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Power & Taylor Series: S A S A A S A A A S A
Power & Taylor Series: S A S A A S A A A S A
8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 16 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 2
1
This is an example of an 4
Power & Taylor Series infinite series.
1
This series converges (approaches a limiting value.)
1 1 1 1 1
Many series do not converge:
1 2 3 4 5
In an infinite series: a1 a2 a3 an ak Geometric Series:
k 1
Example 1: Example 2:
3 3 3 3 1 1 1
1
10 100 1000 10000 2 4 8
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a 1 r n
A power series is in this form:
a or
If r 1 then lim
n 1 r 1 r
c ( x a)
n0
n
n
c0 c1 ( x a ) c2 ( x a ) 2 c3 ( x a ) 3 cn ( x a ) n
If x 1 and we let r x , then: The coefficients c0, c1, c2… are constants.
1
1 x x 2 x3 The center “a” is also a constant.
1 x
(The first series would be centered at the origin if you
The more terms we use, the better our approximation graphed it. The second series would be shifted left or right.
(over the interval of convergence.) “a” is the new center.)
Example 4:
Once we have a series that we know, we can find a new
series by doing the same thing to the left and right hand 1 1
Given: 1 x x 2 x3 find:
1 x
2
sides of the equation.
1 x
1
Example 3: This is a geometric series where r=-x.
1 x
d 1 d 1
1 x 1 x 1
1 2
1
1 x x 2 x3 dx 1 x 1 x
2
1 x dx
x
To find a series for
1 x
multiply both sides by x. So:
1
d
1 x x2 x3
1 x
2
dx
x
x x 2 x3 x 4 1 2 x 3x 2 4 x3
1 x
We differentiated term by term.
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P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1 P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1
f x ln x 1 P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x
1 P x 2a2 6a3 x 12a4 x 2
1 x
2
1
f 0 ln 1 0 P 0 a0 a0 0 1 P 0 2a2 a2
f 0 1 2
1
f x
1 P x a1 2a2 x 3a3 x 2 4a4 x3
1 x
P x 6a3 24a4 x
1
f x 2
P 0 a1 a1 1 1 x
3
1
f 0 1 2
1
f 0 2 P 0 6a3 a3
6
f x
1 P x 2a2 6a3 x 12a4 x 2
1 x
2
P 0 2a2 a2
1 f 4 x 6
1
P
4
x 24a4
1
f 0 1 1 x
4
2 6
1
f
4
0 6 P 4
0 24a4 a4
24
P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1 Our polynomial: 0 1x
1 2 2 3 6 4
x x x
2 6 24
1 2 2 3 6 4 f 0 2 f 0 3 f 0 4
4
P x 0 1x x x x has the form: f 0 f 0 x x x x
2 6 24 2 6 24
f 0 f 0 f 0 2 f 0 3 f 0 4
4
x 2 x3 x 4
P x 0 x f x ln x 1 or: x x x x
2 3 4 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
5
If we plot both functions, we see 1
4
that near zero the functions match This pattern occurs no matter what the original function was!
3
very well!
0.5
2
1 f x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-2
-0.5
-3
-4
-5 P x -1
example: y cos x
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x0 ) f x cos x f 0 1 f x sin x f 0 0
f 0 2 f 0 3 f x sin x f 0 0 f
4
x cos x f
4
0 1
P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
f x cos x f 0 1
If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some
point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series: 1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P x 1 0x
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Taylor Series:
(generated by f at x a ) P x 1
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f a f a
P x f a f a x a x a x a
2 3
2! 3!
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example: y cos x at x
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10 2
y cos x P x 1
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f x cos x f 0 f x sin x f 1
2 2
1 f x sin x f 1
4
2 f
4
x cos x f 0
2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 f x cos x f 0
2
-1
0 1
2 3
P x 0 1 x x x
2 2! 2 3! 2
The more terms we add, the better our approximation.
