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WK3 Gear Fundamentals
WK3 Gear Fundamentals
[1]
Lecture WK-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEARS
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEARS 3-2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In many engineering applications, it is desired to transmit power or motion from one
rotating shaft to another. There is a range of alternatives to accomplish this task. The
available choices include flat belts, V-belts, toothed timing belts, chain drives, friction wheel
drives, and gear drives. Selection of a particular transmission system depends on factors like
distance between rotating members, power requirements, system efficiency requirements,
vibration limitations and budget. For example, belt drives and chain drives are often less
costly, and may be used to advantage where input and output shafts are widely spaced.
On the other hand, if smooth slip-free uniform motion, high speed, light weight, precise
timing, high efficiency, or compact design are important design criteria, the selection of an
appropriate system of gears will, in nearly all cases, fulfil these criteria better than any of the
other alternatives. Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit motion and power from one
shaft to the next. Gears can transmit power with up to 98% efficiency [2]. Design of gears
involves selection of materials, strength, and wear characteristics.
This lecture covers the study of fundamentals of gear design with particular emphasis on
spur gears. In this regards, the following topics are discussed in these notes:
- Fundamentals of gears
- Law of gearing
- Conjugate action and involute properties
- Gear-tooth geometry and nomenclature
- Pressure angle
- Interference and undercutting
- Contact ratio
- Gear-tooth systems
- Types of gears
2.0 GEARING
The simplest means of transferring rotary motion from one shaft to another is a pair of
rolling cylinders (external or internal), as shown in Figure 2.1a. This mechanism works quite
well as long as sufficient friction is available at the rolling interface. However, such
arrangements are limited by their load (torque) carrying capacity and possibility of slip.
VELOCITY RATIO
Usually, a pair of gears is used to get a speed change. This is accomplished by employing
different sizes of the gears in mesh. The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of rotational
speed of the input gear to that of the output gear for a single pair of gears.
r1ω1 = r2ω 2
ω1 r2
= = CONSTANT
ω2 r1
If r1/r2 is not constant, w1/w2 is not constant. For the angular velocity ratio to remain
constant, the contours of the gear teeth have to satisfy the ‘fundamental law of gearing’:
As the gears rotate, the common normal to the surfaces at the point of contact
must always intersect the line of centres at the same point P (Figure 2.3), called the
pitch point.
When the tooth profiles, or cams, are designed so as to satisfy this requirement, these are
said to have conjugate action. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Cam-follower and gear-tooth profiles ensuring conjugate action [1, 5]
The above discussion is based on the assumption that the gear-teeth are perfectly formed,
perfectly smooth, and absolutely rigid. Such an assumption is, of course, unrealistic, because
manufacturing inaccuracies and tooth deflections will cause slight deviations in velocity
ratio, but acceptable tooth profiles are based on theoretical curves that meet this criterion.
CYCLOIDAL GEARING:
Cycloidal gearing was once extensively used. In this type, the curve is traced by a point on
the circumference of a generating circle, as it rolls without slipping along the inside and
outside of the pitch circle of the gear, as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
- Common normal (Line of action) is tangent to both base circles. It always passes
through the pitch point regardless of where in the mesh the two teeth are contacting.
- The pitch-point has the same linear velocity in both pinion and gear. It is known as
the pitch-line velocity.
Figure 2.6: Contact geometry and pressure angle of involute gear teeth [3]
PITCH DIAMETER (D): It is the diameter of an imaginary circle on which gear tooth is
designed. Pitch circles of two spur gears are tangent to each other.
Mathematically,
N
D=
P
Where,
N = Number of teeth
P = Dimetral pitch
NUMBER OF TEETH (N): The total number of teeth on a gear.
N = DP
DIAMETRAL PITCH (P): A ratio equal to the number of teeth to a unit length of pitch
diameter.
N
P=
D
CIRCULAR PITCH (p): It is the arc length along the pitch circle circumference measured
from the point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
Mathematically,
D
p = 3.1416 = 3.1416 / P
N
ADDENDUM (a): It is the amount of tooth that sticks out above the pitch circle (or it is the
radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth). The standard addendum is equal
to the module ‘m’ in millimetres.
1
a=
P
DEDENDUM (b): It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth. The
standard dedendum is equal to module x 1.25 (i.e. 1.25 m) in millimetres.
