vo TWELVE UNDERGROUND BLASTING TUNNELS ‘The first known industrial use of explosives was the use of black powder to bast in the Saxony mines in the seventeenth century. Tunnels may have been one ofthe earliest human engineering activities. Its believed that Stone Age ‘mon in Europe sank shafts and drove tunnels to find flint, using deer’s antlers and flint tools, ‘Tunnels can be in all sizes and shapes, including round, horseshoe, square, and rectangular. (See Figure 12.1.) The most common tunnel cross section is the horseshoe shape. The reason for this is threefold: frst, the roof, or back, forms an arch, which tends to be more self-supporting: second, the flat invert, or floor, gives a work area which is better and easier to move around on with equipment; and third, itis easier to excavate a flat invert ‘The theory involved in tunnel drilling and blasting is basically the same 4s for surface blasting. However, on account of the geometry and the confin- ing underground conditions, some of the blasting problems are increased. To clarify the process, the drill cycle is when the primary activity is drilling the blast holes. The blast cycle is that time spent loading, stemming (if required), tying in, shooting, and waiting for the smoke to clear. And the muck cycle is the time spent excavating the blasted material (muck) from the drifts (the tunnel). These throo activities, drill, blast, and muck, are the production cyele, Whenever possible the support activities axe done during one of these Activities to maintain a timely advance, Support activities include hanging ventilation pipe, water lines, and airlines: laying track; and setting supports If the project is large enough, there will be a separate crew, called a “bull sang,” to do much of this support work. If the tunnel isto be lined as itis advanced, then the activities involved in lining the tunnel, shaft, or raise have to be included in the production eyele. For example, sinking a concrete-lined shaft may call for a four-part cycle, vs176 Blasting Operations ig. 324 Tunnel shapes consisting of (1) drilling, (2) blasting, (3) mucking, and (4) setting forms and placing concrete. The cycle may also be altered so that the sequence becomes drilling, blasting, lowering and setting forms, placing concrete, and muck- ing. Each project is different, and therefore the best approach will depend on ‘many factors that must be considered at the time. ‘A tunnel may be advanced by the full-face method, tho top-heading- and~bench method, or the pilot-tunnel method, ‘The Full-Face Method Im the full-face method the tunnel is advanced with a full round; i. the entire face is drilled and blasted with each round. Therefore, the heading, ot face, advances one complete round after each production cycle of drill, bias, and muck, The full-face method of advance is best suited for small- to medium-sized tunnels, With the full-face advance most of the holes are drilled at right angles to the face. However, because of conditions, a method must be devised to creste a froo face for the rock to break toward. As we have seen, a confined blast such as a tunnel ora shaft sound, requires a very large powder factor because of the Jack of an area to break to, Methods may be employed to create a froe face artificially to enable @ reduction of the powder factor and improve breakage. ‘The methods employed roquire techniques involving the placement of drill holes. The names of the various types of dell holes in a tunnel round ate related to their location (see Figure 12.2). The cut holes are thos holes to the center of the face that are primarily responsible for the breaking and move- ment of the rock in the center of the face. The reliovor holes are those holes that help or aid in the breakage of rack by the cut holes; they detonate just Underground Blasting 1977 Fig. 12.2 Nomeaciatury of tes after the cut holes and further increase the free face. The trim holes are those holes that are on the perimeter of the round. ‘The names for the various trim holes are related to their location in the round. The trim holes at the top of the round are called “back holes,” the hholes along the side of the round are called : Invort are called “Lifter holes. Breast, or enlarger, holes are those blast holes that aze between the reliever holes and the trim holes. These holes are drilled parallel to the axis of the ‘tunnel and generally outaumber the other types of drill holes. The Burnhole Method The burned-cut method of blasting round frst de: veloped as a method utilizing a series of loaded and unloaded straight holes parallel to the direction of advance, or tunnel