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Holocene coastal evolution of the Northern Rio Grande do Norte coast, NE

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 Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39 – 53
www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

Holocene sea-level history: Evidence from coastal sediments of the

northern Rio Grande do Norte coast, NE Brazil
Luciano Henrique de Oliveira Caldas a,⁎, Karl Stattegger b,1 , Helenice Vital a,2
a
Programa de Pesquisa e Pós-graduação em Geodinâmica e Geofísica (PPGG), Campus Universitário,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), P.O. BOX: 1596, 59078-970, Natal-RN-Brazil
b
Institute of Geosciences, University of Kiel, Olshausenstr. 40, 24118, Kiel, Germany
Received 23 August 2004; received in revised form 22 August 2005; accepted 23 December 2005

Abstract

The Holocene sea-level history of the mesotidal northern Rio Grande do Norte coast, NE Brazil, was reconstructed from
sedimentology and AMS radiocarbon dating of beachrock and tidal lagoonal sediments. At 7000 cal. year BP at −3 m sea level
stood and passed the modern sea level 6700 cal. year ago. The Holocene highstand reached 1.3 m above modern sea level at 5900
cal. year BP as determined by beachrock samples from the uppermost part of an intertidal foreshore deposit. A 5700 cal. year old
shell midden overlies this beachrock that represents the spring-tide sea level.
After the highstand, sea level dropped to its present position. Beachrock samples from intertidal upper foreshore deposits were
used for elevation and age control. Beachrock positions with their error bars are all within the tidal-range envelope. Therefore, no
secondary oscillations during the sea level fall can be confirmed. A linear sea-level fall of this magnitude can be explained by the
mechanism of equatorial ocean syphoning.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rio Grande do Norte, NE Brazil; Holocene sea-level history; beachrock; radiocarbon dating

1. Introduction of Natal, discussed the origin of some coastal out-

The Quaternary coastal geology of the northeastern
Brazilian coast between Natal and Fortaleza is poorly
investigated. Available data are focused on localized
onshore investigations and some limited offshore survey.
Srivastava and Corsino (1984) and Nogueira et al.
(1990), working along the coast of Touros, northwest
⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +55 84 2153831, 215 3806.
E-mail addresses: lucianocaldas@yahoo.com.br (L.H.O. Caldas),
kst@gpi.uni-kiel.de (K. Stattegger), helenice@geologia.ufrn.br
(H. Vital).
1
Fax: +49 431 880 4376.
2
Fax: +55 84 215 3806.
0025-3227/$ - see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2005.12.008
crops. These authors concluded that these outcrops
were deposited in a coastal environment and could be
correlated to the uppermost part of the late Tertiary to
Pleistocene Formations from the Potiguar Basin. More
recent studies focused on modern hydrodynamics and
sedimentation (Testa and Bosence, 1998; Costa-Neto,
1997; Vital et al., 2002, 2003), neotectonics (Fonseca,
1996; 1997), and Quaternary stratigraphy (Silva, 1991;
Bezerra et al., 1998; Barreto et al., 2002).
Sea-level studies in Brazil started in the 1960s
when Van Andel and Laborel (1964) and Delibrias
and Laborel (1969) published the first attempts to
reconstruct the regional Holocene sea-level changes
based on radiocarbon dating of paleo sea-level
40 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
indicators. According to Delibrias and Laborel (1969),
sea level reached its present position 6000 years BP,
then rose to 3 m above modern mean sea level at 4500
years BP. From this time sea level fell gradually to its
modern level.
Fairbridge (1976) proposed similar sea-level varia-
tions by the use of shell middens from the southern and
southeastern coasts, although he recognized five periods
of transgression with amplitudes varying between 1 and
5 m. Subsequent sea-level studies have been undertaken
in more restricted areas and some Holocene sea-level
curves have been proposed for different sites along the
Brazilian coast.
Suguio et al. (1985) were the first to propose sys-
tematic, well-constructed Holocene sea-level curves for
the Brazilian coast. The Salvador Curve, as the best
example for NE Brazil, shows that sea level started to
rise above modern sea level shortly before 7000 years
BP and reached the highstand at 5 m above modern sea
level approximately 5100 years BP, recently calibrated
to 5660 cal. year BP (Martin et al., 2003). Furthermore,
two negative oscillations, 4200–3700 and 2600–2200
cal. year BP, were proposed. A recent paper by Bezerra
et al. (2003) contains an envelope sea-level curve with
the Holocene highstand around 5000 cal. year BP and at
least one positive oscillation between 2100 and 1100
cal. year BP.
The study of sea level and coastal evolution is
enormously improved when accurate paleo sea-level
indicators are available. Amongst the existing sea-level
indicators formed by coastal deposits, beachrock and
lagoonal sediments are widely used. Although some
authors believe that beachrocks are more reliable sea-
level indicators on microtidal coasts (Ramsay, 1995;
Omoto, 2001; Ramsay and Cooper, 2002), their use in
sea-level studies on mesotidal coasts is also valuable,
specially in the absence of other suitable sea-level
indicators. A careful sedimentological description of
Fig. 1. The study area.
beachrock in mesotidal coasts and further comparison
with modern beaches have permitted its vertical posi-
tioning with respect to tidal range (Oliveira et al., 1990;
Bezerra et al., 1998). It should be noted, however, that
the radiometric age control of beachrock can be biased
by dating reworked and recrystallized bioclasts or
secondary cements.
This paper presents new data on Holocene coastal
sediments on the north coast of Rio Grande do Norte,
NE Brazil. Specific objectives are: (i) evaluate sedi-
mentary structures in beachrock with emphasis on
establishing precise depositional environments of vari-
ous beachrock outcrops within the tidal zone, (ii) utilize
AMS radiocarbon dating of unaltered shell material in
beachrock and of plant remains in lagoonal sediments,
and thus (iii) establish a new sea-level curve from these
data.
2. Study area
The investigated area is located on the north coast of
the federal state of Rio Grande do Norte in the northeast
region of Brazil (Fig. 1). The area is about 150 km
northwest of the state capital Natal, between Ponta dos
Três Irmãos and Guamaré city extending from the coast
to the shelf edge. The study area is part of the Potiguar
basin which is part of the NE Brazilian Rift system
together with other basins that originated in Cretaceous
times (Matos, 1994). The investigated area has been
subjected to late Quaternary neotectonics according to
Bezerra et al. (1998), Caldas (1996) and Fonseca (1996,
1997).
The area has an open, wave dominated, mesotidal
coast. It is associated with the inner zone of the narrow
continental shelf that is shallow (maximum 25 m
depth) and has an average width of 18 km. The shelf-
break is situated at 50 m water depth 20 km offshore.
The continental shelf and coastal zones are strongly
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
Fig. 2. Geological setting of the coastal zone between Ponta dos Três Irmãos and Galinhos.

