Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ΤΑ ΛΑΘΗ ΤΩΝ ΜΑΘΗΤΩΝ ΔΕΙΚΤΕΣ ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΑΣ
ΤΑ ΛΑΘΗ ΤΩΝ ΜΑΘΗΤΩΝ ΔΕΙΚΤΕΣ ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΑΣ
ΤΑ ΛΑΘΗ ΤΩΝ ΜΑΘΗΤΩΝ ΔΕΙΚΤΕΣ ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΑΣ
:
«
! "! # ! $%&!!
'!!
#(» (
, ’ *)
2:
«
!'- ! %"! ! %"! ! – #
!'- .
! %"! /'% #(»
0
*
1**:
+ *
&
&
&
%, *
/ / % 0
&
,
1
*
%
/%
.
% &
*
, %
%
.
$
,
.
,
/
/
0,
0, *
&
,
&
3
*
*
.
4
% /
%
/
&
&
,
%
& % /.
, ,
%
,
1
.
9 * -&< # #" ! %#"! '!! #(, &<!
(3 #(#7 -#7
9 * 3& #(#"!
2
* *;
3
To «»
………………………………..………………...… 1
!
, ………………………………………..………..... 3
$
, !" ,
#"
….……...….. 39
"
%
#/
(#
)
, $" %& ……………………………………….....… 51
To «»
&
',
* '
+ …....… 57
*
: # «-»
+* , ""- (, %
+ *)
,
* #) ,
"- /" , ( +* …………………………………......….. 68
«0
:
# »
+/
K
……………………………………………………..………..…78
" "
'
-
+-
…………………………………………………...…………………….88
/#
>, '" ' ……………………………………...……………. 129
*
#
. #
#
%
"/ '?, @/ ………………………………...……………………. 139
4
#
# 6
#
,
#
"/ '?, @/ ………………………………………………..…….. 147
8
.
,
,
.
-A
……………………………………………………………….………….. 167
*
/" !""- …………………………….….. 172
*
#
:
")
+*
……………………………………………………………………….. 192
«=
,
’
;»:
0
«»
@"
!)
……………………………………………………………………….… 210
“
”:
#%
#
?
%
'
& /A 'C ………………………………………………. 237
(
%" ……………………………………………………………………..……. 250
“@
”
*
#
%/ ! !/
………………………..…………………. 253
+
«
» «
»
+*
. 0. @
…………………………………………………………………. 277
;
# = ;
i
#
'"
…………………………………………………………………..…… 309
=#
"
:
(visualization)
#
%
!*
…………………………………………………………..…….. 317
#
#!
# " …………………………………………………………………….…. 326
=
A** M *"- ………………………………………………………….. 333
,
=
+
!. !
………………………………………………………………...…… 380
'
!
%
/
# # =
'*-
, %- !
"- ……………………….…………….. 386
PISA –TIMSS: ;
=
!C/ $& ……………………………………………………….………. 397
4 *?48 *'3*+*
'/
/
……………………………………………………………… 439
!
(
% )
# J
(#
)
F
., @
., )"
. …………………………………………… 441
;
: «"
#;»
( !", '? ………………………………………...………451
Primary-Aged children’s misconceptions of industry and its relationship with Science
What do English primary children think of industry and its relationship with Science?
Joy Parvin, Gayle Pook ………………………………………………………...…………. 461
« »
%)
……………………………………………………………...………….. 463
-
#
%)
, %
L
…………………………………………………… 472
0
#
:
#
;
F
- %, +* ( ………………………………………...…….. 481
&
J
%C"- …………………………………………………………………… 486
« »
#
* J
&
'
+*
()"
…………………………………………………………...…….. 503
' « »
%
0 ‘
’
:
#
To «»
…………………………………………………………… 521
0/B
«;» =
*/
……………………………………………………………………… 523
=
#
%
*<
O
*’ '
0
+
…………………………………………………………………………… 541
0
*’ :
#
0
+
…………………………………………………………………………… 551
*< '
0
%’
!
'- ……………………………………………………………..……… 561
X
+
$AA
……………………………………………………………………… 566
X
web 2.0.
+
$AA
……………………………………………………………………… 576
1
2
!" !" #$% % $&'( (#)*&%"!" +'%(%+',!" ,' -#-
*%$'/)!)',!" 0!&'!" ,' "'0!$'( %#( (% $'('% ( 0,-
$'/0#',( $&1(
6&
% ,
%
8*
!
, 3
1. 0
4
%
**
,
%
-
&
. 6
,
/ , “
&1
”,
9*,
%. $
%
-
&
/
&% %
.
-
&
,
9
*
1
-
1
%
, . 6
&
.
3
&, ,
.
,
%,
&
%
*
0
, ,
, ,
/ . 6
9
& %
%
0
9
-
*%
% . 4
%
(trial and error)
%
, &
,
&
, Thorndike (Bacus & Romain,
1992).
=’
1
9 9
0
&
,
9
%,1
9
%. $1
,
%
9%-
9
,
,
1
-
%
% /.
2. 0
9
,
&
,
/
9
( -
).
$
% **
9
, 9,
& .
-
% 9
,
9
1 9,
%
1 % -
9
1, *
&
&, %
*
.
,
1%
%
1
'
%,
9 9 9 9
0
&-
%
/
%.
1
-
9.
2
8
/:
-D
. %
(1990). %
& ' (, ' (, %
,
3
, 3. (1970 ). *# ' (, %
:. "*,
6
, ". (1998). ' (-
& +.. %
: ...
1 3
,
’
3.
, &1
,
G,
,
,
%
,
9
,
% %, &% %
-
(G, 2002, . 13-14).
9%,
-
.
0
&
9
, 9
,
&1
/
, .&.
%–
%
,
. 4
%
9
.
$
% /
.
9
%
, 9, *
%
9
,
9
0
&
%.
%
. H
,
, &-
9 &%
(.&.
: «
#», «
$
.
-
, «
$
»), /
G (G, 2002 . 17).
$
,
% /
*
9%
%
9
. 3
&
/
,
9
/
9
. 4
9
%
9%
/
,
*
&1
/
1%
.
"
, &
&
% /
% &
,
9
,
1
% 0.
6’
%
&
% .
To , ,
&
%
,
% *
%
%
* %
%, 9
&
,
0
&%
,
.&. &% , & . %
% /-
*%
(D
, 2001). + %
,
9
, ,
%
&,
1
(6
-
2005),
,
/
&
,
&
9%
*%
-
* . ,
,
&
-
% *
9
,
%
.
$
/%: $ & %
1
%
&
,
/,
%, &
.
%
9%
&
,
-
1
&
.
,
/
%
%
*
0
&
. 4
-
&
. 1
, 9
.
% 9 .
,
&
0
%
(Fontaine, 1995). H
9
&
9 , -
,
&
&
.
3
/1
9 **
9
%
/ erreur 9
&
. &
%
‘errer’,
«-
». 4
%
1
/,
/
-
.
1, 9
1
,
/
.
-
, ,
/
1
/
,
-
,
*
9
&.
4 2
3. 58 5
3.1. 8
5 66
+
%
*
-
%
9 9%
. "
9 9 %,
’
% D 9
,
1
&
%
, «-
». "
,
%,
&
0,
%
1%
,
.
20
%
: ‘- ’ &
-
& : ‘
$-
’.
9
,
, «
&%
%
»
«
&% 0
»
* %
9 9-
,
& %
9
0
-
%
.
0
. "
/
1%
%
, *
-
*
.
+ Karl Popper (1963),
20
,
.
$
*
,
,
%
& % -
*
% . $9
Popper,
-
0
**
. +
/-
. «/
$
($
$), 9, $
» (Popper, 1992).
,
-
&
1%
%
$9
%
Popper, %
«"
» (falsifi-
ability), *
* . H ,
“ #. (
" #
$ # #$,
”(Popper, 1963). &
,
,
%, -
,
&
*
,
9
.
4 %
&
1
, ,
9
-
%.
,
**
%
0
& -
%
% ,
%
-
* %
% * .
"
, , ,
,
-
%,
9 9 C.S. Peirce (1887),
%/,
1 F. de Saussure
%
. 4 , 9
’
,
,
%
1
. 4
/
, -
9
% ,
9
, -
0
9%
(G, 2002).
+ B. Russell, /1
**
“T
6
» :
%
-
0 (thruth-falsehood),
1
&
&
1
1%
%
:
) +
9%
&%
,
%
0
,
.
*) 4
%
0
&
% (beliefs)
&
-
(statements),
9
0
. ) 0
%
/
*
/
%.
!&
1
,
, Russell
9
9 9
%/
%
9
(Russel, 1912, . 69 ..).
4 9 9%
%
&%
&
-
1%
%
'%, L
"
D 9
%,
,
-
/
1
.
&
-
M
&
9
.
3 5
3.2. 5 58
9<
5
H
,
,
&, ,
-
. "
,
0
&
& %
,
%
,
1%
.
, **
,
1
9,
/1.
/
, -
. L
9,
,
$
9,
% L
, "% L
L
/
9
.
9
$
9, 9
-
,
9
-
(1
). 6,
$& %
%,
%
9,
*
%
* 4.
, $& %
$
9
* &: 58-
5,
.
0
,
*
*
%
-
*
,
* %
,
% . $ -
%
9
,
-
%
. N
,
*
-
%
.
Pavlov,
$& %,
-
* « »,
9
&1
,
O,
(
)
,
,
’
.
&
*
&
&-
1
9
. N
,
, /
,
9,
/
.
"
Skinner, %
« #! »,
&%
&
&
&
9
,
&
%
*
&
’
.
9 &
%
%
&
’
%.
4
9%
, 91
Skinner, *
1
#
»
Skinner.
%
% ,
&
,
(frames),
/
9
,
&
9
(" 2007). Q
4
&
* . ** :
, 6. & D
% ". (2006). %
. /-
9: %. %
,
&
&% **
9
.
6 4
&
.
%
&
,
9
,
1
&
%
.
%
Crowder (1964), «-
$ !
#
»,
%
%
%
.
,
%
%
, &
/%
&
9
/
-
. 6
/
& % . -
.
3.2.2. ,
5
4 % L
Bandura.
,
9
-
%0 %
9
. 4
1
-
/%
,
/1
&
&%,
&
,
%-
0
. 4 0
& *
&
*
*
-
’
,
% ,
%,
-
,
*
&
%5.
$
, &
. +
9,
,
, 9
.
*
9
, 1
/,
’
%
,
9
&%
%
9
%. +
9
’
,
-
, &
9 %
9, %
-
% &
/,
%
0
%
%
%
.
4
,
Bandura,
&
9
-
1
, & 9%
,
.
&
,
,
%,
1
& &
%
,
*
/.
3.2.3. )
5
"
"% M
&
1
,
,
-
*
’
. + -
,
.
6
*
,
/
9-
0,
9
.
4 "% L
9
1
-
*.
(Piaget, Bruner, Ausubel, Vygotsky,
Gagné .), &
9
. '
-
9
%
9 ’
. L
9
, , "% L
,
Jean Piaget.
$9
Piaget, %
/
&
9
,
&
&
%
%
/,
&
&
. K
&
1
5
4
% 9
&
&
. $&% *-
*
9
* .
D
% (2006),
. 8 . : , (1989). $-
(. 9 ;
$
, , 1989. /
>9. ?$-
#$ $
. : & +
5 7
,
’
,
. 4 -
&
%
%
,
%
%
9
, /
% . 9
1
,
%
&
.
$
,
*
/
9 . 4
&
%
%
%
. -
,
%,
9
,
9*% %
,
9
* %
. 4
/ %, %,
% . , ,
*
.
&
,
9%
*
,
%
& %
%-
/. +
/
*
-
,
%
. ,
&
-
%
%
&
. Q
%
%
(G 2002).
9
% / /
"%
M
&
9
&
, -
/
(
& D
%, 2006).
6
&, , ,
. 4
%
%
% /
(metacognitive regulation),
9
« -
#. !
# #$ »
*
/% (
.., 1996).
=
,
%
*
%
,
%
%
1
*
%. Q
-
&
.
%,
9, /1
/
%
%
9 /-
. $ 9
&
&. -
&
% %
9
&
*
&
%
15-20
,
. $
,
,
%
. H
/
1
&. $
&
*
,
,
9
, &
/
(6
2003).
9
9
%
/
,
-
9
.
$9
L
/
9
,
9
-
%
, 9
/ & 9
&
,
%
%
& &
-
% &%. $
9
%
9
*
-
/
(conditions of learning)
1
1
9
&
/
-
9 9 (Gagné, 1970).
8 6
4. =<5
$
?
5?
O
9
&
%
&
-
%
1
.
,
&1
. 3
,
, &
0
-
%
0
%1
9
%
-
’
0
&
%
9
.
0 9
/
* & %
, -
&%
(
, 2001, . 216). , ,
0
&-
,
,
&%
9
’
%
%
%
.
$
,
&
/. Q&
%
-
, & &
/%
%.
&, ,
0
*
%
0
. -
,
*
&% / 0
-
.
4 0
% &
&
.
9
%
9-
%
&%
%,
«%
%» *%
.
.
,
,
&
. 6
/
*,
*
%
*
%
/
*
7 9
,
%
%, /
%
1
&% *
.
4
&,
, %
% :
%
%.
3#$, %
9
‘
’
%
-
%
. @#$,
9
&
&
&
&
&
% /
.
/
%
& /
, 9
,
/
%
-
*
,
&
9%
. "
9
&
9
,
%
. 4
/
9
9
, % &%
/
-
&
%
% /
(.&.
,
.) (Burt, 1977, Movshovitz-Handar & al. 1987,
-
, 1986, \
, 1998, D
1%, 2001, 8*
, 2007)
6 9
*
*
,
*
. H
9
%,
&
-
% /
.
