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(Edward Forman) Historical Dictionary of French TH (B-Ok - CC) PDF
(Edward Forman) Historical Dictionary of French TH (B-Ok - CC) PDF
Edward Forman
Historical Dictionaries of
Literature and the Arts, No. 39
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval
systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
may quote passages in a review.
Forman, Edward.
Historical dictionary of French theater / Edward Forman.
p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of literature and the arts; no. 39)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-8108-4939-6 (alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-7451-0 (ebook)
1. Theater—France—Biography—Dictionaries. 2. Theater—France—
Dictionaries. 3. Dramatists, French—Biography—Dictionaries. I. Title.
PN2637.F67 2010
792.0944’03—dc22 2009046246
vii
Editor’s Foreword
Most national theaters are just that—national. The bulk of the plays are
written for domestic consumption, and unfortunately few dramatists,
let alone actors or directors, are known abroad. That is sad but under-
standable since English has become the most widely known and used
language and since Shakespeare and his successors have contributed so
much to world theater. But French is a clear runner-up. Indeed, French
theater sometimes took the lead, with Corneille, Racine, and Molière,
and in the Romantic era with Alexander Dumas and the surrealist
works of Alfred Jarry. But never was it more so than when the Theater
of the Absurd erupted in rationalistic France with Samuel Beckett and
Eugène Ionesco (not actually Frenchmen but writing in French) and
Jean-Paul Sartre. More recently one can look to Michel Vinaver and
Yasmina Reza.
Where French theater has never been exceeded, however, is in its
passion, which keeps the legitimate stage going and the somewhat less
than legitimate stage bubbling over at all times. A larger percentage
of French citizens than almost anywhere else like and go to theater
because they want to and not because they are supposed to. And they
have taken drama in the broadest sense out of the “theater” and into the
public space, as well as countless festivals.
This long and often impressive history is presented in the latest addi-
tion to the growing circle of Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the
Arts. It contains a clear history in both the chronology and introduction,
which trace the most important events over six centuries. The dictionary
examines some of the most significant playwrights, actors, directors,
managers, and plays themselves. While many are well known, others
have been largely forgotten and deserve mention, both to show their
contributions when they were in their prime and to illustrate that French
theater has an amazing depth that is not always recognized. Those who
ix
x • EDITOR’S FOREWORD
want to know more can then pursue further reading with aid from the
bibliography.
This Historical Dictionary of French Theater was written by Edward
Forman, who has taught the subject for more than three decades at the
School of Modern Languages of the University of Bristol. In addition, he
has been the honorary secretary of the British Society for Seventeenth-
Century French Studies and the president of the North American So-
ciety for Seventeenth-Century French Literature. He specializes in
the relationship between theater, music, and stage music, as well as
17th-century French theater. But his interests are much more diverse,
including French theater of any period and plays written by those in the
wider Francophone community. Moreover, this is not just an academic
pursuit. In addition to knowing about, studying, and teaching French
theater, Dr. Forman likes it and takes pleasure in helping others under-
stand and appreciate it—possibly developing a passion for this great
tradition.
Jon Woronoff
Series Editor
Chronology
xi
xii • CHRONOLOGY
1552 Étienne Jodelle’s Cléopatre captive and Eugène are the first
original French texts in the forms of classical tragedy and comedy,
respectively.
1557 One of the last confirmed performances of a mystery play, the
Mystère du Vieux Testament, is given at Draguignan.
1570 Jean Baïf and Joachim Thibaut de Courville found the Acadé-
mie de Poésie et de Musique.
1572 Jean de la Taille’s De L’Art de la tragédie, based on Aristotle’s
Poetics, codifies the principles of classical form in French for the first
time.
1573 Robert Garnier’s Hippolyte, one of the first and most notable
French tragedies written in imitation of Seneca, is composed.
1579 Pierre Larivey’s Les Esprits is composed.
1581 Le Ballet comique de la reine is performed.
1583 Robert Garnier’s Les Juives is written and performed.
1597 The Confrérie de la Passion discontinues its own performances
and seeks instead to let out the Hôtel de Bourgogne to other acting
companies. Italian and possibly English traveling companies also visit
Paris.
1599 Valleran Le Conte founds an acting company with Adrien
Talmy at the Hôtel de Bourgogne, adopting for the first time the title
Comédiens du Roi. They perform works by Alexandre Hardy.
1601 Antoine de Montchrestien’s L’Écossaise is written and per-
formed.
1605 Jean Vauquelin de la Fresnaye’s Art poétique (written in the
1570s) anticipates the classical period by encapsulating Aristotelian
dramatic theory.
1610–20 The Paris stage is dominated by coarse comic actors:
Arlequin’s Italian company and the French company led by Gaultier-
Garguille.
CHRONOLOGY • xiii
The term French theater evokes most immediately, no doubt, the glories
of the classical period and the peculiarities of the Theater of the Absurd,
yet both these foci of attention are liable to be misunderstood. Racine,
Corneille and Molière tend to be lumped together as one, regarded as
wordy, static and stylized, and compared to their disadvantage with
Shakespeare—destructive where he is ennobling, bound by convention
where he is liberating, repressed where he achieves health, hilarity and
reconciliation. The rediscovery of Corneille’s L’Illusion comique and
of Molière’s comédies-ballets as riotous and gleeful performance pieces
has done something to redress the balance, but not enough in practice.
In the modern period, too, an English-speaking critic summed up
Samuel Beckett’s En Attendant Godot as “a play in which nothing hap-
pens, twice,”1 thereby consolidating the reputation of French theater for
verbal dexterity allied to a paucity of action, even though this reputation
ignores the zany inventiveness of Eugène Ionesco, whose Rhinocéros
and Les Chaises came to overshadow his La Cantatrice chauve in popu-
larity on the English stage in the late 20th century.