41
42 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
influenced by oceanic and wind driven currents from N
and E–NE directions, which promote local erosion as
well as deposition in the shore zone. A large lagoonal
channel system can be recognized on the backside of
the sandy spit of Galinhos (Fig. 2). Some closed paleo-
lagoons that are filled up with sediments occur near
São Bento do Norte. In the beach zone, beachrock
occurs frequently along the actual foreshore zone and
occasionally in the backshore zone.
The semidiurnal mesotidal tide has a maximum
spring range of 3 m and minimum range of 0.8 m during
neap tides (Riedel, 2000). The tidal measurements
performed in the harbor of Macau showed that the
average ranges of spring and neap tide are 2.8 m and
0.9 m, respectively (Brazilian Navy, 2001).
Coastal dune fields increase toward the hinterland
while dunes close to the shore are moving westward and
subjected to permanent reorganization.
The climate of the area is tropical, hot and semi-
arid (Nimer, 1989), and it is subjected to the
conditions of the intertropical convergence zone. The
dry period of 7 to 8 months lasts from June to January,
while the rainy period of 3 to 4 months lasts from
February to May. The mean air temperature is
approximately 26.8 °C, with minimum temperatures
of 25 °C occurring at the end of winter (July) and
maximum temperatures of 28.6 °C in February during
the summer.
3. Materials and methods
In order to obtain a reliable stratigraphic framework
for the region, two vibro-cores were taken in the study
area utilizing aluminum barrels with a length of 6 m and
inner diameter of 70 mm (LCSBN-1 and LCSBN-2).
Bivalves from beachrock and from lagoonal sediments
of the vibro-cores have been taken for radiocarbon
dating. Only well-preserved bivalves with some original
shell-color without any visible superficial alterations
have been used for analysis.
Precise AMS radiocarbon dating of both terrestrial
organic materials from vibro-cores and mollusc shells
of coastal deposits formed the basis for a chronologic
framework of the environmental changes. The AMS
radiocarbon ages were determined with a 3MV HVEE
Tandetron 4130 AMS system at the Leibniz Labor,
Kiel. The standard procedures are described in Nadeau
et al. (1997) and Schleicher et al. (1998). The system
presents an average zero background of 0.3%.
AMS14C carbonate ages are not corrected for a
mean ocean reservoir effect. All radiocarbon ages
presented here were calibrated using Dataset 2, 3 and
4 of CALIB rev4.3 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver
et al., 1998) and corrected for isotopic fractionation
based on the 13C/12C ratio measured simultaneously
with the 14C/12C ratio by the AMS system. There is
no information about reservoir age of marine or
brackish water in the study area and therefore no
correction has been applied. The δ13C values for the
bivalve shells (Table 1), ranging from + 3.31‰ to
− 3.09‰, show that the majority was typically from
brackish water. Careful pre-treatment procedures were
carried out on the shells to avoid contamination,
which could lead to some unreliable radiocarbon ages.
All shells were first mechanically cleaned under a
binocular magnifying glass using a dentist drill.
Afterwards they were examined by electron scanning
microscope and X-ray diffraction. Only the samples
that did not show signs of diagenetic alteration were
chosen for 14C dating.
4. Results
4.1. Beachrock
Beachrock is carbonate-cemented beach sediment,
found and formed mainly in the intertidal zone of
tropical beaches. In the study area the beachrocks (Fig.
2) exhibit a great range of dimensions and shapes. The
São Bento Beachrock is the longest, stretching 2.3 km
along the beach, while the Cabelo Beachrock is the
shortest with a length of 0.3 km (Fig. 2). The beachrock
bodies range in thickness from 0.4 m to 2 m and in width
from 3 to 17 m and occur mainly parallel to the modern
shoreline with exception of Recuado Beachrock (Fig. 2).
The beachrock bodies are subhorizontally oriented
dipping gently seaward (b 8°). Their surfaces are
irregular and often organic encrusting of algae and
marine organisms is present. All Holocene beachrocks
from the study area are actually positioned in the
intertidal zone with the exception of Recuado Bea-
chrock that lies entirely in the backshore zone east of
São Bento (Fig. 2).
The beachrock has a gray color. Grain sizes vary
from very fine sand to gravel, thus forming poorly
sorted deposits. The grain morphology varies from
subangular to subrounded with grain contacts being
mostly punctual. The beachrock is composed basically
of terrigenous components with quartz being the main
constituent (20–45%) followed by feldspar, limonite
and quartzitic rock fragments. Zircon, opaques and
tourmaline occur as trace minerals. The bioclastic
constituents can reach up to 30% and are mainly red
algae and bivalves. It is also observed that gastropod,
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53 43