-
,
-
9
%,
&
*
/
,
9
&
-
/ ($9
, 2003). "
/, ,
-
/%
%
, -
, &
&
&
(
1
.. 1995,
-
,1983, 2005)
%.
,
9
&
&
. 6
,
,
*
*
,
&
*
(
, 2001).
5. (85
H
, &
% «
»
.
&%,
1
*
,
&
. +9
, ,
/%
-
/
, ,
/ ,
-
1
9 /
,
* % %,
-
0
*
. 4
/
-
/
*
/ /,
0,
9
,
%,
% 9
1
&» (D
,
2001).
4 &%
&1
«
&»
!!!
C'C'%)&+'
, '., (2001),
% 9
. $ 6. 8*
. \
1 (.),
%
$
$ ! #.,
’. %
:
, . 203- 221.
Bacus, An. & Romain Chr., (1992), Libérez votre créativité! Paris: J’ai lu,
10 8
8*
, 6., (1997), +
%
8
"
. $ 6.
3
(.), A
$ &$ ># +
,
%
: Gutenberg, .191-219.
8*
, !. (2007). 3
&%
-
&
& %
.
% -
(
%
*%).
Burt, 6. (1977). rrors analysis in the adult E.F.L. classroom. In Alatis, J. & Crymes, R. (eds).The
human factors in ESL. Washington.D.C. TESOL.
", . (2007). $
(
. %
: Gutenberg.
Corder, S.P. (1967), The significance of learners’ errors, in IRAL, vol. 4, pp. 162-169.
Crowder, N.A.,(1964), Différences entre la programmation linéaire et la programmation intrinsèque,
in Hommes et Techniques, Janvier.
3, 3. (1969), *# ' (. %
: "*.
, , $
, &
, 6. (1996). 4 / /
.
4
9 9 * %
-
. B#
, 3,2, 1-20.
Fontaine, Jac., (1995), L’erreur formatrice, in JDI, Septembre, no1, p. 61-76
Gagné, R. (1970). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.
1
, .,
, 6. & , 3. (1995). *
*
%
-
3
*
. $:
1
-
, . &
, 6. H E E
: @ #-
#
!, A%
, E $,
, 6. (1983). A 9
3-
%
M E
, ;!# E
, 11, 72 -78.
, 6. (1986). H
/
%
. E !,
A(# F M.E. A%
, . 431- 444.
, 6. (2005). 1%
&%
3
*
& %
. H0 &%
-
% %
9
. $ "*
3. &
,
}. (.). &
. % (! #.
%
: $
**
, .318-345.
, 6., D
% ". (2001), %
, ;!# " #
#
, %
.
, . (1989). $
(. 9 ;
$
. -
%
.
, . (1997
). $
( /
>9. ?$-#$
$
. %
: "
.
, . (1997*). $
( +9. +$ $
. %
:
"
.
6
_
, . (2005).
. B# ##. %
:
"
.
Meichenbaum, D., Burland S., Gruson L. et al. (1985), Metacognitive assessment, in Youssen S. (ed),
The Growth of reflection in Children. Orlando: Academic Press.
Movshovitz-Handar, N. , Zaslavsky, O. & Inber, S. (1987). An empirical classification model for er-
rors in high school mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Educa-
tion, 18,1,3-14.
6
, ". (1998), ' ( & +., '/
..., %
.
9 11
6
, ., (2003), A (
, %
:
%- ". 3
.
Peirce, C.S., (1958), The fixation of belief, in P.P. WEINER (ed) Selected Writings, pp. 91-113.
Popper, K.A., (1963), Conjectures and refutations: the Growth of Scientific Knowledge. New York:
Harper & Row.
Popper, K.A., (1992 Reprint edition), Scientific Theory and Falsifiability. London: Routledge
G 6., (2002), / $
.
, %
: Guten-
berg.
Russel, B., (1912), The problems of philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
$
. (1967).
. $ % # @#$# &#
, 3.
%
: "
, . 540 .
$9
6. (2003),
. $ ?
,
6
. %
: =...L.,
% ,
-D
(1997), %
& ' (. %
.
D
, 6.-Z. (2001),
%
-
, 6. 8*
. \
1 (.), % -
$
$ ! #., ’. %
: -
, . 443-450.
D
1%, . (2001).
(3 $&
)
%
/
& %
. $ 6. 8*
. \
1 (.), .
., . 451-462.
\
, \. (1998). " %
&% %. %
.
12 10
LEARNING FROM DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES:
CONSTRUCTIVISM TO SITUATED LEARNING.
Joan Bliss
University of Sussex
Introduction
NASA's history web Curator, Steve Garber (2007) commented that "History changed on October 4,
1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I. The world's first artificial satellite was
about the size of a beach ball ... That launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and
scientific developments." The last two areas mentioned were very important for Education.
In my article (Bliss 1995) I say,
"The Americans wondered why their scientists were not the first to go into space. Huge
investments in the USA went into large scale curriculum development in the sciences, with
projects such as the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), the Chemical Bond Approach
(CBA), Chem Study, and in biology BSCS.
England followed in the early 1960's with more than a dozen science curriculum
development projects sponsored by the Nuffield Foundation in physics, chemistry, biology and
integrated science for pupils between 11-16 and, by 1967, for 16-18 year olds. Many other
countries such as France, Germany, Sweden, and other European countries, Canada and
Australia followed, some adapting the ideas and others developing their own.
Primary education saw parallel developments in many countries, these reforms being very
much influenced by the work of Piaget. Amongst such developments were: the Science
Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) from Lawrence Hall of Science, Berkeley; in Britain the
Schools Council Science 5-13 and the Nuffield Foundation Mathematics 5-13; in Australia the
Australian Science Education Project (ASEP)."
However in spite of these teaching innovations, students continued to hold ideas that were very
different from those taught in school. Many of them were very robust, being particularly resistant to
teaching (Viennot, 1979). Hence from the 1970s a world-wide trend in science education developed in
which researchers and science educators set out to describe pupils' ideas about various scientific
concept areas such as dynamics, light, heat, energy, electricity, etc. This trend also happened in
mathematics and other subject areas. It was from these various research areas that the field of
children's conceptions came in being. This research is known under a variety of headings such as:
Alternative Conceptions, Misconceptions, Informal ideas, Intuitive ideas, etc.
It is crucial to realise that Jean Piaget, whose research, which started many years ago in the 1920's,
was one of the first to put forward forcefully, with extensive supporting evidence, the notion that
children construct their own knowledge and that this knowledge is different in kind from an adult's,
evolving and changing over years. Thus I start this talk by referring first to Piaget. Then I move onto
Vygotsky whose work, with its greater focus on the teacher, has more recently also attracted the
attention of educators. A common view, but in my opinion one to be strongly resisted, is to regard
Vygotsky as supplanting Piaget as the theorist on whom to rely. I shall argue that both are essential to
an understanding of teaching and learning and that their ideas are not conflicting but complementary.
Then I go on to mention Jerome Bruner, who is a well-known psychologist and educator and whose
work has parallels with Piaget, which I set out. And finally I pass to the School of Situated Learning,
which has recently become very popular in the educational field since it stresses the importance of the
context in which children and students learning. Clearly I shall only be able to refer to each of these
areas very briefly and further reading is available as per attached bibliography (some electronic copies
of her own articles are available from the author). Some of the ideas that are outlined in this plenary
were also presented in a keynote lecture at the ESERA Conference (European Science Education
Research Association) in Malmo, August, 2007
Both Piaget and Vygotsky were born in 1896, and Bruner was born nineteen years later in 1915.
However, while Vygotsky died young in 1934, Piaget lived to a good old age, dying only in 1980.
Bruner is alive and well at the moment of giving this talk (December 2007).
The fourth approach, Situated Learning, covers a whole range of proponents. One of the earliest
was Michael Cole who worked with Luria in Russia for a year in 1963 where he became well
acquainted with the work of Vygotsky. However it was during his research in Liberia with John Gay
PIAGET
Piaget trained as a biologist. However his life's work was focused on what has become known as
Genetic Epistemology, that is, the growth of knowledge and the rules that govern this growth. So,
although most people believe that Piaget's interest was in children, it is, in fact, a concern with the
growth of knowledge in the 'average' child or what he called the 'epistemic' subject and not in
individual children.
Piaget is often criticised for not discussing the areas of motivation, socialisation and individual
differences in children; but since he was dealing with the 'epistemic subject' – these were not his
concerns. He was an epistemologist and not a child psychologist. His focus was always on cognitive
development only, for example: number, space, geometry, physical quantities (substance, weight
volume, area, perimeter), speed, time, distance, acceleration, probability, memory, mental imagery,
cause and effect, etc.
Bliss (1995, 2001) points out that Piaget, amongst others, was at origin of Constructivism. The key
idea for Piaget is that children are always active, making sense of world around them, and constructing
their version of it. So action underlies and is fundamental to children’s development of knowledge.
Piaget's Constructivism is realist, with intelligence deriving from real actions on real objects. He
argued,
"These pages contain an account of an epistemology that is naturalist without being positivist; that
draws attention to the activity of the subject without being idealist; that equally bases itself on the
object, which it considers as a limit, therefore existing independently of us but never completely
reached (known); and above all sees knowledge as a continuous construction'." (Piaget, 1968)
Since knowledge evolves, for Piaget each developmental step is vital and valid. But children's ideas
are very different from those of the adult and particularly in specialist areas like science and
mathematics. Thus there is a need to respect children's views about world and in any learning
sequence to attempt to build on these (Piaget 1968 and 1972). Not matter how strange or different a
child or a student's idea appears from our own, it is vital to the realise that this is how he or she is
understanding the environment around them at that moment in time.
Piaget was also considered to be a Structuralist. He believed in the importance of hypothesising
mental structures to account for the qualitatively different ways in which children interact with the
environment as they develop. He wanted to know what their ideas about all the various different
domains of knowledge, for example, the invariance of weight and of volume, had in common. Thus he
postulated a series of qualitatively different stages to describe children's intellectual development.
And, for Piaget (1968), structure describes, “what is common to development” at each stage. There are
four stages;
Thus intellectual development entails the assimilation of the world to these thinking structures, and
the accommodation of these to the world. Note that during the sensori-motor period children's
knowledge is acquired through their actions and movements and through their senses: sight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste. Through this period the ability to represent absent objects and happenings
develops, so that by about 18 months the child is able to represent absent realities by means of
symbols and signs. The beginning of the pre-operational stage is marked by the acquisition of this
power to represent. Young children can now start to interiorise their sensori-motor action schemes and
learn about the world around them. Other aspects of this stage are that of egocentrism, that is, not
taking account of others’ point of view; that of not being able to separate reality from appearances and
that of being easily confused by causal relations.
A little later, toward the end of the pre-operations stage , there appears one of the more important
features of children's development, the interiorisation of their actions on the world, which become
internal mental structures, allowing children to imagine actions in the head, which characterizes the
beginning of concrete operations. They become much less egocentric and are capable of many tasks
such as classification, conservation of basic elements, ordering, etc, which require thinking about the
world in terms of objects and transformations. But abstract thinking is difficult for them and this only
becomes easier with the beginning of formal operational thinking where children are then capable of
what is called hypothetical deductive thinking. It is during this phase that students are reasoning on
propositions about the world, rather than directly on the world itself.
It is important to note Piaget's early writings suggested that the formal operations stage would
begin around the age of 12 or 13 years. Much later research has shown that formal abstract thinking
tends to be reached by students at a much later age than Piaget described, more like 15 or 16 years old
and then only by a small percentage of students, e.g. approx. 20% at 16 years old (See: Michael
Shayer, 1976 and 1978, Piaget 1977). Work is U.S. shows very similar results by researchers such as
Karplus, R, Karplus, E. (1974). Karplus, E, Karplus, R, Wollman, W. (1974) Karplus, R, Karplus, E,
Formisano, M & Paulsen A (1975, 1977).
VYGOTSKY
It is important to remember that the work of Vygotsky was published before his death in 1934 and
only became known to readers in the West in 1962 with his first translated book on Thought and
Language. Then in the late 1970's his ideas about child development started also to be translated and
published. Vygotsky said many significant things about this later area. Today, however, I am choosing
to focus on only four important aspects of this.
x First: the role of the adult in child development
Vygotsky stressed the role of the adult: parent, teacher, or competent peer, as being crucial to the
learning process and so the child's intellectual development. In discussing this, Vygotsky (1978) gave
a definition of how learning takes place, using the term zone of proximal development (ZPD), which
he defined as follows:
"... (the ZDP is) the distance between the actual development as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." (p.86)
One of the difficulties of implementing such a definition is that probably the student will have a
different ZPD in every subject area: science, maths, history etc. And to add to this, the ZPD's will be
very different for every child across these different areas (See Newman, Griffin and Cole's 1989, a
study of primary school mathematics). However key to the child's learning and development is the
guidance of the adult.
x Second: the difference between actual and potential development.
With this second aspect, potential development is emphasized. This actually means that there is
new relationship between development and learning.
In Education, in many circumstances, spontaneous development is usually the major concern,
particularly, for example, with the recent importance of tests, examinations etc. Kozulin (1990)
pointed out that for Vygotsky, psychological development does not precede instruction but depends on
it and went on to say:
"...it (ZPD) taps those psychological functions which are in the process of development and
which are likely to be overlooked if the focus is exclusively on the unassisted child's
performance." (p.170).
In other words, we need to examine how far children can be stretched in school with the help of the
teacher in their discipline. But, in fact, potential development is what school is about: that is, taking
children from their initial state of knowledge to new knowledge – that which teachers, school and the
curriculum consider as important for them to learn.
Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976) describe what happens in the ZPD as involving a kind of
“scaffolding process” but little is known about this, particularly in specialist areas, like science and
mathematics where the knowledge to be acquired is not intuitive. Much more research is needed into
how to build bridges or scaffold these difficult subjects. After a study of scaffolding in science, design
and technology and mathematics, where it proved to be very elusive (sample: children between 9 and
11 years), we concluded (1996)
“Since much school knowledge is specialised (necessarily so) there is always ambiguity in the
teaching-learning situation. Teachers need to believe that children can learn difficult and complex
BRUNER
One of Bruner's more important educational books was The Process of Education (1960). In this book
he expressed the view that teachers often wasted a great deal of pupils' time because they postponed
teaching areas of the curriculum that they considered too difficult for the pupils to learn. Thus the
myth of "readiness to learn" arose, that is, that students had to be ready to learn something, otherwise
it was pointless teaching it. Bruner rejected this notion and went on to argue:
"We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development."
Humans can live in their imagination whenever they wish to or need to. For example, any one of us
could be placed in solitary confinement, and while it would be an unpleasant experience, we would
have the resources of our imagination to keep our minds full of ideas and hope.
PIAGET – BRUNER
I set out below the stages of Piaget's knowledge development and show how Bruner's stages of the
development of modes of representation run parallel.
PIAGET BRUNER
Sensori-motor - Enactive
Pre-operational - Iconic
Concrete operational - Symbolic
Formal operational.
During the time that Bruner was developing his theory of representation, Piaget was also carrying
out research in the field of imagery and produced the book, "L'Image mentale chez l'enfant" in 1962.
SITUATED LEARNING
Situated Learning probably dates back to the work of Gay and Cole in Liberia (1967) when they
started to analyse the role of culture in the development of learning and mathematical skills with the
Wenger (ibid) further asserts that we need to consider the notion of identity. For him, learning is
central to human identity, where learning is seen as social participation. Thus an individual constructs
his/her identity through active participation in the practices of social communities. Likewise groups of
individuals create their shared identity by participating in communal activities. A community of
practice embodies the beliefs, knowledge and behaviors that need to be acquired.
Studies in Situated Learning focus mainly on adults learning to: weave, make pots, ski, tailor, or
be: midwives, quartermasters, butchers, etc. For Lave and Wenger (1991) learning does not belong to
individuals, but to the social practices of communities of which individuals are a part. Unfortunately
there are few studies focusing on communal or social practices in formal education: pupils, students,
teachers, specialised knowledge, etc. There are however quite a few links with informal education.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bliss, J. (2001). Learning Science: Piaget and after. In S. Amos and R. Boohen (Eds) Teaching
Science in Secondary Schools. London and NY: Routledge, Falmer with Open University Press
(pp154-163).
Bliss, J. (1996). Piaget und Vygotsky: Ihre Bedeutung fur das Lehren und Lernen der
Naturwissenschaften, in Zeitschrift fur Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften, Jahrgang 2, Heft 3, pp.3-16.
(Transalation: Piaget and Vygotsky: their relevance to the teaching and learning of Science, English
version available from author)
Bliss J. (1995). Piaget and after, the case of learning science, Studies in Science Education, Vol.25,
pp 139-172.
Bliss, J.. Askew M & Macrae S (1996). Effective teaching and Learning – scaffolding revisited
Oxford Review of Education (Guest Eds. K. Silva and D.Wood), Vol.22.No.1.pp.37-59.
Boden, Margaret (1979), Piaget, Fontana Modern Masters. 2nd edition. Harper Collins, 1984).
Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press(Not in
article but Recommended Reading).
Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, Jerome S, Olver, R, Greenfield P (1966). Studies in Cognitive Growth. NY: John Wiley &
Sons, 1966.
Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual Change in Childhood. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Cole, Michael, (1984). The World Beyond Our Borders. What Might Our Students Need to Know
About It? American Psychologist, Vol. 39.
Engeström, Y (1999). Situated Learning at the Threshold of the New Millenium. In J.Bliss, R.
Saljö, P. Light, (Eds) Learning Sites: Social and Technological Resources for Learning: Oxford:
Pergamon, Elsevier Science.
Engeström, Y, & Cole, M. (1997). Situated cognition in search of an agenda. In D.Kirshner & J. A.
Whitson (Eds.), Situated cognition: Social, semiotic, and psychological perspectives. NJ: Erlbaum.
(Not in article but Recommended Reading).
Flavell, J. H. (1963). The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
(Not in article but Recommended Reading)
Garber, Steve (2007) Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age. http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/
Gay, J., Cole, M. (1967). The new mathematics and an old culture New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
Greeno, J. G. (1989) A perspective on thinking. American Psychologist, 44, 134-141.
8
.$.!... 8
$59
%
& %
– ,
% 9
(
9 &
%
*)
9%
.
$
%
%,
&%
%
%
,
9
.
$
&
&
%,
*%
9 *
%
.
6 *
%,
%
,
/%
:
1.
2. 3
/%
9
3.
.
*. 3
. 3
%
/
Q
&
% 1
%
,
/
9
9 .
(*) 4
9
. +
8
%
%
$& %
%
& %
(.$.!...).
3
%
%
.$.!... 8 .
1. 0
$
&
%
9
: «
%
», «
», «
/
», «'
» .. .
&
% %
/*
. +
%
%
«
»
%. Q
*1
. "
&
,
%0 %
%, 9,
,
/
. + 1%
% &
,
’
0
&, &
.
H
*
&
* %
&
%
%
,
%
%
%
%,
1980-90
. D
%
*
,
*
,
.!.,
9
& 0
&
. Q
*
%
&
.
9
9
9,
9
,
, (
&%
)
9
* &
&, %
* &
%
22 1
%
9%
0
%
o
9
.1
$ %
%
%
. &
%
/
%,
& ,
,
%
9
%
.
2. 0
4 %
%
%
. $
& %
/ % **
9
%
9
%,
9 . 6
& &
,
&
&
%
%. $&
&
%
, 1
&
,
/
9
.
&1
%
%
9 9% .2
H
%
1%
9
%
.
$
%
% 9
%
%
%.
& & %
&
/
;
9%
%
%
% ;
1
/% :3
$ 5
1
. =&
%
1
. &
%, %
%
.
$
=5
/
&
. 4
5
.
1
&
%
%
/%
. $
%
:
* ,
&
,
&
.
,
%,
,
/
,
9
9 &%
.
1
+
0
* %
,
/,
*
%
*
9
&
%
%
,
9
%
Piaget Aebli, H.: Psychologische
Didaktik, Klett Verlag, Stuttgart 19735
. +
, .: 4
% 6
. $: 6
% . 27 %
1984 . 94.
2
$ **
9
9
.
3
* . &: Heinze, A.: Zum Umgang mit Fehlern im Unterrichsgesprach der Sekundarstute I. Theoretische
Grundlegung, Methode and Ergebnisse einer Videostudie $: Journal fur Mathematik-Didaktik Jahrgang 25
(2004) H. ¾, . 221-244.
$
9
* /
%
&
1
9
, &
.
4
"
&
.
2
23
4. %5
5
8,
658 8
.
L
9
&%
**
9
.
«'
&
&
%
% 9
0
&
».5
%
1
&
;
9
: «'
9
&
&
%
0».6
&
.
$
&
9
, ,
&
.
6
9
1
%
1, %
1,
%
1
.
’
%
0
, 9
0
,
9
1
&
. $’
%
, 9
% %
% &%.
9
, 9
*
9
%
%
%.7
' *
& %
9
* 9
%
. 4
%
9 9
0
&
,
.8
+ < 91
&
. 6
%
. 4
&
1
&
&
, 91
%
.9
,
&
, 9
,
9
& &
.
.
.
9
0 10
%
,
*
%
’
0 .
5
Weimer, H.: Psychologie der Fehler, Klinkhardt, Leipzig 1925, . 5.
6
Oser, F. .
. Lernen Menschen aus Fehlern? Zur Entwicklung einer Fehlerkultur in der Schule 1999.
.
24 3
:
1.
9
%
&
2.
9
&.
L
9
,
% &% ,
/
%
,
9 % ,
&
( / %
), ..11
. 5
9
%
* %,
%
«6
%/
».
%
%
,
«6
1%
».
& * %
,
*
,
.12
/
9,
/
,
%
.
. 5?
+9
%
% /
. 4
.
. ?
1
&
&
’
1
9%
& . $
9
1
%
,
% &
%
,
.&.
6
,
. .&.
%
%
*
/,
1
*
;13
4
0
*
&
% 3
.14
8*
%
*
,
%
&%
,
%
&,
&%
&
. ,
0
,
&
0
%.
. ) 5
5 565 .
&
%
,
9 *
%
%,
%
*
,
%
,
*%
,
%
. 15
+
. N
,
&
0,
/
, %
&
9
,
..
&
1
,
%
. 16
11
G, 6.: .., . 21.
12
8
, .: 4
% 0, . Gutenberg, %
1998, * . &:
. 37.
13
* . 8
, .:
3
% 6
, . ", %
2000, . 135.
14
8 . 8
, .: 3
6
%
.3.$.,
. 16, . 52
%
1999, . 66.
15
8
, .:
6
&
/
%
% .
'
/ . 57 %
1996.
16
Charles Spearman * . &:
!.-\
!.: M
&
9 %
1974,
. 27.
4
25
6. *5 58 5
$
&% %
%
.
&
9.
%
&
%
,
.
3
, 9
9
,
&
/%
.
1.
% 9
9 &
9%
%
%
, %
%9 9
.
& 9
%
&, 9
, 9
%, Q &, / .. .
%
: «
%
*».
2.
9%
. +
%
, &
%
9
. 6
%
.
3
0
& %
&%
*
%
%
&. D
.
9
,
1
9
*
. 17
3.
%
*
. !
%
9
,
&
*%
%
. 18
L
%
,
9
&
,
%.
17
Ogle, D.: “K-W-L: A Teaching Model”, Reading Teacher, . 39 1986
.
6
, 4.: .., .
247.
18
Heinze, A.: .., . 226.
26 5
7. 558
8
9
, &%
%.
&
1
/%:
&
%
9
. 6
. 4
%
/
6
27
*. $
/%
.
/
%
&,
&
%0
9
*
%
9%
*
. H
(.&.
% /
%) &
**
.
.
*
-
-
%
*
0 ,
%/
&,
%/
% .19
"
&
6
. 20
+ $
%
6
9 9
&
(
&
& 3
%),
6
,
&
&
"
.
-($.) Q&
*
. 1
;
( *
9
%
/
).
-(3
.) 6
(
%
9
%.) 3 &
&.
19
\
%
9
%
$ « 6
». , 6 81e-85b,
%-9.
, 8.. !. }.
&
$: D, \.:
9
Uni. Studio Press, L/ 1983 . 69
...
20
8
, . : &%, Polna
3
% 6
$: $&
. 55 %
1990.
+
9
&
,
9
%
. , 8.: 6
%
%, %
1961
9
%
%
. Winter, H.Q Entdeckendes
Lernen im Mathematikunterricht, Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1989
28 7
(4
%.
$ &
1
,
.)
-($.) !&
1
% 4
8"3.
. 3"
8"
%
4
&
.
8"3, 8L", "L!
3"!4
;
-(3
.)
.
-($.)
4
8"3;
-(3
.)
& .
-($.) N
%
%
/
.
8"3;
-(3
.) 9
*
,
9
%
(4
% 9
, $
&
%
.)
-($.) 6
3"
8",
%
&
4.
-(3
.) 6
.
8
29
-($.)
&%
&
1
;
-(3
.) 8"3
8L"
3"!4
"L!.
-($.)
& 8L"
3"!4
& 8"3..
-(3
.)
8"3..
-($.)
&
4
&.
-(3
.)
&
"L!.
3
& ,
9
/
%
.
* %
%
&.
38'
8"3.
$
%/
,
*
&%
:
9
%
*
%,
& 9
9
% . /
%
6
%
* . &
%
%
&
%,
.
9
%
%.
&
%
&. Q
%
&
, & %
, % &
.
3
9%
,
& &
«
%
»
& & .21
6
,
&
«3%
». +
%, 9
1
&
%
* %
. ,
%
9
,
1
.
*#.
’
&%
9
,
*
% 1
,
%
9,
1
0
.
$
&
1
«
%»
% . 22
% 9
% 9
,
*
%
,
91
/
1
.
9
1
&%
%
0 23
9
9.
21
(6
, 4.: L
3
. Gutenberg, A%
19992. $
&
&
30 9
#.
’
&%
%,
%
&*
&
% . \
&
%
* 1
,
* %
.
+
&
%
& * %
, &
*
9
0
,
9
%
.
%/
.
*,
/
%
9.
# (' /
)
4
%
/ 24
&
.
9 &
,
*
.
9
% %
%
;
4
* 0
% 9
%
3
% $%/ (.3.$.)
"
&
0
*
O.
1. $%
%
.3.$.
%
% /
2. "
.3.$.
9
9 9%
0
9
.
# (" )
H
9
%
%
9
9%
. "
1
0
&
&
%
%
.
8.
9
4
/
%
–
%- /
9%
%
. 4
% /
,
&
9
1
,
%.
"’
,
%
%,
. L
’
&
,
%
,
%
%
&
&
.
4
&
*
%
% & %
. "
–
%-
%
,
9
%
9
,
%.
24
6.: 4
/
, . " %
1981, . 17
%
10
31
C'C'%)&+'
1. Aebli, H.: Psychologische Didaktik, Klett Verlag, Stuttgart 19735
2. +
, .: 4
% 6
. $:
6
% . 27 %
1984.
3. 8
, .:
3
% 6
, . ", %
2000.