Knowledge of the French theater between those two periods is highly
sporadic: Beaumarchais apart, few in Great Britain or America could
name a significant number of 18th-century French dramatists, Vol-
taire’s enthusiastic involvement with theatrical activity would generally
be met with surprise, and the plays of Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny
and Alfred de Musset, as also those of Victorien Sardou and Maurice
Mæterlinck, are recognized if at all only as the source material for op-
eras. Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus and Marguerite Duras, like Hugo,
are better known in other realms than as dramatists, and even those
playwrights whose work has crossed the English Channel, notably Jean
Anouilh, Paul Claudel and Georges Feydeau, tend to be approached
with a certain precious caution: “sophisticated” rather than genuinely
1
2 • INTRODUCTION
ORIGINS TO 1550
ROMANTIC DRAMA
The second major flowering of French drama, that associated with the
Romantic period, was a good deal more explosive than the first, but
rather short-lived. The “querelles” of the classical period, largely dry
and academic, gave way to a veritable “bataille” over the Romantic
æsthetic that succeeded in displacing classicism for a decade or so. The
Romantics’ theoretical position was established before any of their prac-
tical achievements—not normally a recipe for artistic success, although
in this case the theory was derived from the most practically grounded
of experiences, that of Shakespeare on a real stage. Despite the dogged
resistance of Voltaire, there had been some attempts in France to publish
and perform Shakespeare, in English or in French, from around 1745:
translations by Pierre-Antoine de La Place and Jean-François Ducis,
and visits from David Garrick who befriended Mlle Clairon. During the
same period, the influence of Shakespeare was having a much stronger
impact on the development of German drama, but France was relatively
isolated culturally as well as politically, and actors and audiences—in-
sofar as they survived the decade of the Revolution and the Terror—re-
mained faithful to an essentially conservative view of the theater. It was
not until the 1820s that a Shakespearean attitude was espoused, first in
INTRODUCTION • 9
prioritize mental realities over the physical, ideals over harsh cynicism;
and playwrights such as Paul Fort and Maurice Mæterlinck, champi-
oned by director Lugné-Poe at the Théâtre d’Art and the Théâtre de
l’Œuvre, produced highly poetic but rather static and suggestive works
in which ideas rather than action carried the weight of the performance.
These compartments were not altogether watertight, and they coincided
and overlapped with each other: a five-year period from 1892 saw the
first performances of Mæterlinck’s Pelléas et Mélisande, Alfred de
Musset’s Lorenzaccio (written in 1834), Victorien Sardou’s Madame
Sans-Gêne, Henry Becque’s La Parisienne, Georges Feydeau’s Le Din-
don, Alfred Jarry’s outrageous Ubu roi and Edmond Rostand’s Cyrano
de Bergerac. During that same period, Henry Bataille reversed the
dominant trend by moving from a broadly Symbolist æsthetic toward
greater psychological realism, while Edmond Rostand seems to be a
Romantic dramatist lost in the wrong decade. Throughout the latter part
of the 19th century the dominant figure—by a distance—on the French
theatrical scene was one who more than any other defies compartmen-
talization: Sarah Bernhardt, whose repertoire ranged from the classical
(Phèdre and Le Cid) through the Romantic (Ruy Blas, Lorenzaccio and
Hamlet) to both of the contemporary strands (Rostand on the one hand,
Sardou on the other).
Even before those interactions had run their course or the century ended,
a new explosion had rocked the world of drama: Alfred Jarry’s Ubu
roi, whose wild brutality pushed to a new extreme the dehumanizing
tendencies of Symbolist art and seemed to set a tone for the innovative
experimentation of the next 50 years of French theater. A sequence can
be traced from Symbolism through Surrealism and Dada to the Absurd,
but each stage seems characterized afresh by the desire to shock, to jolt
audiences out of all complacency, about their lives, about the role of
art and literature within those lives, and about the place and status of
theater within the country’s literary heritage. Serge Diaghilev’s much-
quoted exhortation, “Étonne-moi,” can be dated precisely enough,3 but
seems to be as relevant to the 1890s (Ubu roi) and the 1950s (En Atten-
dant Godot and La Cantatrice chauve) as to Cocteau’s own responses in
12 • INTRODUCTION
the second and third decades of the century (Parade and Les Mariés de
la Tour Eiffel). Between the two most explosive years, 1896 and 1917,
there was, to be sure, a slight lull so far as textual drama was concerned,
as highly literary authors such as André Gide and Paul Claudel com-
posed plays that were destined to wait decades for performance.
The links in the chain between Symbolism and Surrealism in that
period were musical rather than textual but still bound up with ex-
perimental performances: Claude Debussy’s musical reflection of
Stéphane Mallarmé’s Après-midi d’un faune was composed in 1894
and choreographed for Vaslav Nijinski in 1912; the same composer’s
operatic version of Pelléas et Mélisande was premièred in 1902, and
Igor Stravinski’s epoch-making ballet The Rite of Spring was composed
and performed in 1913. These paved the way for the two dramatic
turning points of 1917: Pierre Albert-Birot’s production of Guillaume
Apollinaire’s Les Mamelles de Tirésias—the first work of performance
art to which the term “surrealist” was applied—and the performance by
the Ballets russes of Jean Cocteau and Erik Satie’s ballet Parade. The
first of these foreshadowed the Dada-based theatrical spectacle of 1920
at the Théâtre de l’Œuvre, incorporating work by Tristan Tzara, André
Breton, Philippe Soupault and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes. The
second launched the multifaceted dramatic career of Cocteau, who was
to spend the next 40 years experimenting with different combinations
of space, text, décor, music and film: Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel, Or-
phée, Œdipe-Roi, La Machine infernale, Les Parents terribles and La
Voix humaine were all in different ways innovative and challenging to
expectations of theater practitioners and audiences alike.
Other landmarks that occurred during the first 20 or so years of the
century included the foundation of the Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier,
that of the Théâtre national populaire, and the relaunch of the Théâtre de
l’Atelier. That these are considered significant events indicates the early
existence of what was to be the most distinctive feature of 20th-century
French theatrical life, its domination not by authors, or even by actors,
but by directors.4 The Cartel of Gaston Baty, Charles Dullin, Louis Jou-
vet and Georges Pitoëff sought to combat the purely commercial pres-
sures that dominated the Paris stage in the 1920s by providing mutual
aid to ensure the viability of experimental and innovative theatrical art-
istry. From that point onwards, most of the major dramatists and actors
of the century were essentially defined by their relationship with one or
INTRODUCTION • 13
NOTES
– A –
17
18 • ACADÉMIE FRANÇAISE
combines the ridicule and the pathos of a clown with the naïve con-
fidence of a Harlequin. Other key works include Domino, also first
performed by Jouvet in 1932, Noix de coco (Coconuts, 1936), Adam
(1939), Auprès de ma blonde (Alongside My Blonde, 1946), Nous
irons à Valparaiso (We’ll Go to Valparaiso, 1947), Le Moulin de la
Galette (1951), Les Compagnons de la marjolaine (The Companions
of Marjoram, 1953), Patate (Spud), first performed by Pierre Dux
in 1954, and L’Idiote, first performed by Annie Girardot (1931– ) at
the Théâtre Antoine in 1960. Achard also wrote scenarios or screen-
plays for early films, notably Mayerling (1936) by Anatole Litvak
(1902–1974), Madame de . . . (1953) by Max Ophüls (1902–1957),
and La Femme et le Pantin (The Woman and the Puppet, known as A
Woman Like Satan, 1959) by Julien Duvivier (1896–1967). Achard
was elected to the Académie française in 1959. See also ŒUVRE,
THÉÂTRE DE L’; PALAIS-ROYAL.
[“Theater has reached a point today where everyone worships it, and
although your generation looked down on it with scorn, it has become
the idol of the finest minds, the talking-point of Paris, the desire of
the provinces, the sweetest recreation of our princes, the delight of the
populace and the charm of the court.”]