1.250
b=
P
CENTRE DISTANCE (C): The distance between the axes of two mating gears.
WHOLE DEPTH (ht): It is the full height of the tooth. It equals to the sum of addendum and
dedendum.
ht = a + b = 2.250 / P
WORKING DEPTH (hk): It is defined as the distance that a tooth occupies in the mating
space. It is equal to the two times the addendum.
hk = 2a = 2 / P
CLEARANCE: It is the radial distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the
mating tooth space. It is also the difference between the addendum and dedendum.
c = b − a = 0.250 / P
OUTSIDE DIAMETER (Do): It is the overall diameter of the gear. It is equal to the pitch
diameter plus two addendums
Do = D + 2a
ROOT DIAMETER (Dr): It is the diameter of a circle that coincides with the bottom of the
tooth spaces.
Dr = D − 2b
CIRCULAR THICKNESS (t): It is defined as the length of an arc between the two sides of a
gear tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is also known as tooth thickness.
t = 1.5708 / P
CHODRAL THICKNESS (tc): It is the straight line thickness of a gear tooth measured on the
pitch circle (Figure 2.8)
tc = D sin(90 / N )
CHODRAL ADDENDUM (ac): The height from the top of the tooth to the line of the chodral
thickness (Figure 2.8).
ac = a + t 2 / 4 D
BASE CIRCLE DIAMETER (DB): It is the diameter of a circle from which the involute tooth
form is generated.
DB = D cos(φ )
TOOTH THICKNESS: The tooth thickness is measured on the pitch circle from one side of a
tooth to the other side. It is also known as circular thickness. Theoretically, t = p/2
SPACE WIDTH: The tooth space (space width) is also measured on the pitch circle, from the
right-side of one tooth to the left-side of the next tooth. Theoretically, it is equal to the tooth
thickness. But for practical reasons, the tooth space is made slightly larger than the tooth
thickness.
BACKLASH:
The difference between tooth thickness and tooth space is called the backlash. Some
backlash is need for lubrication and proper functioning of gears in mesh. To provide
backlash:
• the cutter generating the gear teeth can be fed more deeply than the theoretical value on
either or both of the mating gears, or
• the centre distance can be adjusted to a larger value than the theoretical value
MODULE (m): It is essentially the reciprocal of diametral pitch (P) and is defined as the
pitch diameter in millimetres divided by the number of teeth. In other words, it is the
number of millimetres of pitch diameter per tooth. Mathematically,
D
m=
N
THE PRESSURE ANGLE (Ø): The pressure angle Ø (as shown in Figure 2.9) in a gearset is
defined as the angle between the line of action (common normal) and the direction of
velocity at the pitch point such that the line of action is rotated Ø degrees in the direction of
rotation of the driven gear.
Technically speaking, any pressure angle Ø is possible but it has been standardised at a few
values by the gear manufactures. These values are defined at the nominal centre distance for
the gearset as cut. Only three have been in common use:
a) 14.5° in use for many years but now obsolete.
b) 20° Most common in DP and Module form
c) 25° in USA only.
Note that the actual pressure angle (i.e. operating pressure angle) is a function of the
installed centre distance. This is explained in the following sections:
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 1
𝐶𝐶 = + = (𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 + 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 )
2 2 2
Where,
C = Centre distance
DG = Pitch diameter of gear
DP = Pitch diameter of pinion
Design of gearsets is based on theoretical centre distances, which is calculated from the
theoretical pitch diameters of the gears in mesh. However, the final installation of gears may
result in different value of centre distance. This variation in the centre distance will directly
affect the pressure angle (Ø), as shown in Figure 2.11.
Despite the variation in the centre distance, the speed ratio remains unaffected. This fact is
further explained by considering two gears in mesh at the design centre distance and then at
extended (actual) centre distance (Figure 2.12).
Db
cos(φ ) = ω1 Db 2
Dp =
ω2 Db1
Note that increasing the centre distance results in increasing the pressure angle. The
fundamental law of gearing still holds in the increased centre distance case because the
common normal is still tangent to the two base circles and still passes through the pitch
point. Clearly, involute shape gears comply with the fundamental law of gearing – even if
the centre distance between the gears is changed.
It is also important to note that the actual pressure angle (operating pressure angle) is a
function of the installed centre distance.
𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (∅′) = 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 2 (Refer to Figure 2.12b)
𝑃𝑃 1
EXAMPLE: Determine the operating pressure angle for a gearset that has the
following specifications. Design pressure angle = 20°, module = 5 mm, number of
teeth on pinion = 20, number of teeth on gear = 60, and installed at 201 mm centre
distance.
SOLUTION
Design pressure angle (Ф) = 20°
Module = 5 mm
Number of teeth on pinion (N1) = 20
Number of teeth on gear (N2) = 60
Centre distance = 201 mm
Operating pressure angle (Ф’) =?
DB1 = D1cosФ
DB1 = mN1cos20° DB1 = 93.97 mm
DB2 = D2cosФ
DB2 = mN2cos20° DB2 = 281.91 mm
𝐷𝐷1 𝐷𝐷2 1 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 1
𝑐𝑐 = + = 2 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵(∅1 ′ ) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅
𝐵𝐵 2
′ )� = 2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅′ ) (93.97 + 281.91)
2 2
1
201 = (93.97 + 281.91)
2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅′ )
375.88
∅′ = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 −1 ( )
402
∅′ = 20.77°
Number _ Of _ Teeth N
P= = (in inches)
Pitch _ Circle _ Dimatere D
The two systems are not compatible in any way. With metric system, commonly used
standard values of modules are:
Increasing module results in larger teeth and increasing the pressure angle Ø results in
smaller teeth. The designer usually specifies teeth of the smallest size which will carry the
load. This produces:
- The best contact ratio and therefore smoother gear mesh
- Less likelihood of interference
Having straight sides on the cutting tool facilitates cutter manufacture and resharpening.
Figure 2.15 shows the steps in gear tooth generation, using a reciprocating rack cutter.
Manufacturing process will not be dealt with here – however it is possible in some
circumstances not to generate an involute tooth profile – if the cutter extends below the base
circle. An involute cannot exist beneath the base circle.
8.1 INTERFERENCE
Interference occurs if either of the addendum circles extends beyond tangent points a and b,
as shown in Figure 2.16. This prevents rotation of the mating parts. The points a and b are
called interference points.
As shown in Figure 2.17, it is evident that the gears will not operate without modification.
The gear tooth can be corrected to overcome this problem. The preferred approach is to
remove the interfering tip, shown shaded in Figure 2.17.
8.2 UNDERCUTTING
Undercutting refers to the process of cutting away the material at the fillet or root of the gear
teeth, thus alleviating the interference.
ra (max) = rb + c 2 sin 2 φ
2
Where
ra(max) = maximum non-interfering addendum circle radius of pinion or gear
c = centre distance
Ø = pressure angle (actual, not nominal, value)
a = r − r cos 2 φ (2)
k × m = r − r cos 2 φ
km = r (1 − cos 2 φ ) (3)
Now calculating the number of teeth for the commonly used values of pressure angle will
produce the following results (Table 2.1) .
r 2 ap − r 2 bp + r 2 ag − r 2 bg − c sin φ
CR =
Pb
Where
rap, rag = addendum radii of mating pinion and gear
rbp, rbg = base circle radii of the mating pinion and gear
Db = d cos φ
rb = r cos φ
Pb = p cos φ
Generally, the greater the contact ratio, the smoother and quieter the operation of the gears.
A contact ratio of 2 or more means that at least two pairs of teeth are theoretically in contact
at all times.
A recommended minimum contact ratio is 1:2 and typical spur gear combinations often
have values of 1.5 or higher.
Gears may be grouped according to the type of shafting arrangement required for a
particular application. Following are the commonly used categories:
*The information provided in this section is based on the book titled”Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines (2003)
by Jack A. Collins, published by John Wiley & Sons. For further details, read chapter 15 of this book.
Figure 3.2 shows types of gears in applications with parallel shafts. Different types are
further explained below.
Figure 3.2: Gears for use in applications with parallel shafts [7]
SPUR GEARS
Spur gears connect parallel shafts. Spur gear teeth are straight and parallel to the gear shaft
axis. They are further classified as external (Figure 3.3) and internal (Figure 3.2b) spur gears.
Spur gears are:
– Relatively simple to design, manufacture and check for precision
– Relatively inexpensive
– Impose only radial loads on supporting bearings.