4. 8
, .: 4
% 0, . Gutenberg, %
1998.
5. 8
, .: 3
6
%
.3.$.,
. 16, . 52 %
1999.
6. 8
, .:
6
&
/
%
%, . '
/ . 57 %
1996.
7. 8
, .: &%, Polya
3
% 6
$: $&
. 55 %
1990.
8. 3
, .:
% / . 4 /
. " %
1998 4.
9. Heinze, A.: Zum Umgang mit Fehlern im Unterrichsgesprach der Sekundarstute I. Theoretische
Grundlegung, Methode and Ergebnisse einer Videostudie $: Journal fur Mathematik-Didaktik
Jahrgang 25 (2004) H. ¾.
10.
, 6.: 4 & %
&
,
. . "
%
1997.
11.
, 6.: 4
/
, . " %
1981.
12. , 8.: 6
%
%, %
1961.
13.
-
, .: M
&
0 "
%
1997.
14. 6
, 4.: L
3
. Gutenberg, A%
19992
15. 6
, 4.: $
. Gutenberg %
19994.
16. Ogle, D.: “K-W-L: A Teaching Model”, Reading Teacher, . 39 1986.
17. Oser, F. .
. Lernen Menschen aus Fehlern? Zur Entwicklung einer Fehlerkultur in der Schule,
1999
18.
!.-\
!.: M
&
9 %
1974.
19. , 6 81e-85b,
%-9.
, 8.. !. }.
&
.
20. G, 6.:
.
Gutenberg, %
2002.
21. D, \.:
9
Uni. Studio Press, L/ 1983.
22. D, \.: M
&
%, . Gutenberg %
1998.
23. Weimer, H.: Psychologie der Fehler, Klinkhardt, Leipzig 1925.
24. Winter, H. Entdeckendes Lernen im Mathematikunterricht, Vieweg Verlag,
Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1989.
32 11
*&,&'(', $%# $%0%#" /#" (#(', (&'1( %#
0,$'/0#',%# 0&)%# )' 0)#0& $%00(',% (
((
L+3CG+$ \G!$+3+='+=
. (Hanco 2001, Lacey 2001, "
2000, Blamires et al 1997,
Heward 1996, Armstrong 1995).
$
&
&
9
&
&%
&
&
&
.
$ 9*
,
%
,
&
*
9
. 4
&
1
,
0
&
/
*
&
*
%
% *
9*
%
.
, &
,
&
,
% &
&
9
. 6
,
9
%
9
9
%. 4
%
%
9
9%
*
%
**1
9
%
%
0
1
. +
% 9
1
. =&
"
,
'
.
9
%
0 ;
1. +
1
&
O&
33
%
&
& .
2.
%
%
/%
/
9
.
3. +
&1
O&
%. 4
O&
%
9 9
%0.
4.
%
&
/
. "
/
.
6.
&
%
O&
. "
,
&1
&1
*
9
.Carretero M., & Voss, J. (Eds), (1994); Driver,
R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A., (Eds), (1985); Schnotz, W., Vosniadou, S., & Carretero, M.
(Eds), (1999); Vosniadou, S. & Brewer, W.F. (1992).4
&
/%
*
1
&
.H
,
9
. 4
&
9
9
, /&
.
,
, /&
9
. "
*
,
9
,
%
'
,
*
9
1
.
/
&
;
+
*%
&
&
:
1. %
/%
9
%
.
2. 3/
&
9
1
&%
%
.
3. 6
&
* %
&
.
* %
/
*
.
4. 6
*
,
1
9,
*
.
5. 6
3
/
&
.Halpern,
D.F. (Ed.). (1992); Resnick, L.B., & Klopfer, L.E., (Eds.) (1989); Perkins, D. (1992)
&
&
4.
/
/
&
34
5.
*%
%
*
&
*
&
*
6.
/
&
&
.
7. }
&
.Bruer, J.T., (1993); T.D.
Bransford, A.L. Brown, and R.R. Cocking (Eds.), (1999); Bereiter, C. (1997)
%
9%
% /. +
*
,
&
&
%
,
&
&
&
&
/
%
9.
&
&
/%
%
%
. +
*%
&
:
1.
/% &
/.
2. 3
9
% 1
.
3. 6
0
&
. 3
&
%
9.
4. 8%
%
" % /"
*
% 0
%
(*
&%
).
5. 3
*
**
,
/
%
.
6. 3
%
9%
,
9
.Bransford, J.D (1979); Chase, W.G., and
Simon, H.A. (1973); Coles, R. (1970)
9
%
& & - &
* - %
9
.
9*%
’70,
/
%
$& (Movement of
Effective Schools). (Weber, 1971, Summers - Wolfe, 1977, Hoover, 1978, Lezotte - Passalacqua,
1978, Brookover et al., 1979, Edmonds, 1979, Rutter et al., 1979, Gregory et al., 1980, Madaus et al.,
1980, Murnane, 1981, Cohen, 1982, Purkey - Smith, 1983, Mackenzie, 1983, Lipsitz, 1984,
Rosenholtz, 1985, Stedman, 1985, Cohn - Rosenholtz, 1985). $
&
&
&
&
1
9
1 9% /
%
.
’70
&
’80,
$&
/
, *
*
&
9
&
. 6
%
%, %
R. Edmonds (R.
Edmonds, 1979).
$
%
5
& :
. '<5
<.
. (< 56 5
.
35
. #98 5
8
.
. (68 ?
.
. j6
56
?
.
N
9
* & %
.
$
Austin (1981) 29, Brookover - Lawrence (1979) 10, o Weber (1971) 8
. +
Purkey - Smith (1983),
&% **
9
.
* 13
*
-
#$ / $ (,
& )
* . (9
&
9
& ).
(#$0&(
Timar (1989)
%
&
9
9
% %
:
i. $ &
%
%0
9
%
ii. $ %
&%
%/
%
.
iii. $
&%
.
iv. $
%
9
% % % ,
&
9
*
9
0
&,
1
(
% 2004:214).
Bush (1995)
%
% %,
%,
%
«
», 1
:
i. $
&
%0
9
ii. $
0
& /
iii. $
&
iv. $
/
9
1
&%
v. $ %
&%
9
9
.
H
*
%
. 4
% 1
/
*
9
,
*
. 4
9
* & %
. 4
/ % &,
,
*
%
9
*
/
,
/.
(
% 2001). +
%
0
&,
%
, 9
,
9
9
%
%
. "
&
&1
&
%
&
&% %0
9
&.(
, 1999).
C'C'%)&+',0( "+%&0(
$*
%. (1999). «3
&
» .
., $.
., $.
., ". 6
., 3
6: 3
3
, 8#, ,
Austin G. (1981)., Exemplary Schools and their Identification, unpublished manuscript, Center for
Research and Development, University of Maryland,
Bush Thomas., (1995). Theories of educational management, Paul Chapman, Publishing, London.
Brookover W., Lawrence L. (1979)., Changes in School Characteristics Coincident with Changes
in Student Achievement, Occasional Paper No 17 (Michigan, The Institute for Research on Teaching,
Michigan),
Bereiter, C. (1997). Situated cognition and how to overcome it, pp. 281-300 in D. Bransford, T.D.,
Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.), (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and
School. National Academy Press.
Bransford, J. D. (1979). Human Cognition: Learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, Cal.:
36
Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Blamires M., Robertson, C. and Blamires, J. (1997). Parent teacher partnership. London: David
Fulton Publishers.
Brown, A.L. (1975). The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing and
knowing how to know. In H.W. Reese (Ed.). Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10),
New York: Academic Press.
"
, $ (2000). ;
– # ( !. %
:
"
.
Bruer, J.T. (1993). Schools for thought. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
Clift P. (1987), School-based Review: A responce from the UK perspective, in D.
cohen m. (1982)., Effective Schools: Accumulating Research Findings, merican Education, 18,
Carretero M., & Voss, J. (Eds.) (1994). Cognitive and instructional processes in history and the
social sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chase, W.G., & Simon, H.A. (1973). The mind’s eye in chess. In W. Chase (Ed.), Visual information
processing. New York: Academic Press.
Coles, R., (1970). Uprooted children: the early life of migrant farm workers. New York: Harper and
Row.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A., (Eds) (1985). Children’s ideas in science. Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.
edmonds r. (1979)., Effective Schools for the Urban Poor, Educational Leadership, 37, 15-24,
Heward, W. (1996). Exceptional children. (5th ed). New Jersey: Merill – Prentice Hall.
Halpern, D.F. (Ed.) (1992). Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics. Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Hargreaves D. (1988)., Assessment and Performance Indicators: The English Experience, in A. Ruby-
T. Wyatt (eds), Indicators in Education, Sydney, Australian Conference of Directors-General of
Education,
Hoover M. (1978)., Characteristics of Black Schools at Grade Level: A Description, Reading
Teacher, 31: 757-762,
ILCA (1996). Parental involvement in secondary schools. Great Britain: ILEA
Lacey, Penny (2001). Support partnerships. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd.
Lawrence Erlbaum, Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the
Culture of Learning, Educational Researcher, 18 (1).
Madaus G., et al. (1980), School Effectiveness: A Reassessment of the Evidence, New York,
McGraw-Hill,.
6
, $. (1987). A "
( . $ , ".
6
, $. (.) ;!#
". %
: .
.
Murnane R. (1981)., Interpreting the Evidence on School Effectiveness, Working Paper No 830,
Yale University,
% . (2004).
%
, 6
&, %
.
% "
. (2001). $& %
: Q
, *
% %
,
!# 3
, %
, }
.
Perkins, D.(1992). Smart Schools. Better thinking and learning for every child. The Free Press.
Piaget, J.(1978). Success and understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Purkey S-Smith M. (1983)., Effective Schools: A Review, The Elementary School Journal, 83: 427-
452,
Resnick, L.B., & Klopfer, L.E. (ds.) (1989). Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive
research. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Books.
Rosenholtz S. (1985)., Effective Schools: Interpreting the Evidence, American Journal of Education,
93:352-388,
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeships in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Rutter M., et al. (1979)., Fifteen Thousand Hours, Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press,
Schnotz, W., Vosniadou, S., & Carretero, M. (1999). New Perspectives on conceptual change.
Oxford: Elsevier Science.
Stedman L. (1985)., A new Look at the Effective Schools Literature, Urban Education, 20,
summers a-wolfe b. (1977)., Do Schools Make a Difference?, American Economic Review 67:
639-652,
37
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W.F. (1992). Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change
in childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535-558.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weber G. (1971)., Inner City Children Can be Taught to Read: Four Successful Schools, Occasional
Paper No 18, (Washington, DC, Council for Public Education),
Armstrong, D. (1995). Power partnership: parents, children and special educational needs. London:
Routledge.
38
A)"%' +#',( (( (( $% %" /(,%
!( $) !" $% %"
3
*,
(M
&
%) % M
&
, $& $*
D } '
, '
.
L
,
%
"
% "
, '
.
3
,
4664/=, '
.
4
9
*0
& % 9
%
%
%.6
«9
»
,
1
& 9
.
9
, 9
,
. ’ 9
&
9
,
%
*0
&
. 3
&
9
,
’ «»,
*
,
9 ,
&,
*
– -
– -
,
/
& /
. 9
**
*
(&
),
91
9
/ ,
9
9 9
(
0
& &
)
43.046.721
,
,
, 81
,
9
9
9
. 4 «
-
»
& «
-
». 6
*
sexcontinuum *
*%
&
%
9
%
9
.
010'( ,0'/':
/
, sexcontinuum, 9
%
* 9
01%',0#( /'/(,'(
,
,
/,
,
.
*
.
&
; =&
, **
,
,
&
&
,
&,
*
.
, %,
&
.(3
,2000).
4 & % /,
9,
–
-
. ,
,
&
%
,
&
,
,
:
. D
,
/. 4 & % / &
1
&
( * &
)
& (
) .
&
1%. +
,
**
,
/ ,
.(3
, 1999).
%
,
*,
/,
, **
,
/:\& %
(
*
/
, **
, 9
*
/
/),
/&%
(
, **
,
9
&,
&1
,
%
& . .),
9
*%
/ %
(
, **
, /
9
1
«
&
» /
) . .. (3
, 2005).
*, «
&
»
/ /
&
. 9
, ,
,
,
%
«&»
%
«0» %
,
, %
&
/&
/
9
«%»,
&
,
&%
%
,
. (3
, 2000).
39
H, &
*
* %
1
,
/,
%
. Q
, *
0
&
,
%
%,
*%
%
. 8*
,
,
&
%
, ,
* %
,
, ,
.(3
, 2005).
, ,
,
&,
&%
&
,
,
,
&
9
9
%
,
&
/
.
, **
,
,
,
&
, &
,
. $
%,
1
. +
--
. +
, **
,
%,
. +
,
, ,
,
%
.
%
. L
&
& /.
&
/
,
. (3
, 1994).
, ,
9
. 4
9
%
*
1
%
% /.
&%,
%
# '
(
8#
"# '
,
,
, %
&
/
) ’
,
* ,
. L
,
%
,
«
»
,
/,
%
&
’
.(3
*
, 2005).
6
,
,
9
09
,
&
/
&
% &
. (3
, 2000).
H
9
,
,
,
1
*
%
,
,
,
%
/
/.
9
9
%,
,
*
,
/,
&
9 . (3
*
, 2005): +
%
*
,
&
, ,
9%
,
,
,
&,
* , % 9% 9,
&
% 9,
%
&. +
%
9,
,
, &
,
,
1% /,
*
*1
,
9
,
1
*1,
1
,
,
*
. +
%
,
&
* % , *
1,
& &
9
,
1
,
*, &
% 9. $
&,
*
&
.