Table 1
AMS radiocarbon data of the beachrock and vibro-cores samples
Laboratory Sample Elevation Elevation Material δ13C AMS Conventional age 1σ Calibrated age c 1ó range d
number a (m AMSSL) (m AMMSL) (‰) [14C year BP] [year] b [cal. year BP] [cal. year BP]
+/-
KIA12334 Guajiru (a) − 0.2 1.2 Biv. 1.77 ± 0.08 3150 30 2930 2960–2880
Shell
KIA14751 Recuado +1.3 2.7 Bv. − 0.62 ± 0.07 5480 35 5910 5940–5900
Beachr. (b) Shell
KIA14746 Recuado +1.4 2.8 Biv. − 2.50 ± 0.08 5270 40 5730 5760–5680
shell Shell
midden (c)
KIA12336 São Bento − 2.5 −1.1 Biv. − 1.31 ± 0.11 6265 40 6790 6850–6740
Beachr. (d) Shell
KIA14748 Cabelo −1 0.4 Biv. − 0.35 ± 0.08 3990 30 4070 4090–3990
Beachr.-a (e) Shell
KIA14755 Cabelo − 0.5 0.9 Biv. 1.26 ± 0.46 3795 35 3750, 3730 3810–3690
Beachr.-b (f) Shell
KIA14749 Galos − 0.7 0.7 Biv. − 2.84 ± 0.17 2595 40 2350 2390–2340
Beachr. 2 (h) Shell
KIA12338 Galinhos − 0.8 0.6 Biv. − 1.04 ± 0.20 3375 30 3330 3350–3300
Beachr. 1 (i) Shell
KIA14742 Galinhos 0 1.4 Biv. 3.31 ± 0.11 4485 35 4680, 4660 4770–4600
Beachr. 2a (j) Shell
KIA14747 Galinhos − 0.2 1.2 Biv. 2.64 ± 0.09 2180 25 1780 1810–1730
Beachr. Shell
2b (k)
KIA14752 Galinhos − 0.8 0.6 Biv. 1.32 ± 0.05 2715 30 2400 2460–2350
Beachr. 2c (l) Shell
KIA14750 Galinhos − 1.6 −0.2 Biv. 1.22 ± 0.07 3315 35 3200 3240–3140
Beachr. Shell
2d (m)

Vibro-cores
KIA13956 LCSBN-1a − 2.1 −0.7 Wood − 25.91 ± 0.14 6520 45 7430 7460–7420
(n)
KIA13957 LCSBN-2b − 2.2 −0.8 Leaves − 26.33 ± 0.20 6125 40 6990 7090–6910
(o)
KIA13958 LCSBN-2c − 3.7 −2.3 Bark − 27.19 ± 0.13 6035 35 6880; 6870; 6840–6760
(p) 6820; 6810
KIA14743 LCSBN-2a − 1.3 0.1 Biv. − 3.08 ± 0.15 3575 30 3580 3630–3550
(q) Shell
KIA16093 LCSBN-2d − 3.9 −2.5 Biv. − 3.09 ± 0.41 6355 45 6950 7010–6890
(r) Shell
AMSSL = above modern maximum spring-tide sea level.
AMMSL = above modern mean sea level.
a
Leibniz Laboratory-Kiel, Germany.
b
1σ Probability of conventional age.
c
Calibrated applying CALIB rev4.3 (Dataset 2, 3 and combination of 1 and 3): Stuiver et al., Radiocarbon 40: 1041–1083, 1998.
d
1σ enclosing 68.3% of area of probability distribution.

coral, foraminifera (Miliolid, Textulariid and Nummu-
lite), echinoderm spins, bryozoans and green algae
(Halimeda) are present. Beachrock compositions are
almost always very similar to modern sands of the
adjacent beaches. The sedimentary structures preserved
in the beachrock were compared with modern beaches
to identify their position in the beach profile. Elevation
measurements were used in order to relate them to the
modern mean sea-level (MSL) and maximum spring-
tide sea-level (MSSL).
All horizontal positions were gained by the global
positioning system (GPS). The elevations were mea-
sured by theodolite, which were corrected by using tide-
tables, supplied by the Brazilian Navy (2001), of the
local standard ports, Natal and Macau and our own tidal
measurements at Galinhos and São Bento. The elevation
44 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53

Fig. 3. Typical sedimentary structures found in a mesotidal modern beach.

of the sampled sites from the current MSSL was
determined by theodolite leveling. These procedures are
recommended by Admiralty (1996). The zero level used
was the Brazilian “Corrego Alegre” National Datum.
Fig. 3 was based on field observations (Fig. 4) and it
shows a typical beach profile mainly characterized by
swash-cross-stratification in the foreshore zone and
trough-cross-stratification in the nearshore zone. Fore-
shore deposits dip seaward (right side of the photo)
while the washover deposits dip gently landward (left
side of the photo).
The differences between nearshore and foreshore
deposits are basically marked by the grain sizes and
sedimentary structures. The nearshore deposits are
characterized by coarse to conglomeratic quartz sand
often with bioclastics. The most common sedimentary
structure beginning in the lowermost foreshore is the
trough-cross-stratification that is a result of cross-shore
migration of sinuous-crested sand bars in the breaker
zone. Paleocurrents are directed in a westward direction
although some trough-cross-stratification is induced by
an important N–S component. Fig. 5 shows the two
most common sedimentary structures found in the
beachrocks of the study area. The foreshore sands are
slightly finer than those of nearshore, varying from
coarse to medium sand. Tabular beds and sheets with
thickness of 0.1 to 0.4 m compose the seaward dipping
swash-cross-stratification that is the main sedimentary
structure. The description of cross-sections of each
beachrock helped to position them and their samples
(bivalves to later AMS 14C dating) in relation to the
maximum spring-tide sea-level and mean sea-level.
Details on cements of beachrock are given in Caldas
(2002).
Although estimations exist about sea-level positions
from beachrock facies (Bezerra et al., 1998), the exact
mean sea-level position cannot be determined due to the
large thickness of the foreshore and nearshore deposits
in beachrock of meso- and macrotidal coasts. Therefore
an exact sea-level indicator is required because the local