Even allowing for a degree of self-flattery, this suggests that theater
was appealing to a very wide social mix, and in the following year the
appeal of drama both to sophisticated intellectuals and to society fig-
ures was firmly established by the success of Le Cid. From that date,
although comic dramatists have often poked fun at the varied tastes,
prudishness or vulgarity of different elements in their audience, they
have seldom had cause to complain about the mass appeal of theater
to a wide public in France.
34 • AUDIENCES
– B –
many, gave the movement its name, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
(1886–1969); its most prominent exponent in France was Charles-
Édouard Jeanneret (1887–1965), known as Le Corbusier. Their use
of asymmetrical designs, of constructions in reinforced concrete and
glass, of contrast between the opaque and the transparent, and of
open-planned interiors had an influence on Surrealist art in Paris in
the 1920s, where Hans Arp (1887–1966), Yves Tanguy (1900–1955)
and others incorporated both geometrical and organic forms into
paintings and sculptures; this in turn had an impact on theater, stage
design, and décor, particularly through the work and influence of
Oskar Schlemmer (1888–1943) and Erwin Piscator.
her acting gifts. Her brother Louis Béjart (1630–1678) and her sis-
ter Geneviève Béjart (1624–1675, known as Mlle Hervé) were also
members of Molière’s company.
Trojans, 1863). He was married from 1833 to 1840 to the Irish Shake-
spearean actress Harriet Smithson (1800–1854), who performed in
Paris in 1827. See also BARRAULT, JEAN-LOUIS; CARVALHO,
LÉON; MUSIC.
for his heroic efforts to adapt this site as a sort of field hospital dur-
ing the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. He was also significant for his
attempts to make opera available to a much wider public through
successful low-cost concert and matinée performances.
[“Ensure that a single action, confined to one place and one day,
occupies the stage. Never offer anything unbelievable to the audience:
what is true is not necessarily credible. A wonder has no appeal to me
if it is absurd: the mind is not touched by what it cannot believe in. Let
nature therefore be your guide in all things, if you seek to be honored
as a dramatic author. Comedy is no friend of sighing and weeping, so
bans from its verses all tragic pain—nevertheless it has no business to
descend to the market and seduce the common people with low and
vulgar language.”]
In his lifetime Boileau was best known as a satirical poet, and in
that capacity he showed himself to be a perspicacious literary critic.
He supported Molière in the querelle de L’École des femmes and
Jean Racine at the time of the controversial opening run of Phèdre
and was scathing about many contemporary writers, including
Isaac Benserade, Jean Chapelain, Jacques Pradon and Philippe
Quinault, who were successful and popular in their own time but
have indeed been comparatively neglected by posterity, as Boileau
foretold. In 1677, alongside Racine, he was appointed the king’s of-
ficial historiographer, and in 1684 he was elected to the Académie
française. See also ASIDE; LA CHAMPMESLÉ; LA FONTAINE,
JEAN DE; MERCIER, LOUIS SÉBASTIEN; SOLILOQUY; VISÉ,
JEAN DONNEAU DE.
finance. Other key works include La Fleur des pois (The Dandies,
also known as The Snobs, 1932), Les Temps difficiles (Hard Times,
1934), Fric-Frac (1936), Hyménée (1941) and Père (1942). He
was also successful as an innovative administrator of the Comédie-
Française from 1936 to 1940, working closely with the actor Victor
Boucher and with the Cartel.
– C –
our own feelings. Racine explicated the theory in terms very typical
of 17th-century France: “Tragedy, by arousing pity and terror, purges
and moderates such emotions, in other words it removes from them
whatever is excessive, immoderate or unreasonable.”
The 20th-century view, represented particularly by Bertolt Bre-
cht, is that this theory represents a self-indulgent view of theater: he
and his followers prefer to leave situations unresolved and spectators
dissatisfied at the end of a performance so that it is more likely to
lead to political and social action.
Catharsis may also be detected as a product of comedy, both in the
sense that the ridicule of extremes can have as its effect the correction
of folly, and in the sense that a healthy outburst of laughter—like a
“good cry”—can restore a sense of proportion to the individual and
of harmony to society.
the play when it was finally performed and probably made its politi-
cal content seem more significant than it had originally been.
After the Revolution, the declaration of the rights of man included
a basic right to freedom of speech and opinion, but some control
over public performance was retained on the grounds that uninhib-
ited challenges to established authority or to accepted taste could
jeopardize public order. Central censorship of theatrical repertoire
was reestablished in 1850, when the Ministry of the Interior would
supply via the prefects a list of condemned plays to each performing
company, and although censorship of publication was lifted in 1881,
that of theater performance remained in place until 1906. After 1884,
responsibility for approving or banning specific plays was devolved
to local municipal authorities. This could have the effect that local
pressure groups had a disproportionate impact: traders, for example,
did not dare to attend plays of which their more influential customers
might disapprove.
Victor Hugo’s Marion de Lorme (written in 1829) was banned
on political grounds and not performed until 1831, while his anti-
monarchist sentiment led to an even longer prohibition of his Le Roi
s’amuse (The King Takes His Amusement), written in 1832, banned
after one performance and not revived until 1882.
In 2006, the director of the Comédie-Française, Marcel Bozon-
net (1944– ), cancelled performances of a controversial play by
Austrian dramatist Peter Handke (1942– ), Voyage au pays sonore
ou L’Art de la question (Journey to the Land of Sound, or The Art of
Questioning), in light of Handke’s political views on the Balkan con-
flicts of the 1990s. This example of auto-censorship was criticized
both by theater colleagues and by political authorities and probably
contributed to the failure of Bozonnet to obtain reappointment. See
also ADAM, PAUL; BRIEUX, EUGÈNE; DUMAS, ALEXANDRE
FILS; LES ENFANTS SANS SOUCI; GATTI, ARMAND; GENET,
JEAN; GONCOURT, EDMOND AND JULES HUOT DE; LAYA,
JEAN-LOUIS; LEMAÎTRE, FRÉDÉRICK; MORALITY PLAY.
theater. He was a pupil of Béatrix Dussane, and his own acting pupils
included many of the most important stage and cinema actors of the
period, including Daniel Auteuil (1950– ), Nathalie Baye (1948– ), Gé-
rard Depardieu (1948– ), Isabelle Huppert (1953– ) and Fabrice Luchini
(1951– ). A member of the Comédie-Française company from 1959
to 1963, he founded in 1967 the Compagnie Jean-Laurent Cochet at the
Théâtre Pépinière Opéra in Paris and has held regular master-classes
and drama courses there. He was awarded the Prix Ludmilla Tcherina
in 2006 in recognition of his lifetime contribution to theater.