H,
,
9
. / \
%
,
,
9
,
. $
&,
«
»
, &
«
%»
,
9
**
9
-&- 9
%
9,
40
,
% 0
/
. $
,
0
%
,
%,
*
1 . +
%
\, /
/ \
. (3
, 2000).
Q9
%
9%
/ , & *%
*%
9
%. (3
, 2006),
/
«
»
.
&,
.
3
9
,
.
/
%
/
. 6 /& *
&,
0
& %
%/
.
$&%(&%) /'/(,'( (% +#% !" $'/'!"
4
9
, , 9
, **
,
,
%
,
9,
/,
*
%,
,
(
)
,
9
(%)
. H
,
,
9%
,
1, 9 ,
,
. (3
, .,
D
,
,
3
,
., 2001).
"
,
%
&
* *
0
%
%
&
9
. 3 9
9
&1
,
,
&
%
&
9
(3
,
1996,1999). *
,
1
&
, ,
, 91
9
%
,
9 9
1
,
&,
*
––
––
,
/
& /
(3
,
2000*).
9
**
*
,
91
,
9
, /,
9
9 9 (
0
& &
*
. 3
*
,
,
*
,
9
, ’
9
&,
* ,
9
, & ,
,
– –
(
/), & (
«9 »)
,
-
*
-
(3
, 2002). 3
,
*
&,
1
9 9
.
&
,
&
«
»,
«
», &
&
/
,
9,
&
,
/
,
/
. (3
, 2007
).
+#%)0"0',% !(q,% , $%(%"
’
&,
&
(
%
)
, (&,
,
)
,
/%
. Turner
(
=+
, &
, *)
:
41
«\» &
(\+)
%
(
%
),
*
(%
),
,
&,
,
%*,
%, ,
9
,
&
(.&.,
0 9
&
). (3
, 1990 ,1993).
4 9
%
23
&
9
/
«\» %
«=» &
. $ (
&, 1 400 %)
\\= ( Klinefelter),
&,
, %*,
&
9
(
/
/
9
1
), 1
&
(
, 0 -
’
-
),
9
/
\\\=
\\\\=:
%
. +
\== (1 1000 %)
0 , %,
/% &
/
/ %,
, «* »
,
’
,
,
O9
,
%,
-
9-
, & , ,
(
)
,
(%) %
9,
,
%/
, 0
&
,
% 9
,
,
, %
. (Owen,1972,Hook,1973). $
,
\\\ &
(
%
),
&
,
. + \\\\
\\\\\
%
.
(3
, 1990*, 1993).
&
(3
, 1990*,1993,2004), ,
9,
(
,
*
,
1%
), /
1
9
’ ,
,
% 9
%
/
=. $
&,
%
(
) = &
\,
. =&
\\==
\\\==,
\=/\\=,
9
1
9,
&
(&
% ) \\/\=
. , ,
(
) «
»
(
, &
) «
»
. ,
&, ,
(
-
)
,
, (
)
,
1. $
,
& «
»,
,
%,
9
-/
- «
»
. }
,
sex
, , «
%»
!
, $%'%"
Q 0 (1/40000 %) 9
,
/
L-
%
/%
/
, 1
* 1
9
1
9
,
&
,
/% (
9
9
%
:
PKU), 0 1
%
1
1
(
/
, 1/17000 1
%),
,
9, %
.
*
(
,
9
9* %)
% - 6
1%-
/,
,
, , /
, *
,
,
, 9*%
,
. (3
,1990* ,1993).
(#"/#(%(
,
(
9
0
&
) *
,
9,
9
% 9
%
0, %,
& *
-
*-
9 . 3
%,
%
-9
-
, *&
,
1
(/
%)
,
,
,
,
, %,
9
*
9
.
(3
,1990*,1993,2002).
/'/(,' , % C'%-#*%%)',% #$%(&! %# $'/'%#
9
**
*
(&
),
91
9
,
42
9 9 (Hines ,1982 ,Konishi &Gurney ,1982). 9
1
& (3
, 1990* ,1993).
91
9
,
/
9
9
(Changeux ,1982 ). +
% 9
%
9 –
& – 9
9
(Sullerot ,1978). /
,
,
9
9
1 * ( %
9
’ ,
)
9 *
9
( *
9
),
/ 9 (Lacoste-Utamsing & Holloway ,1982). + 9
9
9 ,
, 1 ’
–
–
(3
,1990
,2007*).
3
,
*
,
&,
1 ..
9 9
(Denenberg,1981, Diamond et al, 1981). + 1
. /
% %,
/,
9
9
9
,
,
’ ,
, ,
,
, ,
0
(Sullerot,1978, Changeux ,1984).
0, ,
,
,
,
9
&,
,
/
, % (Changeux,1984). +
0, ,
%,
/ (Changeux,1986).
/
«
»
(3
,1990
*). D
,
,
,
&%
&
(3 ,1990
*,2004).
,
&
&
1
, ,
0,
(3
,1994).
,
%
&,
,
(3
, 1990
,1993).
,
&% 1%, 1
% (
9), 9
%
9 9
9 (Denenberg ,1981, Diamond et al, 1981). Q,
9 *
,
9
, ,
,
,
9
(3
,2001). + 9
,
1%,
1
9
% 9
% (Sullerot, 1978, Denenberg ,1981,
Diamond et al, 1981). =&
9
/ 9
&
9
(3
,2001). +
9,
&
9
9
, /
(
&
) (9
&
)
’ ,
(3
, 1990
,1993). +
(3
, 2001).
$%
, /
9
* ( )
«
», /
*
«&
/ »
(Konishi &Gurney, 1982, 3
, 2001). + 9
&
9
&
,
(Konishi &Gurney,1982). $
,
* *
9
/
&
, ,
,
&
,
, , ,*
, ’
,
(Inglis &
Lawson ,1981, Inglis et al,1982). + &
&
,
/,
,
9
%&
(3
, 2001). %
1
9,
%
’
,
&
(
0
&)
,
%
%
9
0
&
/
,
/
(
,
,
, …)
%
/
43
&
, ,
,
%
%
&
, %, %
&
*
,
&
%
0 & &
%
,
9
*
9
%
,
,
9
%.
+#', /'(&0C!( $&%+%&'(
H (,
&
) 9,
L
$
(9
$
%). + &
& «»
9
L
,
, ,
,
,
/
9
9
. (3
,1997).
H,
*
«
»
%
,
, , &
* 9
9
,
9
% & -%- «
».
L
(
&
)
1
-
/
-
/
,
9
9,
&
, % &
*
/
.
, ,
9
% 9
(/)
L
. 6’
, «
»
*
/
, 9
, 9
. (3
,1998).
3
9 (
&
9
)
%
L
/
&
9
(
% %
%
9,
% %
% «
»
* . 4 «
»,
%,
*
9
%,
%
/ continuum
/
9
–
. (3
,1990
,1993).
6
, ,
«
»
«
» 9
,
%
,
0, «
» 9
,
«
» & 9. + «
» 9
/
«
» 9. + «
» 9
«
»
,
«
». .(3
, 1997).
6
%
* 9
,
,
, ,
, ’
9
, & ,
,
,
1
,
1
.
«
» ,
9
,
9 (
%
),
&
/
,
,
9
«%
9»
9
.
%, *
–/
,
&1
, 9,
,
–-
1
(
O9
/
% «/
»),
1 %
L
$
&
% /
–9
. (3
, 1998).
«/
»
, ,
9
,
%
,
9
1
1%
*
’
. +
,
&
/
*
,
,
9
%,
% &,
* ,
/
9
,
.
,
*
%
9,
, &
,
44
/
,
&
, 9
&
%
’
%. (3
, 1990
,1993).
+
«
» (
) «
» (), 9
, «%» %,
(
) « » « %»
91
,
9 &%
/
9
).(3
, 1990
, 1993, 1997, 1998). Q&
,
&
,
«
»
% (
& 9
&1
0
&
.
, «
»
,
%
%
,
9
&%
/.
continuum
%
&%. (3
, 1990
,1993, 2005).
'/''0&% %# , %" «1%"»
O9
/
&%
,
9
% % &
*
% 9
%
% 0
&% 1%
1 1%
,
9
. +
&
%
, *
,
1
%
.
%
%
0
9 &
%,
&%
,
&
* *
% &% 9
% % (
9
) /
.
’
&,
*
9
,
%
–
-
/% , ,
,
%
/ (
)
,
% ,
9
%
&/
( Simmonds),
(
%
) ,
* % ,
* %
/ (
/
%
2,5 .),
1
(
)
,
&% 9 %*,
,
%,
% &
,
(
).
9
&
. + 0
&
, ,
*
,
&%
&
,
«/
»
,
%
,
. , **
, &
*
, ,
, *
9
. H
9
,
1
. +
%
(*
,
,
&
),
(
3, 5 – 6, 9 cm3/min,
, -
,
!),
( &
)
/,
,
9
*
&
9%
,
%
:
(
,
,
91
,
,
% *&% ,
)
%
, %
9
,
(
,
)
%
%
/ (
%
/ ,
*
&
, &
,
),
%
,
/
/
45
(
&
,
: &
%
,
9
&,
,
& %
&% . .),
&%
*
(
,
%, %
& – –
)
* 0
&% 1%, ,
&%,
(
,
,
91
/9
*&% (
Basedow),
&,
%,
9
* *),
* %
/
* ,
*
,
&
,
%
,
% (
)
0
&% -9
-
. 4
(
%) 9 & &
,
(
1
*%%
/
&
9
, -
/%
,
%
9 ,
, 9 * ,
%
&
),- %
9
9
,
%
(1)
1% (
%
% ,
%
(
,
, &
. .),-
*
&
,
. .)
,
&
%
: .&.,
1
,
9
/
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
%
% 9
,
%
&
/
,
- -
&1
/
9
%
,
% (
/
/%:
%
/
/ (
&
9)
,
/
%
9
,
%
%
9
,
9
%
,
%
,
/
%
… $
,
9
1
%
%
,
%
&1
9
01
9
% –
. Q
/
9
& 1
/
9
%.
0&0#"',% 0$'#'%
&
%,
9 %
% 9
9
,
9
,
%,
«9
»
,
1
& 9
. + 9
&
9
,
%
*0
&
,
&,
*
––
––
,
/
& /
,
9
,
9
9
9
. 4 «
–
»,
& «
–
». 6
*
continuum 9
46
*
*%
%
09
/
.
$%&'(
4
* & 9
.+
9
& 9
,
%
*0
&
,
&,
*
--
--
,
/
& /
.
&
91
9
/,
9
9 (
0
& &
)
43.046.721
,
,
, 81
,
9
9
9
. 6
*
sexcontinuum *
*%
&
%
, 9
%
9
.
(#$0&(
4
9
(
%
9
9
)
–
– 9
%
,/
,
,
*0
&
.
C'C'%)&+'
1.N ,N. (&.&.), . ` , 9. }. 8
, . «8* %
», 85-
107.
2.Changeux, J. P.(1984), O $ $, . , %
.
3.Changeux, J. P.(1986), O $ $, 9. 8. 6
, G
, 1986, %
.
4.Denenberg, V.H.(1981), Hemispheric laterality in animals and the effects of early experience,
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 1-49.
5.3
, ?. >. (1990), o# ;!
;, >
@ " $ 7 ;
B# F , % M
& %
%
%
, '
.
6.3
, . 8. (1990*), B#
||: / @, . ! ($=/. }
%)
'
, '
, 5-80.
7.3
, . 8. (1993), B#
, . ! ($=/ . !
) '
,
'
, 42-44.
8.3
, . 8. (1994), /
@#
$ - @ @
,
% L
.
9.3
, . 8. (3.9.1995), $& % M
&
-
&1
;,
##
, 3.9,14.
10. 3
, . 8. (30-31-3-1996
),
0
& %
*
9, ##
', 10/
.
11.3
, . 8. (4-5.5.1996*) «%»
«
» % «
%»
«
%»
9; ($*
' &
), ##
', 10.
12.3
, . 8. (1997), 4 «"
»
}
0
& % -}
0
& %
«"
» *
%
* 9, * ,
'
, 8#, 10, & 11-2(43-4), 1, 48-51.
13.3
, . 8. (1998), }
0
& % = «"
» *
0
& %
* 9 (
/% &
9
0
&
%
), * , 8#,
11 (& 13-4 (45-6), 1,56-7).
14. 3
. 8. (1999) «Manly» and «womanly» or «male» and «famale» behavior? (Serious
experimental mistakes in the area of phychological researches concerning phychological assessment),
>
@ " $, 5th European Conference on Psychological Assessment (
)
%
/
M
&
EARLI/Learning and
Instruction.
47
15.3
, . 8. (6.1.2000
), + «
»
%
&
%
, A
?, 10/ 8%
.
16.3
, . 8. (5-11-2000 *), '
% 9
&
,
A
?, 10/ 8%
.
17.3
, . 8 ., D
, }.".,
, L.
.,
3
,
. .(2001
),
'
% 9
&
*0
&
*
, @ 9 @ ;
«;! /
&
» (L
, 30.3-1.4), . %,14,607-11,721-3.18.
18. 3
, .8. (2001*) ,
3
% $%/
, / '! ,6
19.3
, . 8. (14.1.2002), *
9
% %
%
9,
&
, 6/
.
20.3
, . 8. (2004), . , . !($"/. %
%)
'
, '
, 15-9.
21.3
, . 8.,
*
, !. (2005
), 80
& % /
-
/
,
@ 3 @
;
(13-4.5.5) «?,
#, "
: $
(»,
!
9
%
, (
,16), 492-500.
22.3
, . 8.,
*
, !.,
, L.
.,
3
,
. (2005*), 3
&
& *0
& % , >
@ " $ &# $
7 ;
6
6
%
}
«& #-
@
& ! ;
» (
,8-10.4), . 6
&,17.