Fig. 4. Upper foreshore and backshore deposits on the modern beach between Ponta do Emissário Beachrock and São Bento Beachrock (For location
see Fig. 2).
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53 45

Fig. 5. Beachrock and sedimentary structures in the foreshore and nearshore zones. (A) São Bento Beachrock showing swash-cross-stratification (sw)
in the foreshore zone and (B) trough-cross-stratification in Cabelo Beachrock positioned in the foreshore–nearshore transition zone.

average spring-tidal amplitude of 2.8 m (Brazilian Navy,
2001) can disguise the indicator. According to Hopley
(1986) only the uppermost level of beachrock cemen-
tation can be used as a reliable and precise sea-level
indicator. In this case, it represents the mean spring-tide
sea level. Thus we attempted to define the uppermost
cementation level of the beachrock that corresponds to
the highest exposed position of the foreshore deposit.
Furthermore, the elevation of this uppermost level
relative to the modern maximum spring-tide sea level
was measured. Nevertheless, the top of many bea-
chrocks could not be defined as in many cases both
modern foreshore and backshore sediments (dunes)
cover this top. From our strategy of sampling the
uppermost beachrock available we propose as a
conservative estimate that our samples are positioned
within the tidal range. This means the interval 0 to 2.8 m
below MSSL, or + 1.4 to − 1.4 around mean sea level,
assuming similar tidal conditions to the modern ones for
the last 6000 years.
In Fig. 6 the topographic profile across the Guajiru
Beachrock and Recuado Beachrock is shown, of which
the latter is positioned entirely on land. The profile
shows that the top of the Recuado Beachrock, interpreted
as its uppermost cementation level, is positioned at 1.3 m
above the level of the top of the Guajiru Beachrock,
which corresponds to the modern maximum spring-tide
sea-level. Therefore, we conclude that the Recuado
Beachrock marks the Holocene highstand.
4.1.1. Age control
The AMS radiocarbon ages of the beachrocks were
obtained from bivalve shells (Table 1). A group of 13
well-preserved shells were selected upon which pre-
treatment procedures were carried out. An additional 5
radiocarbon dates determined from vibro-cores in the
paleo-tidal flats of São Bento were used together with
the data from the beachrocks.
The bivalve species were determined with reference
to Maury (1934) and Campos e Silva et al. (1964). The

