7 means 7 hundredths of a litre, this figure is significant. The 0

the 7 appears in the hundredths column, it is not significant.

The number is stated to the nearest hundred, the 0 to the right of

The number is stated to the nearest hundred, hence the following

When correcting to fewer significant figures we can incorporate the

ACCURACY IN WEIGHING AND MEASURING

According to the European Pharmacopoeia, the quantity of

As an example, in reference to weighing, the degree of precision is

It is also important to remember that the degree of precision is

0.450 g is three significant figures. Therefore, our answer should

90% of 0.450 =0.405

Therefore, the actual weighing can be between 0.405 g and 0.495 g.

Both these answers must be expressed to the same number of

In the information provided it was stated that the sample could

1.04 g represents 100%, in order to calculate the maximum amount

0.7% o f 1.04 = 0.00728

The sample contains 0.0079 g which is greater than 0.00728 g.

Pharmaceutical preparations are made up of a number of different

The concentration of pharmaceutical preparations usually

A preparation which is too strong would lead to toxic effects, and a

Concentration is an expression of the ratio of the amount of

w/w – Solid (g) ingredient in a Solid (g) vehicle

There is an agreed convention that states that weight is expressed

Concentrations are expressions of ratios, and therefore, can be

1% w/w = 1g in 100g w/w = 1:100

1% v/w = 1ml in 100g w/w = 1:100

0.7g × 1000 = 700 mg

Therefore, 700 mg is required to produce the desired preparation.

Therefore, 12 g potassium permanganate would be found in 300ml

1ml concentrate in 20ml water

whilst maintaining the ratio, we’d find:

5 ml concentrate in 100ml water

Therefore, the answer would be 95ml of water

# 0.12 ÷ 0.0015 = 80

Therefore, the answer is 80 applications

This chapter addresses problems arising from the quantitative

During a dilution, the weight of active ingredient remains the same

Therefore, you can use the formula:

In order to apply the above formula, three variables must be known.

The unknown variable which needs to be determined is V1. To solve

It is important to remember that you should work with similar

answer is to be stated in mL; thus, 2 L should be converted to mL

V1 = (120 ÷ 0.6) = 200 mL

Therefore, 200 mL of a 0.6% stock solution is required to compound

2000 mL (final volume of the compound) – 200 mL (volume of stock

Thus, 200 mL of the 0.6% stock solution and 1800 mL of solvent