axis, drilled on 4- to 6-in (102 to 152 mm) spacings (soo Figure 12.3), These closely spaced holes offer a Plane of weakness to which the loaded burnholes break. In this way, the centerpiece, the area between the holes, becomes a cavity for the rest of the round (the holes surrounding the burn cut) to break toward when it fires after the burnholes. Also, somo holes are generally loft empty, because if the rock fractures easily the cylinder may have so much rock moving into it that it oe e080 @o ° Fig. 123 Buen cuts178 tasting Operations clogs, causing the broken rock to become bound against itself, restricting the ‘movement of other rock. (See Figure 12.4.) ‘The bum cut can also be accomplished by drilling one larger borehole to serve as the bumhole. This drilled cavity serves as a free face for the sur. rounding holes to break toward. This method is advantageous to the parallel burholes because the advance is not as restricted as with small burnholes In other words, the advance may bo longer with a larger-diameter burnhole. For drilling with hand-held drills, such as jacklegs, suppliers sell spe. cially adapted larger bits for burnholes. When drilling 1¥- to 2-in (36: to 51-mm) drill holes, one can drill a 3-in(76-mm) bumhole with the same type of drill stl. With larger. jumbo drills, burn cut holes can be 8 in (203 min} in diameter ‘The Coromant Cut: The coromant cut is provided by drilling one large hole as a bumhole and then, by using a special template, drilling another large hole right beside it. This burn cut ends up looking like a figure 8. (Soe Figure 12.5.] The advantage ofthis type of burn cutis that the area of the free faco is greatly increased, ‘Whon the various burn-cut holes are being drilled, care must be taken to drill the holes straight. With the spacing of the loaded holes so close, the chance of sympathetic detonation is quite high (sympathetic detonation is the detonation of one hole by a blast in an adjacent hole), Also, if the holes are drilled inaccurately, the chance of having bootlegs—of not having the rock break the entire length of the borehole—is greater. Advantages of Burn Cuts: The burn cut offers several advantages in small- and medium-sized headings: 1, Because of tho direction of throw with @ burn cut there tends to be less flyrock than with the V or wedge cut. 2. The burn cut is drilled straight, permitting more drills atthe heading. By c ay O were i“) © ont Fig, 124 Bur oat with lage burahols, Fig, 12.8 CGoromant Underground Blasting 170 oo°o ° ° 128, Wedge or V et aol oO ° the same token a wedge cut restricts advancement because of the inability to get greater depth and a proper angle. 3. One can use one total length of steel far all holes. 4, The geometry of hole placement is less critical for the burn cut than for the angle cut, Angle Cuts Angle cuts are those c the face. The wedge cut, also called at approximately 60°. Because of the geometry of breakage the wedge cut requires fewer holes and a lower powder factor than the burn cut, (See Figure 12.8) The Wedge Cut: The wedge cut is particularly well suited for well: laminated or -fissured rock. It is generally used on wide tunnel faces or in underground rooms where the holes can be aligned with the axis af the tunnel A problem with the wadge cut is that the rock from the wedge, bein somowhat larger than the other fragments from the blast, can cause consider- able damage, bacauso, as itis catapulted from the face, it has enough mass to inflict damage to steel or timber sets (supports). A method to avold this is to place a small, shallow borehole (a buster hole) in the center of the wedge to blast it into smaller fragments as the face is detonated. ‘The wedge cut will generally pull an 8- to 12-ft (2.4 to 3.6-m) round; however, the drilling accuracy is quite important, The wedge cut can be made with two or three rows of holes using the V, or wedge, at any angle to the center line ofthe face. The V can be to the horizontal or vertical, depend ing upon which direction allows the greatest angle. The Fan Cut: The fan cut is approximately one-half of a wedge cut. Because of the angle of drilling, which restricts drill space, It is not used often. Itis usually limited to pulling a 4 to 5-ft (1.2- to 1,5-m) round and is uused only where one drill is used. All the holes are drilled at dilferent angles from one location near either rib. (See Figure 12.7.) The Draw-Hammer Cut: The draw-hammer cut is another modified V cut, in which th holes are drilled away from the center of the face. It is best suited in small tunnels and raises, where there is not much room for drilling, (eo Figure 12.8.)