– Noisy in high speed applications
Tooth-profiles are ordinarily involute in shape, and therefore tolerate small variations in
centre distance.
HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears, as shown in Figure 3.4, are very similar to spur gears except that their teeth
are angled with respect to the axis of shaft to form parallel helical spirals. The helixes for the
two mating external gears must have the same helix angle, but for parallel shaft applications
the hand of the helix on the pinion must be opposite to the hand of the gear. Because of the
angled teeth, helical gears:
- Allow more than one tooth to be in contact at the same time.
- Impose both radial and thrust (axial) loads on supporting bearings.
Helical gears tolerate small variations in centre distance, and are designed to carry more
loads when compared to spur gears. The angled teeth provide gradual-engagement between
mating gears, which produces smoother and quieter operation than with straight-tooth spur
gears. Helical gears are further classified as:
- External helical gears (Figures 3.2c and 3.4)
- Internal helical gears (Figure 3.2d)
Figure 3.6: Gears for use in applications with intersecting shaft axes [7]
BEVEL GEARS
Straight bevel gears, as shown in Figure 3.7, represent the simplest type of gearing used for
intersecting shafts. Bevel gears are conical in shape, allowing the axes of the shafts of the
gear and pinion to intersect at 90º or at any desired angle. The shape of the teeth on bevel
gear is the same as the shape of the teeth on spur gear except they are tapered (toward the
apex of the cone) in both thickness and height, from large tooth profile at one end to a
smaller tooth profile at the other end.
MITER GEARS:
Miter gears, a special case of bevel gears, have the same size for gear and pinion and are
used when shafts must intersect at 90º without speed reduction.
Figure 3.8: Gears for use in applications where shafts are neither parallel nor intersecting [7]
HYPOID GEARS
Hypoid gears also have the same design as spiral bevel gears except the gear shaft axes are
offset and do not intersect, as shown in Figure 3.9. The offset is measured along the
perpendicular common to the two axes. If hypoid gears had zero offset, they would be spiral
bevel gears.
SPIROID GEARS
This combination of gears, as shown in Figure 3.8b, involves a face gear with teeth spirally
curved along their length, and a mating tapered pinion. Offsets for spiroid gearing are larger
than for hypoid gearsets, and the pinion somewhat resembles a worm. This combination
provides high reduction ratios with a compact design. The load-carrying is also good.
WORM GEARS
This is another very popular gearing system used for high reduction ratios in small space.
The worm, as shown in Figure 3.10, has teeth similar to the threads of a power screw. The
worm gear (also known as worm wheel) has teeth similar to those of a helical gear except
that they are contoured to envelop the worm.
DOUBLE ENVELOPING
In this type of enveloping, the worm profile is also throated to envelop the gear, as shown in
Figure 3.8e.
10.0 REFERENCES
1. Juvinall, R.C. and K.M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design. Fourth
ed. 2006: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. David A. Madsen, David P. Madsen, and J.L. Turpin, Engineering Drawing and Design.
4th ed. 2007: Thomson Delmar Learning.
3. Norton, R.L., Machine Design: An Integrated Approach. Third ed. 2006: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
4. Spotts, M.F., T.E. Shoup, and L.E. Hornberger, Design of Machine Elements. Eighth ed.
2004: Pearson Prentice Hall.
5. Budynas, R.G. and J.K. Nisbett, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design. Eighth ed.
2008: McGraw Hill.
6. Cecil H. Jensen and J.D. Helsel, Interpreting Engineering Drawings. 7th ed. 2007:
Thomson Delmar Learning.
7. Collins, J.A., Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines. 2003: John Wiley &
Sons.
8. Mott, R.L., Machine Elements in Mechanical Design. 4th ed. 2006, Singapore: Prentice
Hall (Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd).
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q1: Describe law of gearing.
Q2: What are the problems associated with undercutting?
Q3: What is the difference between spur and helical gears? Draw sketches to support
your answer.
Q4: Draw a sketch to define pressure angle. How would it affect the pressure angle if the
installed centre distance is greater than the theoretical centre distance?
Q5: What is the cause of interference in gears?
Q6: What type of gearing is suitable for converting rotary motion to linear motion?
Q7: Define contact ratio.
Q8: What is the difference between full-depth and stub-teeth gears?