– D –
Imaginary Invalid, 1673). Born Catherine Leclerc, she was both the
daughter and the wife of actors: her father Claude Leclerc (?–1641)
used the stage name Du Rozay, and she married Edmé Villequin
(1607–1676), whose stage name was De Brie.
self, whose response to the dramatic ending is concern for his own
wages.
Following Molière’s death, his widow arranged for Thomas
Corneille to adapt the play in a versified and toned-down form,
omitting some of the more outrageous and blasphemous expressions;
this version was performed at the Théâtre de Guénégaud in 1677
and remained in the repertoire of the Comédie française until 1841,
when a performance of Molière’s authentic prose text was given at
the Odéon. Important modern productions of the play were directed
by Roger Planchon at the Odéon in 1980 with Gérard Desarthe
and by Jacques Lassalle at the Avignon Festival in 1993. See also
CASARÈS, MARIA; MONTHERLANT, HENRY DE; MOUNET-
SULLY.
that are addressed to the audience when no other persons are pres-
ent onstage, or on the understanding that those present cannot hear
them. Such devices present problems to those theoretical schools of
thought that insist on total verisimilitude. Double enunciation is the
source of dramatic irony, since the full meaning of any remark is
likely to be different in the minds of the onstage interlocutor and of
the spectator.
– E –
– F –
French drama: such genres as the sotie and farce were directly influ-
enced by them, while morality and mystery plays were designed by
clergy to counteract the fabliaux’s subversive and licentious tenden-
cies.
Miracle (1926) and the operatic libretto for Ciboulette (1923) set by
Reynaldo Hahn (1875–1947).
Flers became literary editor of Le Figaro in 1921 and was Victo-
rien Sardou’s son-in-law. Although L’Habit vert was a witty satire
against the Académie française, he was elected to that body in 1920.
See also BOUCHER, VICTOR.
– G –
and went on to compose over 60 plays between 1923 and 1939, while
he was employed as a local government official and as a journalist.
Many of them, including Fastes d’Enfer (Annals of Hell, 1929, first
performed in 1936 but coming to public notoriety in a performance
in 1949), La Balade du Grand Macabre (1934), Mademoiselle Jaïre
(1934), Marie Rouge (1934) and Hop Signor! (1936), were per-
formed by a Flemish traveling company. La Mort du docteur Faust
(The Death of Faustus, 1928) and Christophe Colomb (Christopher
Columbus, 1929) were, however, first performed in Paris, and Ghel-
derode’s plays enjoyed a Parisian vogue in the early 1950s, when
they were produced by young directors, including Roger Planchon.
Ghelderode’s work is characterized by carnivalesque sensuality,
powerful visual effects and a rich poetic use of language.
the same company then turned down a play about the French Revo-
lution with the title Blanche de la Rochedragon, later performed as
La Patrie en danger (The Fatherland in Danger) at André Antoine’s
Théâtre-Libre in 1889 (and, by special request of the municipality,
at Reims on the centenary of the Revolution, 14 July 1889); dramatic
adaptations of their novels, La Fille Elisa (written in 1877), adapted
by Jean Ajalbert (1863–1947) for the Théâtre-Libre in 1890, and
Germinie Lacerteux (written in 1865), adapted by Edmond himself
in 1888, were also banned by state censors. However, a reprise of the
latter at the Odéon in 1891, starring Réjane, was more successful,
although the censors still prevented matinée performances. In 1893,
Edmond tried in vain to persuade Sarah Bernhardt to appear in his
adaptation of his 1882 novel La Faustin, which is about an actress.
– H –
His Republican sympathies sent Hugo into exile during the Sec-
ond Empire, but after his triumphant return many of his plays were
revived—Ruy Blas with Sarah Bernhardt at the Odéon in 1872,
Marion de Lorme with Edmond Got, Louis Arsène Delaunay
and Mounet-Sully at the Comédie-Française in 1873, Hernani
in 1878 and Le Roi s’amuse in 1882. Hugo’s funeral in 1885 was
marked by a free performance of Hernani at the Comédie-Française.
See also ADAPTATION; ALEXANDRINE; AUDIENCES; BOUF-
FON; CENSORSHIP; CICERI, PIERRE LUC CHARLES; COINCI-
DENCE; DELAVIGNE, CASIMIR; DUQUESNEL, FÉLIX-HENRI;
GRINGORE, PIERRE; LEMAÎTRE, FRÉDÉRICK; LEMERCIER,
NÉPOMUCÈNE; MARCEL, LÉON; MARS, MLLE; OPERA; RO-
STAND, EDMOND; TALMA, FRANÇOIS-JOSEPH; TAYLOR,
ISIDORE; VIGNY, ALFRED DE.
– I –
went on to become his best known and most widely performed work;
La Leçon (The Lesson, 1951), Les Chaises (Chairs, 1952), Jacques
ou La Soumission (Jacques, or Submissiveness, 1955), Rhinocéros
(1959), created by Jean-Louis Barrault at the Odéon in 1960 and
bringing Ioneso for the first time to international recognition (a Ger-
man production had taken place in Düsseldorf in 1959), Le Roi se
meurt (The King Is Dying, 1962) and Macbett (1972).
Ionesco was elected to the Académie française in 1970. He was
also the author of extensive critical and theoretical works on theater,
including Notes et contre-notes (Notes and Counter-notes, 1962) and
has the unusual distinction of being the first author to be published
in his own lifetime in the Bibliothèque de la Pléiade series (collected
works, 1990). See also BECKETT, SAMUEL; COINCIDENCE;
COMÉDIE-FRANÇAISE; HUCHETTE, THÉÂTRE DE LA; MAU-
CLAIR, JACQUES; MONTPARNASSE, THÉÂTRE.
– J –
– K –
engage with the most pressing political agendas of the period, in-
cluding communism, fascism and Zionism, include: Europa (1968),
an adaptation of a novel by Romain Gary (1914–1980); Trotsky
(1969); La Passion selon Pier Paolo Pasolini (The Passion Accord-
ing to P. P. Pasolini, 1977); Dave au bord de mer (David on the Sea
Shore, 1978, based on the story of the biblical King David but set
in contemporary Israel); and Falsch (False, 1983), performed at the
Théâtre de Chaillot, Paris, and turned in 1987 into a film, by Jean-
Pierre Dardenne (1951– ) and Luc Dardenne (1954– ). Kalisky was
awarded the Prix annuel de Littérature dramatique in 1974 and a pos-
thumous Prix Spécial from the Société des Auteurs et Compositeurs
dramatiques in 1982.
drama Die Weisse Fürstin (The White Princess, 1898, revised 1904,
published 1909) by Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926) at the Théâtre
de la Ville in 1987 and productions of Jean Racine’s Iphigénie and
La Thébaïde at the Comédie-Française, then into opera direction, in
Paris, elsewhere in France (Nice, Lyon) and abroad, including a pro-
duction of Tristan and Isolde for the Welsh National Opera. In 1987,
Kokkos was awarded the Syndicat de la Critique prize for his décor
for Elektra at Geneva and San Francisco, in 1988, two Molières for
stage and costume design, and in 1998, the Laurence Olivier award
for best operatic production for La Clemenza di Tito at the Welsh
National Opera and the Opéra de Bordeaux. See also VINAVER,
MICHEL.