Fig. 6. Topographic profile normal to the Recuado and Guajiru Beachrock with the top of the Recuado Beachrock positioned at 1.3 m above the
modern maximum spring-tide sea level and 2.7 m above the modern mean sea level. For location see Fig. 2.
46 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
most common species, in order of abundance, present on
the beach and in the beachrock are Donax striata,
Divaricella quadrisulcata, Tivela mactroides, Anoma-
lorcadia brasiliana, Anadara ovalis and Ostrea sp. In
this study Lucina pectinata was also found on the paleo-
tidal flats of São Bento.
Radiocarbon shell age is that at the time of organism
death. Thereafter it is transported, deposited on a beach
and subsequently cemented into the beachrock. The
difference between the time of death of the organism and
the cementation of the beachrock may be hundreds or
even thousands years (Hopley, 1986). Thus a careful
choice of biogenic material is required. By choosing
only well-preserved shells showing no signal of
chemical and physical alteration, it is possible to reduce
the difference between shell and cementation age
because shell transport in a high-energy environment,
such as beaches, tends to promote chemical and physical
alteration. Nevertheless, the age yielded by the dating of
a constituent organism can only be regarded as the
maximum possible age for the beachrock cementation.
Guajiru Beachrock: One sample of bivalve shell
located 0.2 m below the MSSL in the upper foreshore
deposit was dated at 2960–2880 cal. year BP. This is
slightly older than the age of 2759 cal. year BP at 2σ
found by Bezerra et al. (1998) for the same beachrock. It
is probable that the beachrock formation occurred
approximately 2920 cal. year BP when, at this time
the sea-level position was probably identical to 0.7 m
higher than the modern one (see Section 4.3; Fig. 8).
Recuado Beachrock and Recuado Shell Midden: One
sample of bivalve shell located at the uppermost part of
the foreshore deposit and 1.3 m above MSSL was dated
at 5940–5900 cal. year BP. Bezerra et al. (1998)
obtained an age of 5450 cal. year BP for a bivalve shell
positioned 3.9 m above mean sea level. Silva (1991)
obtained a conventional age of 5020 year BP for cement
of beachrock located on the Açu river delta and
positioned at least 1 m above the modern high tide.
The Recuado Beachrock certainly was formed during
the Holocene highstand that according to some Brazilian
sea-level curves took place approximately 5200 cal. year
BP. Therefore, the age determined in this study is 700
radiocarbon years older than ages determined by the
mentioned authors, and this might reflect several
contributing factors. It may be possible that the bivalve
dated in this study died 700 years earlier than the
organisms of the shells dated by previous authors, but all
were deposited and cemented at the same time. Another
reason for the age differences could be the influence of
diagenetic alteration in the previously dated shell
material with a general shift towards younger ages.
The use of different calibration methods (Stuiver et al.,
1986, 1998) can cause maximum age differences of 100
years.
One sample of bivalve shell located at the base of the
shell midden (1.4 m above MSSL) and close to Recuado
Beachrock was dated at 5760–5680 cal. year BP. Caldas
(1996) and Bezerra et al. (1998) dated bivalve shells
from the same deposit and obtained ages of 4130 cal.
year BP and 4070 cal. year BP, respectively. The age
differences can be a result of the contamination of
modern 14C by secondary calcite in the bivalve shells
that the above authors used.
São Bento Beachrock: One sample of bivalve shell
(São Bento Beachrock, Table 1) located at 2.5 m
below MSSL (1.1 m below mean sea-level) in the
foreshore–nearshore transition zone produced an age
of 6850–6740 cal. year BP, which shows good
agreement within 2σ age limits with the date for the
same beachrock by Bezerra et al. (1998) (Farol de
Santo Alberto Beachrock). They dated this beachrock
to 6460 cal. year BP. It is probably that the São Bento
Beachrock was formed during the last phase of
Holocene transgression briefly before the sea level
passed the modern position.
Cabelo Beachrock: Two samples of bivalve shells
from Cabelo Beachrock were dated. One sample
(Cabelo Beachrock-a, Table 1), positioned in the
foreshore section at 1 m below the MSSL, gave an
age of 4090–3990 cal. year BP, whereas the other
Cabelo Beachrock-b, located at 0.5 m below MSSL and
also in the foreshore section, provided an age of 3810–
3690 cal. year BP. This age difference suggests that the
cementation process of the beachrock continued upward
for at least 300 years.
Galos Beachrock 2: One sample of bivalve shell
located at 0.7 m below MSSL and in the foreshore
deposit was dated at 2390–2340 cal. year BP. The
difference between the Galos Beachrock 1 and 2 might
demonstrate that each beachrock had been formed at a
different time although under same sea-level conditions
or that the shells were transported and recemented.
Galinhos Beachrock 1: One sample of bivalve shell
positioned at 0.8 m below MSSL and in the foreshore
deposit gave an age of 3350–3300 cal. year BP.
Galinhos Beachrock 2: Four samples of bivalve
shells were dated from Galinhos Beachrock 2. The
sample Galinhos Beachrock 2a dated at 4770–4600 cal.
year BP was collected at the top (upper foreshore
deposit and at MSSL) and in the extreme east of the
beachrock closer to the Galos City (Fig. 2). The other 3
bivalve shells were sampled in front of Galinhos City
(Galinhos Beachrock b, c and d). The samples Galinhos
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53 47

Beachrock 2b and 2c were taken at 0.2 m and 0.8 m
below MSSL in the foreshore deposits, respectively. The
ages obtained were 1810–1730 cal. year BP and 2460–
2350 cal. year BP, respectively. The sample Galinhos
Beachrock 2d was positioned at 1.6 m below the MSSL
in the foreshore deposit and yielded an age of 3240–
3140 cal. year BP. This last sample indicated the
maximum age at which the formation of beachrock had
started. The discordant age correlation between Galin-
hos Beachrock 2b, 2c and 2d may reflect various sources
of the material or vertical sequence of beachrock
cementation; the latter being more probable. The sample
Galinhos Beachrock 2a, in contrast to the others,
appears to represent a reworked and recemented bivalve
shell. It seems that Galinhos Beachrock 1 and 2 were
formed during the same period.
4.2. Lagoonal tidal sediments
The closure and filling of a lagoonal system provide
tidal flat deposits in the latest filling stage, which can be
used for the reconstruction of paleo-sea level. In the São
Bento area deposition of tidal flats as the youngest
sediments in the paleo-lagoon was dominated by
vertical accretion. In the cores (Fig. 7), this deposit is
composed of greenish-black mud with organic layers,
halite and gypsum crystals, root and shell fragments and
leaves (probably from mangrove trees). Some shells in
living position form banks on the paleo-tidal surface.
This facies is more extensive in vibro-core LCSBN-2,
where it attains 2.9 m in thickness. In vibro-core
LCSBN-1 it has a thickness of 0.7 m and downwards it
occurs as intercalations with washover sands. The basal
contact with washover sands is abrupt and defined by an
increase of grain size and change in color from greenish-
black to medium gray. The washover sands are
comprised of moderately sorted medium to coarse
gray sand. The sedimentary structure is a plane parallel
lamination dipping at 5° to 7° towards the continent. In
the vibro-core LCSBN-1 its maximum thickness reaches
1.0 m at the base while in the vibro-core LCSBN-2 it
reaches 0.17 m at the base.