23.3
, . 8. (2006), M
&
/
, 6
?
, . Q % D
, 24(184), 14-6.
24.3
, . 8. (2007
), 3
& % 3
% / * 9
*0
& % , >
@ " $ & ! ;
«+., ;"
@( &
» (!
, 19-21.10), 9
% 3
4
,
"
, $0
/ $& $& / * %
*
, 13.
25.3
, . 8. (2007*), N
D
% 6
3
% '
6
%, @#
48
2. 3
, . 8. (\
–N/ 1991). M
&
!!:
. Q. ..!. ($=-
[}
%]) '
, '
, 5-15.
3. 3
, . 8. ($*–+* 1993). M
&
. Q. ..!. ($=-[!
%
]) '
, '
, 11-48.
4. 3
, . 8. (N/ 1994).
% M
&
. [Q. ..!. / $3+/%
9
.
%
«& 6
%
3
»
9
.
1x
(D , } , L ), M
& (D 9
–
% –
M
&
/ M
&
, ["% –
%, / % – $& %]
% –
% M
&
), master % – % / % M
&
, . (
9
!=) [ %
0
&
] M
&
% % M
&
,
%
80
&
, $& $*
D } '
, =/%/.3/%
L
grss@dide.lar.sch.gr
(6
&% *0
&
%
, *
D
(%
50. $
% $
0
&
100 9.
% $
. 3
% $
– $
– .)
2
L/
. $& %/. 4664/=, & 6
% 3
,
, edimoula@auth.gr
3
%
"
% D
, 10 "
'
mail@1gym-laris.lar.sch.gr
0#*&'('0(
&
}
". D
(
% $
% 6
%
$& % L
L
) ,
1 +
,
9,
%,
& ,
. 3
(. D 9
, $& $*
D # 9
),
/%
9%
,
$&
$
*
D
% % () '
}. $
'
" '
,
% D
'
D
,
D '
% $,
L '
6
D ()
,
49
9
,
, +
80
&
% Q
,
"
'
, 9 ,
&%
%/
, 8
%
.
* (6
$
%
&
Q
,
&&
&
%
/
$& %
$
..., "% "
"
9
$&.$
*
.'
,grss@dide.lar.sch.gr), $
$. "
(
&
% 9,
3% ". '*
( 9 4664/=,
&
)
,
, , .. +
80
&
% Q
, D% 3. ,
D% }. '
% \.
%
,(
% "
%
% -
&
-
) ,
%
.
50
$!( "'C"%"' %' 0(/&'0( %# #,0'%# /'*0'&'( !"
!" %#( , /'/,', /'/',(' (0&0#")
%
, 8 , kkiour@pel.forthnet.gr, Q
$9
, D , Q
1. 0'()!)
/,
.
$
, " " &%
9% %
% 9
/
%/
1 /
% & &.
',
/
%
, 9
&
& &. Q, «
»
&
%
%.
3. 0%/%(
$
&
% %
:
(
) %
,
%
, ,
0
&
(*) %
%
/
%
& (Griffin, 2002• Mason, 2003•
1%, 2004).
8*
, %
"
"
9
"
%
"
. Q
%
/
*
1
&
9%
(!9 & $
, 2006)
"
&
/, &%
0
(Cohen, & Manion 1994). &
/ 8# / '
,
'
}
.
"
9, &
%
/
(Breakwell, 1999• Casey & Krueger, 2000• Duggleby, 2005• Kitzinger, 1995).
$
,
&
47
/,
&
/. 6
/ 5
,
%
, %
/. +
/ &
.
"
9, & 6 L L
,
%
, *
:
(
)
&
(*)
,
&.
%,
/%
%
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967• Glaser, 1992).
4. 0&0#"', /'/',('
4.1 ( 565
+
/
%
&
&
1% &%
3
&
. +
51
2
%
& &
.
/
,
*%
= 5
,
:
;
+
&
,
1
&
9
1%;
4.2
,
&
/
9
. $
,
%
&
,
% 9:
1 9:
&
&
221 .
2 9: + 221
&
66 ,
:
10. %
, &
3
:
11.
12.
%
13. &
14.
15. &
16.
17. &
&
18. %
19. & /
&
20.
-
52
3
21.
22.
&
23.
24.
25.
26. &
27. *
, & &
*
28.
-
29.
38.
&
39. 1
40.
9
41.
9*
&
42. &
&
%
43.
*
44. /%
9 &
45.
%
46.
/
47.
48.
9
59.
60.
%
%
&
61.
53
4
4.3 ?
,
$ 9
%, &
/% .
& 66
0
&
:
1 ,
5 ,5: (<
8
/5
.
3
:
1. &
&
2.
/ 9%*
3. &
4.
*
5.
6.
9
2 ,
5 ,5: 0
5 ?
56
<= .
3
:
1. %
/
&
2. , %
&
3. 0
&
4.
%
5.
6.
/
"
%
,
&%
,
%0
/
&1
.
%
& 9
L L
,
& &
&% 9%
,
/
/:
"* # #
. @
$ . ".
"? # ! (#
#
. }
$
.".
"~ # .
$
, !
. } $ ! $
."
"&
!
#
#
#
".
5. $%00(
4
%
%
. *%
%
%
/
,
L L
,
%:
(
)
,
(*)
()
.
+
5
%0
/.
,
9
&
%0
/ &
.
54
5
1. +
* 9
'
*
.
2. +
/%
«
»
/.
3. +
1
«/9
»
.
4. + &
/
,
«* » /
.
"
8
0
/ &
&
,
, 9
%
.
1. 8
/.
2.
*
-
.
3.
/
/
% 9
9*
*
.
"
58,
&
%
&
,
.
1. 9
0
&
%
2. +
'
&
9
&
%
.
6. (#$0&(
3
:
(
) 4
%
&
&%
/,
« »
«» (Mezirow
., 2007).
(*) 4 / %
%
1
9
.
7. 0$'%)%(
4
% %
&
9%
%0
/ &
&
.
%0, 9
%
,
&
/,
. 4 %
/ %
/, 91
%
&
,
&
&
% % & %
%
/.
C'C'%)&+'
Breakwell, G. (1999). A (. %
: "
.
Casey, M. A. & Krueger, R. A. (2000). Focus groups. A practical guide for applied. California:
Sage.
Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1994). % #
. %
: 6
&
Duggleby, W. (2005). What About Focus Group Interaction Data? Qualitative health research, 15,
832-840.
Glaser B.G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley: Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
Griffin, C. (2002). Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Applications in Psychology and
Education. Conference organised by The Psychological Society of Northern Greece and the School of
Psychology. Greece: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
!9, L. & $
, 6. (2006). @ $ . % # ##
$. %
: %.
Kitzinger, J. (1995). Qualitative Research: Introducing focus groups. British Medical Journal, 31,
299-302.
Mezirow, J.
(2007). 4
&
1
. %
: 6
&
Mason, J. (2003). A (#$# . %
: "
1%, . (2004).
. 4 *
9%
0
&%
. %
: "
.
55
56
To «»
,
57
58
H 1'%$%'( %# %#( !" !" ( /'/(,' 0
" #$%%)'(', 0*"%%)'
,5, +, sc $0
1o "
6
kaskianak@sch.gr
)
$0&'-
/ $
.
! $! $
#$
# a $
# ( $ $
,
, .
$ ! #$#! #. ; !
#
#
# #
$ #.
$
(
. A
#
. (
#.
. /
#
# #
#$. ($ # #
(#
.
010'(-,0'/' : , , # #
,
/
&
%
&%
/%
. 6
9. 6
,
:
9%
/
&
,
%
,
9
%
%
,
*
&
,
%
9
%
*
.
4
&
& D 9
, M
&
%
/. + $
&
&,
&
%
. + $ 9
. 1 ’
%
59
*
. ’
&
1
*
%
* &
.
$ & 0
&
,
.
,
$
9 ¨ ¨ &
9
’
. ,
,
&
, ’
,
,
. Q,
&
1
&
9
% . 8*
,
9
%
&
%
&
%
%. C,
%
9
&
% ,
.
$ %
Bandura
9,
*
,
9
1
9
%
0
,
. "
Bandura 9
&
,
&
/.
$ "/ %
Piaget, *
,
,
/
9
&. A #.
,
,
#!
#.
$ #
!
. (
(
,
!
#. (G, 2002).
0
%
&
1%
%
. "
"/
&
, ’
9%
0
. 4
Piaget 1
. +
%.
&
9
&
&
*
%
. &
#!
#
#.,
#. " $ ##
$, #
#.
#.. ;’
!
#. $
$
, #
!
#. .(G, 2002).
’
1
9
. L
,
% ’
%
9 ’
1%, /
& %
/.
&
%
%
,
1
, 9
%
9 9 .
9
,
9
9
%
.
Q, !
%
%,
%
%
%
, %
&
1
9 ¨
% *¨.
60
. ,
1
%
&
&
9
. $&
/ %
,
*
%
&
¨
¨
¨
¨. , **
,
/ %
9
*
/ /
%
%
%
%
.
6
/
*
$ &1
& L
, 3
%.
, %
%,
%
,
*
9%
1%
,
/
%
,
,
& &
9%
. 4 % –
%
%,
1
+ 2 , *
% 0
.
4
% &
"/ %
9
.
,
%
% 0
%
. 4
%
%
&*
,
&
&%
9
. 4
,
%
/%
,
,
,
/ 0
9
%
.
2
&
Popper ,
‘
%’,
0
&
%
,
%
.
61
%/
,
.
$
,
% &
&
(Cook &Ralston, 2005)
/
9
, 9
,
, , &
*
,
%/
%, %
&% ,
%/
% ,
/
% (
).
H
%
&
*
%
/
. +
% *
, &1
,
9
1
/%
. 1
,
9.
0&0#"
$
1
&%
.
9
9
&%
% &
&
% "
9
!
&
\. H &%
%
&%
%
# "
.
1
!
&
"
(+
).
9
%
1
*
9%
&%
. 6
&1
. $
9
(case study),
9
(Strauss, 1987, 8lichfeldt &Andersen, 2006)
$
%
, ,
«+
».
,
9
% &
(
, 2002). *
9
&
62
9
&
&
&
&
($&%
1).
. + %
/
9
* ,
% ($&%
2)
&
1
/
%
+
.
(< 2 : «4
%»
"
% &% &%
9
* .
63
$
%
/
&
/
. 4
% / %
&
O
/ % 0 (6
,
2004),
* 9
% , ,
,
*
% . +
/
,
*
%
9
.
$
1
,
&1
/
.
Q
9
% / %
/
/% (
, 2004). 4
% /
*
(metacognitive knowledge),
%
&
/,
,
,
* ,
&, %
*
,
&
,
0,
9, %
*
%
&
(6
, 2004).
4
% /
%
. 4
9
&
* ,
-
(6
, 2004).
64
+
&
,
(«&.
»). 4
/
* 9
9
1
/
&
(«%2:
, (
»). +
,
. $
%
% %
%
,
% 0.
"&%+%/%(
4
9 (feedback)
*
%
%
.
+
*
«
»
%,
&
9. +
/1
9
%
&
. 4
%
.
%
($&
+
)
• %3: «
»
• %2: , .
• %1: &
«
»..... «
» $ .
• %3: "
«
»
• %2: #, ,
.
• %3: $%,
«
»,
«
» ,
.
$
9
%
9
%
. 4
9
*. Q % / «» 9
0$'%) (&)',!"
4 %
%
&%
9. +
&%
&
.
%
("
+
)
• %3: &,
% '
.....
• %1: $ #. ;
• %2: .
• %3: (
)
% *
, %
, . #
! .
• %2: @;
• %1: %$
,
!.
• %3:
• %2: +,
!, - %
.
;
}...
• %3: }, ;
-@ #"$ ;
$
(63: ?
65
/
&. Q
&
/%
*
%, 9
% 0
&
( , 2002).
9 %
/
/%. G1
/
& &
. 3
9
.
*
*
&%
*
.
&% 1
%
,
%
,
&
* ,
9
. 1
&
,
%
&
.
9%
&
«/
» (Mercer, 1996). /
&
. 8
1
.
+
% /
9
*
9
*
9
. 6
%
/
. Q
9
% 0.
/
%
&%
1
9%
/
9 &
/ % 0
% ..
C'C'%)&+'
&, $. }. (2002). "
&
. & . & .
$, 7, . 7-18
Blichfeldt,B.S. & Andersen, J.R.(2006). Creating a Wider Audience for Action Research:
Learning from Case Study Research . Journal of Research Practice, 2 (1). 3
http://jrp.icaap.org/content/v2.1/blichfeldt.html (
18/7/2006)
Cook, D. & Ralston, J. (2005). Building the Cognitive Bridge: Children, Information
66
Technology and Thinking. Education and Information Technologies, 10(3), pp.207-223
3
, .". (2001). &#$# % #
&
F (3 .).
%
: Q
, .(2002). +$ B#
, +$
&
@(, . 3#. %
: &..
, D. (2004). $&
#
. %
:
, \. (2002). 4
/
9 &#
@
, @#$# (
;!# / #
# % (( & @ (.
,
\., 3
, .). %
:
, .233-254
6
, 4. (2004). A
#., &
$ ; &#
, (2 .). %
:"
6ercer, N. (1996).The Quality of Talk in Children’s Collaborative Activity in the Classroom.
Learning and Instruction, 6 (4), pp.359-377
Russel, B. (1912). The problems of philosophy. Oxford: University Press
Pierce, C. S., The fixation of belief, P.P. Weiner (ed.), Selected Writings, 1958/ 1877
G, 6.(2002). / $
.