– L –
front of the stage. The principal innovation of the 18th century was
the Argand burner, invented in 1782 by the Swiss François-Pierre-
Ami Argand (1750–1803) and introduced at the Odéon in 1784. This
gave a more intense light, capable of being altered by colored glass
for special effects. Although gas lighting was introduced at London’s
Lyceum Theatre in 1804 and the electric arc light was invented in
1809, these innovations were resisted by actors at the Comédie-
Française, who found them uncomfortably harsh: gas lighting was
eventually introduced there in 1832, electric arc lighting at the Paris
Opéra in 1846, and full-scale incandescent electric lighting there in
1887. Other technical developments during the 19th century enabled
dimming and other special effects to be introduced.
The Swiss designer Adolphe Appia (1862–1928) was instrumental
in applying technical developments to more creative uses of light-
ing in the early 20th century and in insisting that these be integrated
within an overall visual interpretation of the play. This contributed
to the increase in importance of the stage director during that pe-
riod, although it led to ongoing tensions between an urge toward
ever greater technological sophistication that could verge on the
gimmicky, and a desire to focus on the symbolic impact of light-
ing and other special effects. Among the technical innovations that
contributed to the enhancement of lighting effects through the 20th
century were the cyclorama, or sky-dome (invented in 1902), the use
of colored gels (after 1919), halogen lamps, high-intensity discharge
lamps and electronic or computerized lighting effects. It was only in
the 20th century that it was possible and commonplace to position
lights within the auditorium itself as opposed to above the stage; this
made it possible to spotlight individual actors and to highlight their
movements and also to create more easily a fully convincing three-
dimensional effect. By such means, without abandoning the advan-
tages of realism, scene designers were able to reveal the essence of a
play through suggestion and stylization.
Since the 1950s, spectacular events with the title Son et Lumière
(Sound and Light) have been widely used to celebrate the history
and atmosphere of monumental buildings, castles or churches. Two
French artists, Paul Robert-Houdin, who was curator of the Château
de Chambord, and Pierre-Arnaud de Chassy-Poulay (pseudonym
of Pierre Arnaud, 1921– ), were significant in developing this art
LORENZACCIO • 155
and dim lighting to force ideas rather than action to carry the weight
of a performance. His repertoire ranged very widely, from plays
by Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) and August Strindberg (1849–1912)
through English Jacobean dramas to exotic works and the first per-
formance of Alfred Jarry’s grotesque play Ubu roi (Ubu the King,
1896). In 1897, despite the notoriety that that production had brought
him, he expressed public disappointment at the lack of meritorious
texts in French and began to work independently, exploring more
conventional texts, including works by William Shakespeare, Paul
Claudel and even Realist dramatists such as Romain Rolland—Les
Loups (The Wolves, 1898), Le Triomphe de la raison (The Triumph
of Reason, 1899)—and Maxim Gorky (1868–1936). Lugné-Poe was
later involved in and supportive of Dadaist experiments in theater.
See also ANCEY, GEORGES; ARTAUD, ANTONIN; BATAILLE,
HENRY; BOUFFES PARISIENS, LE THÉÂTRE DES; CROM-
MELYNCK, FERNAND; DE MAX, ÉDOUARD; GIDE, ANDRÉ;
POREL, PAUL; RENARD, JULES.
– M –
1664), L’École des filles (The School for Maids, 1666), La Femme
juge et partie (The Woman Who Judges Her Own Lawsuit, 1669) and
Le Comédien poète (The Actor-poet, 1674), remained in the reper-
toire of the Comédie-Française until well into the 18th century. His
work was influenced by Spanish theater more than that of most of his
contemporaries, and he anticipated the work of Molière in his inno-
vative use of musical scenes. See also LA QUERELLE DE L’ÉCOLE
DES FEMMES.
Libertin in 1996 and Oscar et la dame rose (Oscar and the Lady in
Pink) in 2007. See also LORENZACCIO.
MOREAU, JEANNE (1928– ). Actress, best known for her film ca-
reer after 1957, although she had appeared onstage at the Comédie-
Française, the Théâtre national populaire and Paris boulevard
theaters from 1948 to 1952. See also AVIGNON, FESTIVAL D’;
WILSON, GEORGES.
MUSIC. Only the most austere forms of drama are without some musi-
cal accompaniment, and French theater has often been unusually in-
ventive in its exploration of ways to incorporate musical effects with
text and spectacle. Dramatists from Molière through Beaumarchais
and Jean Cocteau to Hélène Cixous have been actively involved in
the creation of operatic libretti or stage works involving significant
musical elements, and in the post–World War II period almost all
the most distinguished French stage directors and designers have
contributed to operatic productions.
From its inception in the fabliau and the works of Adam de la
Halle, drama was associated with song and dance. Renaissance
scholars like Jean Antoine de Baïf believed that in combining music
and poetry in drama they were being faithful to Ancient Greek mod-
els. The ballet de cour, a baroque genre combining music, dance
and text to produce spectacular pseudo-dramatic effects, flourished
in France with direct support from successive monarchs from the
1570s until Jean-Baptiste Lully finally formed the Académie royale
178 • MUSIC
– N –
– O –
– P –
a masterpiece, it rapidly gained esteem and was chosen for the open-
ing performance at the newly formed Comédie-Française in 1680.
Since then it has generally been regarded as the pinnacle of French
classical theater, and for many as the culminating example of classi-
cal tragedy.
English-language adaptations of the play include Phædra Bri-
tannica (1975) by Tony Harrison (1937– ) as well as translations
by Ted Hughes (1930–1988), performed by Diana Rigg (1938– ) in
1998 and by Helen Mirren (1945– ) in London’s National Theatre
in 2009, and by Timberlake Wertenbaker (1944– ), performed at the
Stratford Shakespeare Festival (Ontario, Canada) in 2009. See also
ALEXANDRINE; BARRAULT, JEAN-LOUIS; BATY, GASTON;
BOILEAU, NICOLAS; COINCIDENCE; CUNY, ALAIN; LA
CHAPELLE, JEAN DE; LA NOUVELLE CRITIQUE; PRADON,
JACQUES.