3 5
x x
2 2
P x x
2 3! 5!
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x0 )
f 0 2 f 0 3
P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
1 f 0 2 f 0 3 1 f 0 2 f 0 3
1 x 1 x
1 1
P x f 0 f 0 x x x P x f 0 f 0 x x x
1 x 2! 3! 1 x 2! 3!
2 1 x 2 1 x
3 3
2 1
1 x x 2 x 3 x 4
1 x
6 1 x 6 1 x
4 4
6 3!
This is a geometric series with
24 1 x 24 1 x
5 5
24 4!
a = 1 and r = x.
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f 0 2 f 0 3 f 0 2 f 0 3
sin x P x f 0 f 0 x x x ln 1 x P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3! 2! 3!
sin x 0 ln 1 x 0
0 2 1 3 0 4 1 2 2 3 3! 4
sin x 0 1x x x x ln 1 x 0 1x x x x
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
cos x 1 x
1
1 1
sin x 1 x
2
0 3
x x 5
x 7 1 x 2 x3 x 4
sin x x ln 1 x x
3! 5! 7! 2 3 4
cos x 2 1 x
3
1 2
f 0 2 f 0 3
ex P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
f n x f n 0
ex 1
1 2 1 3 1 4
e x 1 1x x x x
x
2! 3! 4!
e 1
x
e 1 x 2 x3 x 4
ex 1 x
2! 3! 4!
ex 1
ex 1
Convergence
The series that are of the most interest to us are those
that converge.
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The first requirement of convergence is that the terms There are three possibilities for power series convergence.
must approach zero.
1 The series converges over some finite interval:
(the interval of convergence).
nth term test for divergence
There is a positive number R such that the series
Ratio Technique
1 rn
S n t1 where r = common ratio between terms
1 r
When r 1 , the series converges.
Ex: x 2 x3 x 4
Geometric series have a constant ratio between terms. ln 1 x x If we replace x with x-1, we get:
Other series have ratios that are not constant. If the 2 3 4
1
1 x 1
absolute value of the limit of the ratio between 1 1 1 n 1
ln x x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
n
2 3 4
1 x 1
n2 n 1
an 1 1
tn tn 1 n
L lim an 1
For , if L lim then: n n 1 1 x 1
n 1 n
an an
n tn
n 1
x 1 x 1
n
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Ratio Technique
If the limit of the ratio between consecutive terms
is less than one, then the series will converge.
For t
n 1
n , if L lim
n
tn 1
tn
then:
x 1 1
if L 1 the series converges.
1 x 1 1
if L 1 the series diverges.
0 x2
if L 1 the series may or may not converge.
The interval of convergence is (0,2).
Ex: Ex:
n n
3 x 5 3 x 5
n n
n n
n 1 n 1 1
x 5 1
3
1 2 3 n 1 x 5
x 5 x 5 x 5
2 3
L lim
n 3n
3 9 27 x 5 3
n 1 x 5
n 1 n
L lim
3 n 1 3 x 5 3
L x 5 lim
3n 1 n x 5
n n
n 3n
2 x 8
1
L x5
n 1 x 5 x 5 3
n n
3
L lim
3n 3 n x 5
n n
The interval of convergence is (2,8).
82
L lim
n 1 x 5 The radius of convergence is 3 .
n
2
3n
Ex: Ex:
n! n!
n x 3 n x 3
n n
4 4
n 1 n 1
1 2 3 1
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2 3 4
n
4
8 27 32 L x 3 lim n 1
n
n 1
n 1! x 3
n 1
n4
L lim
n 1 n ! x 3
4 n
L x 3.
n
for all Radius of convergence = 0.
n ! n 1 x 3 x 3
n
n4
L lim At x 3, the series is 0 0 0 , which converges to zero.
n 1 n ! x 3
n 4 n
1
4
n Note: If R is infinite, then the series converges for all values of x.
L x 3 lim n 1
n
n 1