. %
.:
Gutenberg
D
, 6.-. (2001). %
. >
(
#$
. . ’:;
B#
.
%
:
6
, . (2002). B#
. %
:
, 6. (1999). A (# $ $
.. %,
,
,. %
: "
Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists. Cambridge: University Press
67
1'%$%'( "#(( !" )&$%# ,' $&%+%&',%# %)%# )'
%" (*0/'(% 0,$'/0#',!" 0&)0'!" )!((',(
0*"%%)'(: % 0&)% «0-%)%»
"
6
*, \
D
*, $
&
"*, &
+,
3
+ , D
"
+
1. 0
$
1
%
«- :
% 9
».
%
&
«
9
»,
/ «/
, &
"
»
9,
Exodus ..,
!
/
'
/ .. «» (!')
% Q
().
%
/
/
9
&
/%
%
/
% %
//
.
,
&
:
)
&
9
-
*)
&
/ 9
9
% &
% (
).
,
*
%
,
9 &:
9
%
*
9
% /
.
2. #5<
4
%
1
%
* %
/ % &
*
-,
. $
*
%
%
&
%
%
. +
&
«
9
%»
%
.
&
9
,
9
,
&
&
9
%
,
&
9 . C,
9
&
&
&
&
9
,
9
%
.
&
,
&
9 ,
1
9 , 1
9
, .&.
9
9
* !
.
. 3
&
&
9
(* .
Vandeventer 2001, Schneider & McCoy 1998, Hashemi 2001),
&
&
%
.
68
$ ,
9 9 ,
%
1
9
,
9
/
.
$ 9
,
%
99
%
% &
%
9
9
.
4 9% , ,
%
1
%
%
1
(Baynham
2000: 224-226). $ , 9
,
%
9 % % 9
&
.
% 9
1
% /
&% (Celce-Murcia et al. 1996)
%
/
%
/
(\
.
. 2002: 200).
9
/
%
//
9/9
%
.
’
,
9
-
*
3.
%
0
«-
». 8
% %
&%
%
%
&
9
. 4
69
C / 9
, &
9
3,
&
%
9%
,
& %
&,
o o
. Q, &
3 /, 8’, "’
$’, &
9
(
*
).
4
%
%
"
(«$9
"9»)
. +
&
. , 1%
9
*
&
%
%
(
, &
,
,
9).
. $
8’
$’ /,
/
(%
9%),
"’
(
9%).
4.2. ('
*
'*' ' '
4
3
&
3
:
9
, 9
/. $
,
%
:
x 556: , /,
*,
0 /
%,
0 %
9
x 56:
9
«%
9
»
%
(
9%
)
x =
?:
9
&
*
&
9
/
"
9
,
*
«»
. Q
%
*
1
1.
$
$
9
'
%
$
0
$
9
'
%
$
'
% #
#
$
$&
/i/
'
%
$
$&
/e/
'
%
$
$
$&
//
'
%
$
0
(!
$
1. 8
<
70
4.3. + *
&%
,
1
3
%
.
% /
9
9
9
. Q
&
9
9 9
, &
/.
,
9
9 &%
9,
49% /
9
9
9
9
, .&.
. +
9
9 /i/ (, ,
, , ), /e/ (,
)
/o/ (, )
% % &
3. 6 13% &
9
9
/i/, 33%
%
9%
/o/.
9
, &
0 ,
%
9%
/e/. ,
(54%)
9
, 11%
/
.
D
&
«%
9
»,
9
9
*%
9 .
$
9
9
9
,
,
&
%
,
9
8’
"’ /
&
.
8’ / %
249 /
"’ / 277 /. 4 %
%
9
« »
9
&
/ 9
9
* /. $
,
%
/ 9
:
x 9: /i/ - /j/ (.&. ), /b/ - /mb/ (.&.
), /n/ - /¹/ (.&. )
x 39,
9: &
,
,
71
x 9
0: ‘ #, ’ ’ #
x
* /: ,
!.
5.2. ('
*
'*'
'
+
9
%
.
&1
(
& /
3 &
)
9
%
9
9
/%
.
4
9
/.
3 /
&
&
9 /
( , 0
9
), &
9
%
. 4
/
&
%
*
%
%
,
*
. ,
9
*
9
/ % 9
*
%
0. ,
/
&
(,
. .).
"
9%
9
&%
. $ &%
*
/%
:
, D% (,
& % ), $9 (,
& % ),
$
9
, $
9, $
*%
'/. $
«%»
, 9
:
' %
5 * YLWV&D# YLWVLD#
9
+
5<
9% /
9
HNVDIDQLVWX#Q NVDIDQLVWX#Q
+
' % 9/ VIL#5LNVH VIL#5LNVD
(=6
%
DQL#uD
R DQL#MDOR
5 9
(6
' 9
GG5HSR#WDQ WW5H#SRWDQ
=
(
' 9
D#LGH H#GH
6
8
9
$
2. 0
<
565=
/
3 &
.
$
9
9%
9
(
,
&%
/). 22%
9
9%
9
20%
9%
9.
Q
&
9
9 / (17,26%).
9
9% /
%
.
&
9 9%
9
(8%
)
9
(3,67%). ,
*%
1,59%. + &
,
’
&
&
& 9
1
.
72
4
% 09
&
*% /, .&. / "
SVHH#Y'D.
&
% /, .&. 9 .
$!
VSLW&R#QWX
VSLW&R#QWX#[RUMX#
6
9
9
9%
9
9
1
/.
9
%
&
9%
– 9%
, .&. /
LSHH#5[XQ
%
9
*
*
9%
,
/
NDURWVLLH#ULV
/NDURWV& &H#ULV/.
$
0
9
9
9% /
&
9
9
/o/,
9
&
0, .&. 9 ’ ’ #
DSRR#WRR#DY
R#. Q
/
,
,
9
& 9% /
,
&
.
$ ,
9
9 9,
&%
9%
, .&. /
7D#ODVD
9%
9
9
. 6
,
VW
[7,
%
9%
9
, , , .&. /
WUH#SRWDQ
GG5HSR#WDQ.
, / 9%
% 9:
9 (/ai/, /ei/, /oi/), 9
(
=/e/, , =/i/,
=/u/)
%
9 (/ea/, /ia/ . .).
9
9 9
9
/ai/, .&. /
HH#GH,
,
.
%
9
1
9
/a/, /e/
/o/ % /a/, .&. /
H#NOHHQDQ.
&
9
)
%
,
9
(,
9
, 9
,
/).
73
&%
&
} "2
4
:
x
=,
*
*%,
(
*
(.&. *
).
x 6
/ &
,
9%
,
9
, ,
.
x 556,
9%
9%
, %
9%
,
9%
&%
&
%.
x 56,
%
&1
9
}
9
1
/
9
.
,
1
%
&
} "2.
$
,
(38,61%) &1
&%
,
: 1 (>
1), % %
9%
(.&.
,
). 4
1
/ &%
%
&
&
%
.
9
/
(29,11%).
9
9
:
- : *
... (> 4
..)
-;
$
$ $ $
: *+
> *
-;
$
$ $ $ #: *
9 > Q
9
-;
$
$ $ $ .: *
>
-;
$
$ $ $ $: *
>
9
23,73%
.
* % %
:
- #
: *
9 (>
9)
-'
# #
%
9
%
(
9
9
/i/, /e/, // ) &%
9%
: *9 (>9)
-@ #
: *
(>
)
-` ##. $: & 9 ( 5,33%
9
)
9
&%
«
»
%
,
9
/,
/,
%
*
&
% /.
: *
radio (>
9), * + " &
(=
), * 9u
(>9
).
+
9
&
8,54%
*
. 3
&
}
9
%
%
,
9
0 .
, ,
,
-
-
1
%
%
%
1
*
9 (.&.
&
,
%
% . .). $
, 9
74
9
1
%.
:
- (
: * (> )
- #
: *
(>
Q )
&
: % ,
&
} "2,
9
.
7.2. ('
$
,
"2
&% / /
*
:
(
)
9
&
/ 9
9 -
1
&
%
/
&
%
9
*%
(*) 9
9
9
%
* %
"1 ( . %
%) "2 (%,
%)
() (
%
&
&
)
$
9
(
% 9)
&
. "
,
%
9% /
&
&%
.
,
9%
9
.
+ 26 /
9
*
&
&
& 9
9
9
%
( %-
%)
1
9
% -
&
.
, /
9
1
&
9
/p/, /t/
/k/
&% % /
9%. 4
* /
&1
9
/ks/
/ts/.
+
*
&
9
%
9
}
9
9%
%
(
9 *
).
"
9%
9
*
9
&%
/% :
x 3
&
&% /
x 3
& /
x +
/ts/
&% /
75
x +
/ts/ /
x +%
/ks/
&% /
x +%
/ks/ /
"
* %
«}
»
«H&»,
&
9%
% &.
%
&
9
, 9%
9% &
&
* .
/ tƌ /. .&. /tƌŝkaƂŝu/
/tsokaro/, /tƌatƌaƂa/
/tsatsara/.
). +
5 6
= 8 /ks/,
9
% </> (.&. /) <> (.&.
). $
%
9
9
(.&. /æksųd¢nt/,/ųksaųtųd/, /ųkskluɏd/),
&% /. 4
9
%
9
%
%
%
%
/ks/
9
/z/
%
9: /zenŝs/
/ksenos/, /zana/
/ksana/.
L
**
1
9
}
9
9
&
,
0
9
9
%
. "
,
%
0
9 &%
9
%
. 6
%
,
**
1
9
%
}
% 9 (
&
) /.
+ &
&
*,
%
*
%
9%
/,
&
% },
&
%,
9
%
} /
.
8. (5
/%
:
&
&
9
,
*
9
/
. 3
76
&
. L
9
&
1
&
9 ,
%
9
9
,
& 9
1
3
% "2. "
, 9
*
*/
1
9
/
&
9
*1
.
&
9
, &
&
9 / %
1
9 %
9%
&
.
9
%
%
& 9 9%
,
*
& 9
%.
,
*
%
,
*%
9
3
%
&
/
9
9, *
%
9
/
9
9
%
%
/
,
&
/.
9. C568
658
Baynham, M. (2002). @ +
!.(9. 6.
). %
: 6
&.
Celce-Murcia, 6., Brinton, D. M. & Goodwin, J. M. (1996), Teaching Pronunciation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Eskenazy, 6. (1999). Using automatic speech processing for foreign language pronunciation
tutoring: some issues and a prototype. Language Learning and Technology, 2(2), 62-76.
Hashemi, S. S. (2001). Detecting grammar errors in children’s writing: A finite state approach. In
Proceedings of the 13th Nordic Conference in Computational Linguistics (Nodalida-01).
Hauptmann, A. G., Chase, L. L. & Mostow, J. (1993). Speech Recognition Applied to Reading
Assistance for Children: A Baseline Language Model. $ Proceedings of the 3rd European
Conference on Speech Communication and Technology (EUROSPEECH93), 2255-2258, 8 .
Project LISTEN. (&..). Project LISTEN. A reading tutor that listens.
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~listen/ ((
*
30 +*
2008).
Schneider, D. & McCoy, K. (1998). Recognizing syntactic errors in the writing of second language
learners. In Proceedings of Coling-ACL’98, 1198 – 1204, Montreal.
Vandeventer, A. (2001). Creating a grammar checker for CALL by constraint relaxation: a
feasibility study. ReCALL, 13(1), 110–120.
\
, D., $
&
, "., 6
, $.,
, ". (2002).
9
&
9%
/
. $ .
3
(.), @ 3 @ ;
;
* / #
@
&$
&
, ’, 198-206. G.
77
« 0$',%'"!"', ',"% (" ,"%( )&$%# %)%#:
' $%'%', $&%(0))'(»
"
*
=0%9
% !
e-mail: me01095@cc.uoi.gr
garavelask@yahoo.gr
%
%
.
/
&
-
9
/
&
%
%
. $ 9%
/ ,
,
,
*
%
, -,
,
/
.
%
,
/1
9
,
1. 4
, 9
,
9
,
,
,
%,
,
/1
,
&
«
9
1
»
*
9
,
1
,
/ /
.2
9
0
. + %, &
&,
/-
9
.
9
%
/
.
%/
9
9
1
.
/&
&
9%
Dell Hymes %
% %
1
9
. "
0
, Hymes & / SPEAKING
.
:
% /
,
%
9
&,
&
&
’
%.
A: Acts: + /
9
% 9%
&
,
( / – 9 &
, &
).
K: Key: 6 ’’ ’’ 9
%
%
.
6
%
, 9 , *
,
,
.. ..
I: Instrumentalities: 6
9
,
%
,
(&
,
, %,
), 9%
%
.
N: Norms: Hymes
* 9
.
9
,
.
1
8 & Gumperz, J.J. 1972
Halliday, M.A.K. 1978.
2
, 2002, . 66.
3
H&
.
78 1
G: Genre:
9
9%,
, %, , & ,
, 9 .
. H
&
9 &
% %
/
.
SPEAKING
Hymes
1
‘‘
’’. "
& &1
*
0
%
9
.
4
/%&
& 2004-05
2005-06 &
,
(L
,
1.000.000
),
–
100.000
(!
),
9
&
&
&
5.000
(
!
). 3
& %
%/
&,
9
&%
( #
)
&
/
%
4
, &
/ ,
H %
%
%
*
%
9
&%
%
,
*
9
/
6.
%
&%
:
4
4
PISA
%
&
%
+
+% $
/ (+.+.$..) $’
% *
%
/
9
*
&
,
.. ..
5
%
4,10,14,16,20,22,25
/
&
9
9% 1 9.
6
$
%
14 %
0, *
% ,
/ 9
’
/&%
9.
2
79
20) & !
#" ,
!