– Q –
both sides because of the benefit it brought to the box office. Most
of the documents in this dispute were themselves dramatic: one-act
prose plays in which characters discussed theatrical experiences and
tastes. The witty innuendo and the caricature of male-dominated
exploitative marital relationships in Molière’s play gave rise to accu-
sations of obscenity and impiety, and criticisms were directed against
Molière’s own exaggerated acting style, but most of the complaints
were nitpicking claims that the play did not conform to the strictest
application of verisimilitude: the public square that provides the
setting is curiously empty of passers-by, for example, or the young
heroine Agnès could not have wielded a stone big enough for her
suitor to be plausibly frightened by it. A final claim that the comic
butt, Arnolphe, is not consistently mocked like the stock characters
of commedia dell’arte, but has a moment of generosity when he
gives financial assistance to the son of an old friend, gave rise to
Molière’s assertion that his characters are deliberately more rounded
and human than conventional caricatures—even though in practice
Arnolphe wins very little sympathy despite his unhappiness during
the play’s dénouement.
Molière responded to these and other pedantic criticisms in two
short plays, La Critique de L’École des femmes (The School for
Women Criticized, June 1663) and L’Impromptu de Versailles (The
Versailles Impromptu, performed at court in October 1663 and in
the public theater in November) in which he also mocked the pomp-
ous acting style of the Comédiens du Roi. The chief contributions
of his rivals were Jean Donneau de Visé’s Zélinde ou La Véri-
table Critique de L’École des femmes (Zélinde, or The School for
Women Truly Criticized, August 1663); Le Portrait du Peintre ou La
Contre-critique de L’École des femmes (Portrait of the Painter, or
Criticisms of the School for Women Criticized) by Edme Boursault
(1638–1701); and Antoine de Montfleury’s L’Impromptu de l’Hôtel
de Condé (performed privately in December 1663 and subsequently
on the public stage at the Hôtel de Bourgogne).
– R –
Sacha to the stage; other notable actors to appear there have included
Raimu, Arletty (Léonie Bathiat, 1898–1992), Edwige Feuillère and
Georges Wilson. See also COQUELIN, BENOÎT CONSTANT; DE
MAX, ÉDOUARD; KORÈNE, VÉRA; ZOLA, ÉMILE.
for some 20 years, although its decline was almost as abrupt as its
rise, as various forms of Realism and Naturalism rose to promi-
nence. See also ACTOR; ADAPTATION; ALBERT-LAMBERT;
ALEXANDRINE; ATELIER, THÉÂTRE DE L’; BATAILLE,
HENRY; BERLIOZ, LOUIS HECTOR; BERNHARDT, SARAH;
BOCAGE; BOUFFON; COMÉDIE LARMOYANTE; DELAUNAY,
LOUIS ARSÈNE; DELAVIGNE, CASIMIR; DIDEROT, DE-
NIS; DORVAL, MARIE; DRAME; GEOFFROY, JULIEN-LOUIS;
HERNANI; JOANNY; JOUY, VICTOR-JOSEPH-ÉTIENNE DE;
LAFON, PIERRE; LAYA, JEAN-LOUIS; LEGOUVÉ, GABRIEL-
MARIE; LEMAÎTRE, FRÉDÉRICK; LEMOINE-MONTIGNY;
LORENZACCIO; MÉLINGUE, ÉTIENNE MARIN; MERCIER,
LOUIS SÉBASTIEN; MEYERBEER, GIACOMO; ODÉON; OP-
ERA; PONSARD, FRANÇOIS; RACHEL; ROSTAND, EDMOND;
SARMENT, JEAN; SCRIBE, EUGÈNE; SOLILOQUY; SOULIÉ,
FRÉDÉRIC; TAGLIONI, MARIE; TAYLOR, ISIDORE (BARON);
TRAGEDY; VOLTAIRE.
– S –
le Diable (Robert the Devil, 1831) was one of the most notable
successes of early Romantic opera in French. See also AUGIER,
ÉMILE; BRESSANT, JEAN-BAPTISTE PROSPER; BROHAN,
MADELEINE; CROIZETTE, SOPHIE; DÉJAZET, VIRGINIE;
GEOFFROY, JEAN-MARIE JOSEPH; GYMNASE; LECOU-
VREUR, ADRIENNE; LEGOUVÉ, ERNEST; MÉLESVILLE, M.;
RACHEL; ROSE CHÉRI; ZOLA, ÉMILE.
SIX, GROUPE DES. Six composers who worked, more often inde-
pendently than together, under the influence of Erik Satie and Jean
Cocteau. Dramatic works to which several or all of them contributed
included Parade and Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel (The Wedding
230 • SOBEL, BERNARD
Party on the Eiffel Tower, 1921). Of the six, Francis Poulenc and
Darius Milhaud made significant contributions to opera, Georges
Auric to film music, and Arthur Honegger to stage music. The
others were Louis Durey (1888–1979) and Germaine Tailleferre
(1892–1983).
– T –
have the play banned), and the casuistry and moral sophistication for
which the term “jesuitical” has retained an opprobrious flavor.
In the first performances, Molière played the part of Orgon, his
wife Armande Béjart that of Elmire, and Du Croisy that of Tar-
tuffe. Madeleine Béjart was Dorine and Louis Béjart (1630–1678)
played Orgon’s ridiculous mother Mme Pernelle.
Significant modern productions have included those by Roger
Planchon at Villeurbanne in 1962, by Jean Meyer (1914–2003) in
Lyon with Jean Marais in 1972, by Antoine Vitez at Ivry in 1978,
and by Jacques Lassalle with Gérard Depardieu (1948– ) at the
Théâtre national de Strasbourg in 1983 (a production made into a
film by Depardieu himself the following year). See also THE BITER
BIT; BOVY, BERTHE; CENSORSHIP; DE BRIE, MLLE; LA
GRANGE.
– U –
vinced by the portrayal of events that leap about in place and time
and switch abruptly from the grotesque to the tragic.
The classical model held sway until the end of the 18th century,
when under the influence of William Shakespeare, German drama
and Stendhal, Romantic dramatists systematically rejected the unities.
Their argument was that far from aiding verisimilitude, it was highly
implausible and artificial to cram the sequence of decisions and events
on which a substantial drama depended into a brief period of time.
Many modern dramatists, most strikingly Jean-Paul Sartre in his Huis
clos (Behind Closed Doors, also translated as In Camera, Vicious Circle
and No Exit), have realized the dramatic advantages of adherence to
confined space and limited time, but few have considered themselves
bound to slavish adherence to a particular system. See also BÉRÉNICE;
CHORUS; LE CID; HERNANI; HUGO, VICTOR; LA QUERELLE
DU CID; LE TARTUFFE; TRISTAN L’HERMITE, FRANÇOIS.