Fig. 7. Grain size variations, sedimentary structures and AMS radiocarbon ages for the vibro-cores taken in the paleo-tidal flat close to São Bento and
Caiçara. Elevations are related to Modern Maximum Spring-tide Sea-level (MSSL).
48 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
4.2.1. Age control
The oldest age in paleo-tidal flat sediments of São
Bento was found in the middle part of vibro-core
LCSBN-1 yielding 7460–7420 cal. year BP whereas the
youngest age reaches 3630–3550 cal. year BP in the top
of the vibro-core LCSBN-2 (Fig. 7 and Table 1). In the
latter vibro-core an age of 7010–6890 cal. year BP at
− 3.8 m depth was determined for a bivalve shell in good
state of conservation (the bivalve shell was intact
showing original color and without any sign of
recrystallization) which suggests that this bivalve
probably died and its shell was deposited shortly
afterwards together with the sediment. A wood remnant
located in the mud sequence at − 3.6 m provided 6840–
6760 cal. year BP. From the shell and wood ages, we
believe that a short term sedimentation rates could have
been very high and within the error bars of radiometric
dating.
The age of leaves in the middle part of the core
LCSBN-2 (− 2.3 m) reaches 7090–6910 cal. year BP, at
least 120 years older than that positioned at − 3.6 m,
indicating that they are not in situ. Although this age
does not represent the sediment age at the time of its
deposition, it may be assumed that a typical lagoonal
environment existed in this period. The obtained age
probably belongs to mangrove leaves from the margins
of the former lagoon. On the top of the tidal flat
sequence a bivalve shell in living position gives an age
of 3630–3550 cal. year BP indicating a lagoonal
environment at this time. It is interesting to observe
that the organic matter in the vibro-core LCSBN-2
disappears exactly at − 2.3 m and appears again at
Fig. 8. Holocene sea-level curve for the studied area. MSSL = modern maximum spring-tide sea-level, MSL = modern mean sea-level. Sample codes:
see Table 1.
− 1.7 m to continue to the top. This could suggest pulses
of lagoonal influence with limited connection to the
open sea. The sediments are rich in evaporitic minerals
(halite and gypsum) from − 2.3 m to the top confirming
the regime of a semi-closed lagoon. The last marine
incursion occurred approximately 3630–3550 cal. year
BP when for the last time a typical lagoonal environ-
ment existed.
In the core LCSBN-1 only one sample of wood was
dated. It was positioned at − 2.1 m and gives an age of
7460–7420 cal. year BP. This age is the oldest found in
the paleo-tidal flats of São Bento and confirms the
presence of a lagoonal environment during this time.
The sedimentation rate was high and indicated a
rapid growth in the paleo-tidal flats of São Bento during
the last phase of the Holocene transgression after 7500
year BP, when sea level and shoreline position were
already close to the modern ones. Similar ages were
found by Silva (1991) in the transgressive basal
sequence of the Açu River Delta (∼ 130 km westward).
Although there is no age control available for the beach
ridges parallel to the present coastline, those located
seaward represent regressive sequences that have been
deposited during falling sea level after its maximum at
5900 cal. year BP.
4.3. Holocene sea-level history
From radiocarbon dating and elevation measure-
ments of beachrock and lagoonal sediments a new sea-
level curve for the northern Rio Grande do Norte coast
was constructed. Fig. 8 shows the trend of the
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
Holocene spring-tide sea level (solid line in Fig. 8)
based on paleo-tidal and beachrock ages. The use of
the uppermost level of beachrock cementation as a
reliable sea-level indicator seems to be appropriate for
a tropical mesotidal coast where beachrocks are the
most important coastal deposit. However, difficulties
exist in recognizing and defining the exact position of
the uppermost level, as modern backshore and
foreshore sand deposits almost always covered this
level. Despite these difficulties, it was possible to
construct a transgressive Holocene maximum spring-
tide sea-level curve showing a consistent trend. On the
sea-level curve of Fig. 8, beachrock deposits are
plotted as high-precision age-dots with vertical error
bars which represent the elevation uncertainty com-
prising half of spring–tidal range (1.4 m) on each side
(see Section 4.1). Error bars of tidal deposits span half
of the neap-tidal range (0.9 m) on each side of the dot.
For sample (b) from the top of Recuado Beachrock
only a downward unidirectional error bar is given
indicating its topmost position. The beachrock is
overlain by the slightly younger Recuado Shell
Midden with sample (c) which is positioned above
the tidal range (see Fig. 6). Sample (d) from the
foreshore–nearshore transition zone contains an up-
ward unidirectional error bar indicating its position
close to the low-water line.
According to the curve in Fig. 8, the transgression
passed the modern mean sea-level position 6700 cal.
year BP and reached its maximum approximately 5900–
6000 cal. year BP. The height of the maximum Holocene
spring-tide sea-level certainly did not extend 1.3 m
above the modern one with a maximum elevation of
2.7 m AMMSL. Stated otherwise, if more or less the
same tidal range with a maximum spring-tide range of
2.8 m is assumed for the Holocene period, the Holocene
highstand was not higher than 1.3 m above the modern
as indicated by the top of the Recuado Beachrock and the
base of the supratidal Recuado Shell Midden. The age of
this maximum is approximately 5900 cal. year BP.
The regressive Holocene sea-level trend could be
determined from beachrocks younger than 5000 cal.
year BP. A general trend for both Holocene MSSL and
Holocene mean sea level can be delineated without
secondary oscillations and with the same tidal regime as
today. The beachrock outcrops younger than 5000 cal.
year BP indicate that they were formed under sea-level
conditions similar to the modern and secondary
oscillations which cannot be confirmed. According to
Caldas (2002), marine conditions governed beachrock
lithification and later stages of diagenesis. Nevertheless,
the maximum elevation and the topography of the
49
uppermost part of these beachrocks could not be
determined, and this may explain the absence of ages
between 5900 and 4700 cal. year BP positioned above
the modern MSSL.
Data from Fig. 8 provide clear evidence that the
Holocene highstand was probably not higher than the
modern spring-tide sea level and thus it is not expected
that many mean Holocene sea-level indicators would be
positioned above the modern tidal range. In fact, only
one part of one beachrock is positioned above the
modern MSL as well as the MSSL. Fig. 6 shows that the
presumed base of Recuado Beachrock coincides with
the modern mean sea-level and only its upper foreshore
part (former MSSL) is located above the modern MSSL,
which indicates that this beachrock could have been
cemented during the Holocene sea-level highstand. The
beachrocks younger than 5000 cal. year BP indicate that
they were formed under sea-level conditions similar to
the modern and secondary oscillations which cannot be
confirmed. According to the beachrock geochronology,
the cementation of the São Bento Beachrock first took
place during the sea-level transgression. During the
Holocene highstand that reached 1.3 m above the
modern mean sea level, the São Bento Beachrock was
drowned under typical marine phreatic control. Caldas
(2002) showed that the chemical and diagenetic patterns
for this beachrock agree with the proposed sea-level
curve.
The uppermost part of the Recuado Beachrock is
positioned 1.3 m above the modern spring-tide level and
if one assumes that the tidal regime during the Holocene
time has remained more or less identical, the mean sea
level may be placed at maximum 1.4 m below the
uppermost part of the Recuado Beachrock. This
suggests that Holocene highstand reached approximate-
ly 1.3 m above the modern level at 5940–5900 cal. year
BP while at the same time the Holocene spring-tide
reached also 1.3 m above the modern one. Immediately
above the highest part of the beachrock lies the
lowermost part of the shell midden which is definitely
above the tidal zone (Fairbridge, 1976; Martin et al.,
1986, 2003) dated at 5760–5680 cal. year BP.
Cabelo Beachrock is the most indicative to show the
uppermost level of cementation above the modern
maximum spring-tide level because it was cemented
soon after the Holocene highstand when the maximum
spring-tide sea level was yet higher than the modern
level. Since, the Holocene regression has been uniform
and no secondary oscillations have taken place, as
diagenetic, chemical and isotopic data suggest, which
show clearly that all stages of cementation occurred
under marine conditions (Caldas, 2002).
50 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
5. Discussion
After the work by Suguio et al. (1985) the
discussion involving Holocene sea-level changes has
mainly been focused on minor secondary Holocene
sea-level oscillations (see Angulo et al., 1999; Angulo
and Lessa, 1997; Ybert et al., 2003; Martin et al.,
2003). The Salvador Curve (Fig. 9) marks the
highstand at 4.7 m above modern sea-level 5660 cal.
year BP (Martin et al., 2003). Furthermore, two
negative oscillations, 4200–3700 and 2600–2200 cal.
year BP, were proposed. Fig. 9b shows the sea-level
curve proposed by Angulo and Lessa (1997) for the
Brazilian Coast from ∼ 24°S to 27°S latitude. It was
based on 93 dated vermetid samples (incrusting
aragonitic gastropods) and according to Angulo and
Lessa (1997) no secondary oscillations occurred after
the Holocene highstand. These findings agree with the
Holocene sea-level trends for other coastal regions of
the southern hemisphere, where a smooth decline of
Fig. 9. Sea-level curves proposed for the Brazilian coast and their locations: (A) Martin et al. (2003); (B) Angulo and Lessa (1997); (C) Bezerra et al.
(2003); (D) Peltier (1998).
the sea level may be observed since the Holocene
highstand (Isla, 1989; Pirazzoli, 1991).
For the shoreline under study one constructed
Holocene sea-level envelope curve exists from paleo
sea-level indicators (Bezerra et al., 2003) (Fig. 9c). One
diagram gained from glacio-hydro-isostatic models has
been published (Fig. 9d). The envelope curve presented
recently by Bezerra et al. (2003) shows at least one sea-
level oscillation after the Holocene highstand which
occurred around 5000 cal. year. BP. The diagram
produced from glacio-hydro-isostatic modelling is the
so-called Touros curve (Peltier, 1998) and it predicts a
Holocene highstand reaching 2.3 m above the modern
mean sea-level 5200 cal. year BP without secondary
sea-level oscillations.
In comparison with the other Brazilian sea-level
curves for Holocene time, our curve presents a similar
trend, although the transgressive section with dated
samples positioned below the modern mean sea level
is better represented than in the other curves. To
 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
determine the exact position of the mean sea level
from coastal sediments deposited under mesotidal
regime is quite difficult. The difficulty increases when
variation in sea level has not been large enough to
deposit undoubted mean sea-level indicators above the
modern spring-tide level. Since the tidal range is
greater than the observed Holocene sea-level high-
stand (+ 1.3 m), any small-scale higher frequency
oscillation cannot be recognized. Only the uppermost
part of the beachrock cementation and its height in
relation to the current spring-tide level has indicated
that such deposit was cemented during sea-level
highstand. However, it should be kept in mind that
the upper levels of cementation were difficult do
determine due to burial by modern beach deposits.
There are noticeable differences with other Brazilian
sea-level curves. A highstand about 2.5 to 4.0 m for the
Rio Grande do Norte coast extending from 5730 to 4630
cal. year BP was proposed by Bezerra et al. (2003, see
Fig. 9c). After a subsequent sea-level fall, a positive sea-
level oscillation occurred from 2100 to 1100 cal. year
BP which is interpreted by the authors as a local
disturbance from the glacio-isostatic sea-level trend
predicted by Peltier (1998). Peltier (1998) predicts the
Holocene highstand to occur approximately at 5200 cal.
year BP with a maximum highstand of 2.3 m. On the
other hand, a Holocene “highstand” corresponding to
the modern sea level has been reported by Mörner et al.
(1999) for the coast between São Luis and Belém, 2000
km NW of the Rio Grande do Norte coast.
The principal differences to these other records
comprise (i) the Holocene highstand, and (ii) secondary
oscillations during the subsequent regression. The
highstand of 2.5 to 4 m above modern mean sea level