– V –
– W –
– Y –
– Z –
CONTENTS
Introduction 260
Bibliographies, Anthologies and General Surveys 264
General Studies—Historical 264
General Studies—Thematic 265
Dictionaries of Terms 265
Bibliographies (General) 265
Bibliographies (Early Modern) 265
Bibliographies (20th and 21st Centuries) 266
Actors 266
Theories of Acting 267
Semiology of Theater 267
Tragedy 268
Comedy 268
Other Generic Studies 269
Music Theater 269
Paris Theater Houses 270
Medieval Theater 270
General 270
Religious Plays 271
Farces 271
Other 272
Renaissance Theater 272
General 272
Staging and Physical Conditions 273
Literary 273
Theater of the Ancien Régime (c1600–1789) 274
Baroque and Preclassical Theater (c1600–1660) 276
Classical Theater (c1660–1700) 278
Eighteenth-Century Theater 282
259
260 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
In making a selection from the almost endless supply of books and articles
relevant to the study of French theater history, priority has been given to works
written in English and published within the last 25 years. Works in French are
included where they give indispensable insights or where a distinctively French
perspective is thought to be valuable; earlier works are included where they
remain authoritative, provide a particularly useful oversight or are of interest
specifically as historical documents in their own right. Scholarly accounts of
single authors are included, but not studies whose focus is on biography rather
than on literary or theatrical analysis.
The arrangement is concentric: thus within each chronological section works
pertaining to the whole period precede those pertaining to only one part of it,
which precede those dealing with a single author. Those whose primary focus
is on performance history or the practicalities of theater have been separated
from those with a more literary perspective. None of these compartments is
watertight, and occasionally works whose classification is problematic have
been included more than once.
BIBLIOGRAPHY • 261
more conveniently obtain much of the information it contains from the website
of the Calendrier électronique des spectacles sous l’ancien régime, César, at
http://www.cesar.org.uk/cesar2/. A detailed survey of all aspects of theatrical
activity in the ancien régime period, based on contemporary sources, has been
compiled by a team of scholars under W. D. Howarth in French Theatre in the
Neo-classical Era, 1550–1789 as part of Cambridge University Press’s Theatre
in Europe: A Documentary History.
More digestible introductions to French theater in the classical period are
provided by Georges Mongrédien’s La Vie quotidienne des comédiens au
temps de Molière (translated as Daily Life in the French Theatre at the Time
of Molière) and by several of the most authoritative studies of individual
playwrights: W. D. Howarth’s Molière: A Playwright and His Audience,
Odette de Mourgues’s Racine, or The Triumph of Relevance and Richard Par-
ish’s Racine: The Limits of Tragedy. Alongside those two studies of Racine’s
overall output, David Maskell’s Racine: A Theatrical Reading is notable for
its insightful reminders that it is on the stage that Racine’s poetry comes most
fully and dramatically to life. French-speaking students of Pierre Corneille will
find excellent overviews in Christian Biet’s Moi, Pierre Corneille and Alain
Niderst’s Pierre Corneille, whereas English speakers may be better advised
to consult a series of separate studies: David Clarke’s Pierre Corneille: Poet-
ics and Political Drama Under Louis XIII for the mainstream early tragedies,
Jonathan Mallinson’s The Comedies of Pierre Corneille: Experiments in the
Comic for the comedies, and the works listed by Milorad Margitic for a closer
scholarly focus on individual plays and themes. Andrew Calder’s Molière:
The Theory and Practice of Comedy gives insight into the author’s thought,
Bernadette Rey-Flaud’s Molière et la farce brings out the relationship between
the dramatist and his Italian models, while Gerry McCarthy’s The Theatres of
Molière surveys the breadth of his creativity.
The meticulous documentary work undertaken by Wilma Deierkauf-
Holsboer on the history of the Paris stage in the baroque and classical periods
has been complemented by more analytical and interpretative studies by several
generations of English-speaking scholars, notably Tom Lawrenson, Donald
Roy and John Golder in the 1960s and 1970s and Alan Howe more recently:
their individual works on the stages and staging are listed below and all shed
light on how dramatists overcame physical restrictions to create inventive
masterpieces.
One of the most engaging ways of understanding French theatrical activity
in the classical period is to read the words of a contemporary practitioner, and
Samuel Chappuzeau’s Le Théâtre français (1674) contains a wealth of inside
information to complement the more tendentious accounts given by Corneille
and Molière of their interactions with the acting profession. Although those
BIBLIOGRAPHY • 263
authors and Racine undoubtedly dominated the theatrical scene, it should not be
forgotten that rich veins of activity went on across the whole period, and Roger
Guichemerre’s La comédie avant Molière 1640–1660, as well as studies by
Guy Spielmann, Jan Clarke and others of the informal theaters and fairground
performances of the period between 1670 and 1730, will enable students to
plug the gaps between the high peaks and enhance their overall picture of the
life of the theater.
Finally, Philip Tomlinson’s edited volume, under the title French Classical
Theatre Today: Teaching, Research, Performance, brings together the recent
work and ideas of most leading academics working on classical French drama
in British universities.
Eighteenth-century theater has been less exhaustively studied and is prob-
ably due for a critical reevaluation: recent interest shown in Marivaux by stage
directors in France and elsewhere has not been matched by a full-scale aca-
demic study, and the best insights into his plays may be obtained by study of
critical editions of individual works. There have been recent suggestions that a
tendency to pigeonhole Voltaire’s drama as stale and derivative is unfair, and
the studies by Russell Goulbourne may mark the beginning of a resurgence of
interest in his work for theater. The standard overviews of Beaumarchais by
W. D. Howarth in English and Jacques Scherer in French continue to provide
a sound introduction.
For overviews of the many-faceted worlds of French theater since the Revo-
lution, Harold Hobson’s Anglo-Saxon perspective may usefully be balanced by
French presentations in Patrick Berthier’s Le Théâtre au XIXe siècle or in the
more recent Impossibles Théâtres: XIXe-XXe siècles edited by Bernadette Bost,
Jean-François Louette and Bertrand Vibert.
W. D. Howarth’s overview of the Romantic period may be complemented
by individual studies of Anne Ubersfeld on Victor Hugo and Bernard Masson
on Alfred de Musset. The individual titles listed for Realist, Naturalist and
Symbolist theater again provide overviews that can be enriched by the study of
detailed critical editions of individual plays, while Bettina Knapp’s The Reign
of the Theatrical Director: French Theatre 1887–1924 reminds us always to
contextualize the study of modern French theater within the world of the stage,
and the works on Alfred Jarry by Henri Béhar and Jill Fell set the scene for the
experimental explosions of the 20th century.
The literary overviews of French theater since World War I listed above can
usefully be combined with Jean-Jacques Roubine’s Théâtre et mise en scène
(1880–1980) for an approach that stresses the significance of staging. The
first half of the century is well covered by Bettina Knapp’s French Theatre,
1918–1939, Dorothy Knowles’s French Drama of the Inter-war Years and
other works listed by the same scholars. Martin Esslin’s The Theatre of the
264 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
General Studies—Historical
Brown, Frederick. Theatre and Revolution: The Culture of the French Stage.
New York: Viking PR, 1980.
Corvin, Michel. Dictionnaire encyclopédique du théâtre. Paris: Bordas, 1991;
nouvelle édition, 1996.