in the sea-level curve of Bezerra et al. (2003) results
from the interpretation of the dated beachrock outcrops
as nearshore sands that have been deposited in the
middle foreshore to upper nearshore (subtidal) zone. We
used only samples from the intertidal upper foreshore
zone indicating spring-tide and other high-energy events
except the São Bento beachrock which was deposited in
the lower tidal zone. These differences in positioning the
beachrock relative to mean sea level cause the
differences in sea-level heights. Positions of the younger
beachrock outcrops with their error bars are all within
the tidal-range envelope which is much larger than the
total sea-level drop of 1.3 m. Therefore no secondary
oscillations can be confirmed although elevation of
sample points differs up to 1.6 m. In addition, our
studies on beachrock cementation indicate only marine
conditions during lithification and later stages of
diagenesis (Caldas, 2002).
51
The Holocene highstand followed by a succeeding
linear sea-level drop may be explained by the
mechanism of ‘equatorial ocean syphoning’ which
assumes the migration of ocean water from low latitudes
to the high-latitude glacial forebulge areas which
subside after deglaciation (Mitrovica and Peltier, 1991;
Mitrovica and Milne, 2002). Numerical experiments of
Mitrovica and Milne (2002) suggest an actual sea-level
drop between 0.2 and 0.3 mm/year for the NE Brazilian
coast which would correspond to a highstand between
1.0/1.2 and 1.5/1.8 m for the time interval 5000 to 6000
years BP, in good agreement with our data. Modelling of
Holocene sea-level data from the Caribbean and South
America including data from Recife by Milne et al.
(2005) indicates for the last 7000 years a global ice-
volume change of no more than ± 1 m eustatic
equivalent. An influence of the ‘broad shelf effect’
enlarging the relative sea-level rise during deglacial
shelf flooding can be neglected on the narrow and
shallow NE Brazilian shelf (Peltier and Drummond,
2002).
6. Conclusions
The uppermost part of the beachrock cementation is,
due to its elevation relation with modern sea level, a
reliable sea-level indicator. The determination of paleo-
mean sea level from beachrock deposits in macro- and
mesotidal coasts is complicated because beachrock
deposits can only hint at the former spring-tide level
and the tidal amplitude. Therefore, only the uppermost
part of the beachrock can be used as a reliable sea-level
indicator.
The sea-level curve obtained from radiocarbon
dating of beachrock and paleo-tidal sediments demon-
strates a similar trend to other curves for the final part of
the transgressive section with dated samples positioned
below the actual mean sea-level. Sea level reached the
present position along the northern Rio Grande do Norte
coast approximately 6700 cal. year BP, about 300 years
later than in other sea-level curves for the Brazilian
coast. According to the beachrock geochronology, the
cementation of the São Bento Beachrock first took place
during the transgression when typical intertidal arago-
nitic cements were precipitated in the pore space of the
beach sand (Caldas, 2002). During the Holocene
highstand the São Bento Beachrock was drowned
under typical marine phreatic control.
Maximum spring-tide sea level at the Holocene
highstand was 1.3 m higher than the modern one
corresponding to a highstand mean sea level of 1.3 m
above modern mean sea level at 5940–5900 cal. year
52 L.H.O. Caldas et al. / Marine Geology 228 (2006) 39–53
BP. The lower part of the supratidal shell midden
immediately above, which is only 180 years younger,
limits the uppermost extension of the beachrock.
Our findings demonstrate that for the proposed
Holocene highstand and subsequent sea-level fall
substantial differences to other Brazilian records appear.
These differences comprise timing and elevation of the
Holocene highstand and secondary oscillations during
the subsequent regression.
For the Salvador curve the highstand differences can
be attributed to both regionally different tectonical uplift
and subsidence trends in addition to the ocean-
syphoning component in that region.
Differences in positioning the beachrock relative to
mean sea level may also cause differences of sea-level
index points heights. Positions of the younger beachrock
outcrops with their error bars are all within the tidal-
range envelope and no secondary oscillations can be
confirmed. Furthermore, beachrock cementation indi-
cates only marine conditions during lithification and
later stages of diagenesis excluding supratidal exposi-
tion (Caldas, 2002).
Continued observation of the beach profile and the
determination of the upper level of cementation will
improve the falling limb of the sea-level curve. The
elevation of the uppermost level of cementation could
be recognized and measured through digging a trench on
the present upper foreshore zone. The depositional
model of the beachrock as a “frozen beach” and its direct
comparison with modern beaches has permitted the
positioning of nearshore–foreshore–backshore zonation
with high precision. The careful distinction between
both modern mean sea level and modern spring-tide
level, and their vertical relation to precise former sea-
level indicators in the area during minor sea-level
variations, may improve the database necessary for the
construction of a sea-level curve.
There is no evidence of local Holocene tectonic uplift
as suggested by Bezerra et al. (1998), but neotectonic
features can be observed in Quaternary sediments
inland. Only dating of outcrops affected by tectonic
structures can determine the age of such events.
Acknowledgements
This work was founded by a CNPq/DAAD
personal doctoral fellowship for L. Caldas (grant
number 201041-97.9), and by funds from DFG (grant
number Sta 401/7-1/7-2), MARPETRO (FINEP/
CTPETRO/PETROBRAS), and PROBRAL 150-02
(CAPES-DAAD). We thank R. Gehrels and anony-
mous referees for valuable suggestions and manuscript
review. Special thanks go also to the crew of the
fishing boat Amarildo Neto, and to the local people of
Caicara and Galinhos who made the sea-based part of
this research possible. We would like to thank
Venerando Amaro, Walter Medeiros, Joana Rotnicka,
Helmut Beese and the Brazilian and German students
participating in field and laboratory work. Thanks are
also due to Aracy Vilela Cid for logistic facilities. L.
Caldas thanks the FAPERN/CNPq for his current
research fellowship.
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