Hemmings, F. W. J. Theatre and State in France, 1760–1905. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Hubert, Marie-Claude. Le Théâtre. Paris: Colin, 1988.
Jomaron, Jacqueline de, ed. Le Théâtre en France. 2 vols. (Vol. 1: Du Moyen
Âge à 1789. Vol. 2: De la Révolution à nos jours.) Paris: Colin, 1988.
BIBLIOGRAPHY • 265
Pavis, Patrice. Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts and Analysis. Trans-
lated by Christine Shantz. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998. (An
English translation of an earlier edition of the following item.)
———. Dictionnaire du théâtre (édition revue et corrigée). Paris: Colin, 2005.
Viala, Alain, Jean-Pierre Bordier, et al., eds. Le Théâtre en France: Des Origi-
nes à nos jours. Paris: Presses universitaires de France (Collection premier
cycle), 1997.
Wickham, Glynne. A History of the Theatre. London: Phaidon, 1992.
General Studies—Thematic
Freeman, E., et al., eds. Myth and Its Making in the French Theatre: Stud-
ies presented to W. D. Howarth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988.
Larthomas, Pierre. Le Langage dramatique, sa nature, ses procédés. Paris:
Colin, 1972.
Verdier, Anne, et al., eds. Art et usages du costume de scène. Beaulieu, France:
Lampsaque, 2007.
Zatlin, Phyllis. Cross-cultural Approaches to Theatre: The Spanish-French
Connection. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1994.
Dictionaries of Terms
Band-Kuzmany, Karin R. M. Glossary of the Theatre, in English, French,
Italian and German. Amsterdam: Elsevier (Glossaria interpretum, no. 15),
1969.
Rae, Kenneth, and Richard Southern, eds. An International Vocabulary of
Technical Theatre Terms in Eight Languages: American, Dutch, English,
French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish. London: Reinhardt, 1959.
Bibliographies (General)
Kempton, R. French Literature: An Annotated Guide to Selected Bibliog-
raphies. New York: Modern Language Association of America (Selected
Bibliographies in Language and Literature, no. 2), 1981.
Actors
Lyonnet, H. Dictionnaire des comédiens français. 2 vols. Paris: Librairie de
l’art du théâtre/Geneva: Bibliothèque de la Revue universelle internationale
illustrée, 1904. Reprinted Geneva: Slatkine, 1969.
BIBLIOGRAPHY • 267
Theories of Acting
Cole, Toby, and Helen Krich Chinoy, eds. Actors on Acting: The Theories,
Techniques, and Practices of the World’s Great Actors, Told in Their Own
Words. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1949.
Dort, Bernard. Théâtre/Public—Théâtre réel—Théâtre en jeu. 3 vols. Paris:
Seuil, 1953–1978. Reprinted 1979.
Feral, Josette. Mise en scène et jeu de l’acteur: Entretiens. (Tome 1: L’Espace
du texte. Tome 2: Le Corps en scène. Tome 3: Voix de femmes.) Paris : Jeu/
Lansman, 1997–2006.
Gros de Gasquet, Julia. En disant l’alexandrin: L’Acteur tragique et son art,
XVIIe-XXe siècle. Paris: Champion, 2006.
Mamczarz, Irène. Le Masque et l’âme: De L’Improvisation à la création
théâtrale. Paris: Klincksieck/Société internationale d’histoire comparée du
théâtre, de l’opéra et du ballet (Collection Théâtre européen, opéra, ballet,
no. 8), 1999.
Parent, Michel. Création théâtrale et création architecturale. London: Ath-
lone, 1971.
Roach, J. E. The Player’s Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Newark:
Delaware University Press, 1985.
Rolland, Romain. Le Théâtre du peuple. Edited by Chantal Meyer-Plantureux.
Brussels: Complexe (Le Théâtre en question), 2003.
Roubine, Jean-Jacques. Introduction aux grandes théories du théâtre. Paris:
Dunod, 1990.
Sarrazac, Jean-Pierre. Jeux de rêve et autres détours. Belval, France: Circé
(Penser le théâtre), 2004.
Vilar, Jean. Le Théâtre, service public. Paris: Gallimard, 1975.
Semiology of Theater
Artaud, Antonin. Le Théâtre et son double, printed with related documentation
in Œuvres complètes. Paris: Gallimard, 1964.
Autant-Mathieu, Marie-Christine. Écrire pour le théâtre. Les Enjeux de l’écri-
ture dramatique. Paris: Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1995.
Barthes, Roland. Écrits sur le théâtre: Textes réunis et présentés par Jean-Loup
Rivière. Paris: Seuil (Points. Essais, no. 492), 2002.
Carlson, M. Places of Performance: The Semiotics of Theater Architecture.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Gefen, Alexandre. La Mimèsis: Introduction, choix de textes, commentaires,
vade-mecum et bibliographie. Paris: Flammarion (Series GF Corpus: lettres,
no. 3061), 2003.
268 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tragedy
Biet, Christian. La Tragédie. Paris: Colin (Cursus: Lettres), 1997.
Clément, Bruno. La Tragédie classique. Paris: Seuil (Mémo. Lettres-français,
no. 110), 1999.
Couprie, Alain. Lire la tragédie. Paris: Dunod, 1998. Reprinted Paris: Colin
(Collection Lettres supérieures), 2005.
Forestier, Georges. Passions tragiques et règles classiques: Essai sur la tra-
gédie française. Paris: Presses universitaires de France (Perspectives litté-
raires), 2003.
Louvat, Bénédicte. La Poétique de la tragédie classique. Paris: Sedes (Cam-
pus: Lettres), 1997.
Lyons, John D. Kingdom of Disorder: The Theory of Tragedy in Classical
France. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press (Purdue Studies in
Romance Literatures, no. 18), 1999.
Ribard, Dinah, and Alain Viala, eds. Le Tragique: Anthologie et lecture accom-
pagnée. Paris: Gallimard (Bibliothèque Gallimard, no. 96), 2002.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Un Théâtre de situations. Paris: Gallimard (Idées), 1973.
Comedy
Connon, Derek, and George Evans, eds. Essays on French Comic Drama from
the 1640s to the 1780s. Bern: Lang (French Studies of the 18th and 19th
Centuries, no. 7), 2000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY • 269
Music Theater
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WEBSITES
Historical
http://www.theatrehistory.com
http://www.cesar.org.uk/cesar2/ (performance history, 1600–1799)
Literary Analysis
http://www.crht.org/ (academic activities at the University of Paris; in
French)
http://clicnet.swarthmore.edu/litterature/sujets/theatre.html (wide-ranging
links)
http://www.toutmoliere.net (widespread general reference on 17th century in
France)
http://www.site-moliere.com
http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Theatre/DF_theatre.shtml
http://www.grandguignol.com
307
308 • ABOUT THE AUTHOR