$
, # ;
22) @ !
# #;
# !
" !
25) F #$
$
# #
#.. &! !
.
;
# !
!
$%00(
1
,
%
&
%
1,
%
&
%
.
% 4, 20
%
&
1
’
% &%
. 6
%
%
Q
&
/1
0&
*
&
&
&
%
&
/
. 6
% /%
9
&
9
&
/
9%
’
(.&.
).
\
%
4
7:
39: «L
&
*
*
*
%
9
& &
.»
43: «$&
/
9
&
% &
.»
50: «L
/
*%
. L
%
/
9 .»
56: «+ &
:
0
*
9 &
*
. H
%
.»
100: «
%
&
&
&
1.»
110: «+ &
&
»
117: « & &
%
9
&
1
’
.»
2: «}
& +
&%
.»
47: «}
&
0
.»
50: «H
&
* .»
54: «}
/ &
.
61: «
*
- *
&
7
%
1
&
%
.
80 3
9
»
66: «+
% &% &
/
&
9
9 « &
…»
&
9
&
&1
&
. 9
*
%
%
9
(.&. ).
&
&.
3 &
%
&
/,
.
&
9
&
%
9
1 /. \
%
4
/%:
166: «+
&
*1
&%
.»
171: «4 0
1
&
.»
194: «+ &
/
%
% \
&.
239: «4
&
»
282: «=& 0 /
%
%
& .»
305: «+ &
&
&%
9
1
% &% %
.»
336: «+ &
»
10
& 1
9
/ - 9
& (
%). +
%
/
&
,
.
4
81
4
’
* /
/ , /
9
%
% &
&,
%. \
%
:
116: «&
9,
%
9%.»
128: «1) +
&
. 2)
%.»
174: « %
%, 9
9.»
178: «&
9,
%
9%,
.»
183: «9.»
194: « %&
,
&
.»
196: «
, &
,
9,
%,
,
,
&
,
,
,
,
,
»8
210: «
%, &
»
6
9
/
. $’
9
/
9
%
9
9
/. \
%
:
124: «
&
/
% %.»
154: «
&
%
9% &
%
%
%.»
167: «1.
1
&
% %.
2.
%&.»9
187: «4
& %
&
.»
190: «$
&
%
9% &
%
%»
211: «+ 9
%
« /
9
*
9
1
&
% %,
%&
,
&
,
*
%&
.»
217: « /’
9
*
9».
«
%
&% &
»
222: « /
9
*
9.»
4
*
9
/
/
/ , /
%
9
&
%.
%
/%:
108: «
&
,
»
216: «+ /
*
:
,
, &
,
. . 25,
%»10
220: «
,
&
,
,
%»11
8
$
*
/
%
’
%
.
/%:
9
,
,
.
9
$
*
9 ’’
%&’’
&1
.
1
%.
10
$
*
/ ‘‘&
,
%’’
&1
.
1
%.
82 5
231: «
%
241: « »
272: «3
»
312: «
&
,
»
352: «
»
16
!
9
1
16
%,
9
%
0
%
*
,
&,
9
*
1
.
:
31: «3
*
.»
32: «3
*
* .»
48: «\ **
,
,
%,
09
3% %
»
65: «3
*
»
70: «+ &
/
9
%
. L
%
9*
.»
113: «"
9 *
09
&
**
,
.»
196: «
* /
091
.»
200: «
1
09
%.»
=%/
&
*
9
1
. $’
% 9
9
1
. \
.
%
091
& ** ,
091
*
.
.»
*
*
.
0
1%
11
H
4
*
/ ‘‘
%’’.
6
83
&
12
/
%
9
172
13.
&
%:
4: «+
* &
&
&
%
.
9
,
09
.»
10: «=
1
&
,
&
091
,
& 9
.»
26: «
0%
, 9
%
&
&
%
/
& 3 &
.»
30: «
0%
, 9
.»
39: «1
&
091
1
0%
9
3 %
&
%
/.»
49: «$
9
9
09.»
62: «'
&%
0
9
.»
376: «6
»
% 22,25
%
%
&
1
&
/
,
9
(22)
/
,
(25)
.
9
*
. 4
%
%
%.
572
, 366 22
376 25
. 6
%
% &
%
&
% 09
%:
- $
&1
9
(.&. 9
,
9 , 9
9%
,
1
%
9% .. .).
- $
*
1
(.&.
% &,
,
9
% & .. .).
$’
%
&
%
%
( 22)
9
% ,
%
.
25
, 9
9
. H
9 &
%
9
&
1
%
.
%
&
22
:
12
Q
*%
*%
.
13
Q
*%
171 *%
.
14
&
&
%
.
84 7
17: «
9
2
.»
29: «
1
.»
38: «
9
.»
39: «
9
&
&
%
.»
50: « 2
.»
52: «
9.»
54: «
&
9.»
55: «
9
*
.»
79: «
&
.»
80: «
.»
%
25
9
:
79: « 2
&
&
.»
80: «
.»
91: «
9%.»
92: «
9
.»
93: «
1
&.»
99: «
1
&.»
103: «
.»
106: « 2
.»
109: «
% »
112: «
9%
.»
+
%
22 &
:
117: «}1
%
&
&
Q
9
.»
182: « 2. 3
.»
188: «
2
& %
.»
193: «
. $1 0
%
1
*
% %.»
195: «
.»
200: « 2
&
.
245:
9
.»
249: «
1
&
«/
0» %
&
.»
8
85
271: « 1
1
&
.»
301: «
.»
357: «
% 9
.»
421: «
&
.»
433: «
%
9
.»
438: «
%
9
.»
440: «
.
& 1
.»
454: «
.»
517: «
9
G&
%
.»
(#$0&(
4
9
1
.
1. &
&
&.
/%
:
x &
9
&
/
,
9%
’
/
(.&.
).
x 3 &
%
&
/,
.
&
9
&
%
9
1 / %
%
.
2. H
9 /
%
1
/
/
9 & (
%).
3. +
%
09
*
&
&
&
&.
/%:
x
*
&,
9
*
1
.
x
1
.
x =%/
1
, &
.
4. 3
9:
x
1.
x 3 &
9%
9
.
C'C'%)&+'
1. "*, A. (1999). H
%
*
:
&
* %. " Y %, 1, 57-76. (www.Komvos.edu.gr.)
2. Gumperz, J.J. (1972). The Ethnography of Communication. Introduction. New York: Holt
Rinehart and Winston.
3. Gumperz, J.J. and Hymes, D. (1972). Direction in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of
communication. New York.
4. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and
meaning. London: E. Arnold.
86 9
5. Hymes, D. (1972a). On communicative competence. In Pride, J. B. and Holmes, J. (Eds).
Sociolinguistics: Selected readings (pp. 269-293). Baltimore: Penguin.
6.
, 8. (2002). "
,
%
,
,
%
.
10
87
""
)
3 "
"
, %
D
%
1. ,
«»
4
«&
9
&
*
. ,
%
, «
%
» ("
&
" 1999: 22),
*
. +
*
,
9,
, 9
& %
,
1
*
%
%
,
, , %
.&. 9%
%
/% %.
,
« » %
%
%
%,
* %
,
,
/ %
,
/
%
9
&
.
1
&%
9 % 9
,
&
,
* %
*
. Q,
/
&
&
,
%
,
&
,
9
%
*
.
"’
/
9
%
,
« »
,
9
%
% 1
. C, /
,
*
%
,
& "
/ *
9
&
%
/
/ .
$
%
*
*
"
1
*
%
. 4
/%&
«
6
»
3
% %
(
..
), &
9%
9
&
%
*
/
"
9
&
9
& % %
.
' 0 &
&%
1
%
,
* %
9,
,
% .
2. $5
65
+ &
9 1
&,
9
9
.&. -,
&
. $
% 1
, 9
&
&
&
(.&. ----
),
, . . $
,
&
&
9
&
9
&
.
88
<t>
,
.
!
!
. "
(
'
)
#
. [19-$-]
+
9
&
.&.
9
9 9
: «+
9%
& ...»,
9. ,
&
1
(«
»),
9
(«
,
, 9
, »)
%
0
(«
,
,
»). , &%
, . . «,
&,
, , »
1 9
, .&. « &
&, %
%
...».
H
,
1
* %
9
9. +
,
,
9
1
* %
9 (.&.
) & 9
9,
&%
9.
39
%
%
* %
. "
&
%
1% &
&:
.
!!
!, !
!. #
!: (4)
_________ ! $ ! 750
.".
"
, (1)
9 (
)
&
9 (/ ) &% . H
,
&
1.
3. $5 =
&
%
(Haliday &
Hasan 1976)
*
!
!. $
,
&
,
,
/, 9 % (.&. , , ).
,
%
%
(.&.
, ,
, ),
(.&. ...,
...). $
,
/
%
%
&
/
9
1
. 6 &%
9 9
&
&
&
(.&. &
, &,
.).
&
, «
&
/ – -
89
*
%
» ("
& " 1999:
127).
H
9
%,
%
,
1
%
&%
. $
%
,
&
.
. $ !
#
#
!
. 0
,
. 2
!
+
. </p> … <p> 3
#
, !
,
#
. </t> [19--]
<t> $
#
#
!
4
#
4
.
. [19--]
$
* %
*
&
% ,
9
9
&.
&
,
,
1
9&
0 &% . +
&
, 1 %
,
. + 9
% &
%, /
&
&
. 4
,
:
$, (
), #’ (
),
,
(%), (
).
4
*
(* . Grabe & Kaplan 1996: 335). 4
%
& *
%
1
,
9
.
&
1
* %
.
4 *
%
*%
*
. ,
&
%
%
%
&
9
. $
9,
9
&
,
&
/ &
*%
.
90
%.. & ' ! $
!
. ............................. *!
! !'
!
!+
. .........................
4. $5 5
=
+ &
0
%
1
%
,
%
%
,
("
& " 1999: 53 ./.). 4
1
&
%
*
&
9
,
&
9%
%
,
9
%
%
. ,
\
& \
1
** (1997: 115),
&
&, ,
9%
. 4
%
9
*
1
«9
%» /
%
9% %
& %
*
9
.
C,
0
9
,
1
**
9
(Martin
& Rothery 1986, Martin 1989),
*
9
9
% %
%
/
. Q,
*
% &
9
&
/
.
$
,
&1
9
9
, &
% &
*
1
9.
91
$
9
&%
*
9
( / :
,
%
. .)
% /
*
9
% &
(.&.
9
(/ #,
(! $ . .).
<t> 2
+
,
#
,
,
'
!
. </p> <p> 2
. "
+ . 2'
:
, …
, … </p> <p> 8
… </p> <p> !
+
4 0 / *
* 9
9
1
,
/ ,
:
-
%
&
, 9%
1%
-
9
- &%
: .&. %: # -
#,
-
#,
&1 9:
#"$, #
$ ;
!
‘%
%’
: «
! $
…», «F
#
#
(
…» %
9 : «;
!
, #.», «?
# #
"
# #!». $
9
&
*%
*
&
’
1
/
9
/
&
.
/
* %
*
,
1
&
* %
,
9
. 8
&
9
%
9
, *
9
,
9
%,
9% % &
%
. 4
9
*
9%
9
. ,
9%
&
/ 9
& 0 /
*
9
. $
9%
&
&
.
% %
.
9
%
*
9
& (Martin & Rothery 1986). 6
&
*
9
* .
&%
/
/
9%
%
*
. "’
92
&
*
*
,
9
%0,
/%, &%
,
,
%,
, 0, ,
,
. .
4 / 9
/%
&
9 &
(\
& \
1
** 1997:
68). +
%
*
&
(Johnson 1983). "
,
1
9
,
9
&
.&.
%
. . D
,
%
%
/ *
%
. $ ,
*
% & % 9%
&
.
,
&%
9
1 %
. Q
*
%
%
9
%
9
(* . Grabe & Kaplan 1996: 320).
*
&% %
1
%%
,
&
9
%
1
%. 4
1%
1%
&
&1
.
4 &% &
*
- ,
,
. .
/ &
(* .
$
2004: 192 ./.). ,
/
% %
,
% /
*,
9 . .
&
.
5. $5
+
%
1
&
/
(
9
)
(
). +
%
%
%
! (Kirby & Kantor 1983),
*
%
0
%
9
(
)
. $
/
,
*
%,
%
%
9
&%
1
1
*
. "’
&
9 (.&.
&1
9 : «* #
…» % «&#.
$.
#
…»). 4
9
/
9
9
,
%
&
9
, «
1
»
9
9
<t>
4
#
…
…
93
,
!
#
?
4 . </p> <p> *
</t> [19-$-]
$
&
. $
%
,
/
% %: « .…», «
…», «.$ $
#
#. $
. .» 9
,
9
-*
,
9
9
1 * %
&
: .&.
!
- . .
,
*
9
%: #. #, $ #. .,
…% :
; $
& 9
1
9
: $,
$ .
,
$
;,
( ,
!$ . ,
. $
/
%
9
*
: «+’
…», «+’
$!
…».
1
*
,
,
, 9,
9
, "/ " 9
,
&
:
- «&#. .
# ...», «&
»
- «? " #.»,
- « . . », «"
», « ( ;»
- «/
.
, .
!...»
- « !$ $», « !»
- «A . $ .
...»,
- «+’ !
# ...»
*
&%
%
9
, (/)
. +
%
&
9
9%
9
9
*
(
, %, & ),
( &
, ) (Grabe
& Kaplan 1996: 4). 4
0
,
,
&
9
/
%,
&1
0
(Grabe & Kaplan 1996: 241). 4
9
,
/
/
*
*%
/
%
0
.
6. j
?
«
»
&
% % ,
* %
9
% ,
%
9
9
,
&,
/
*
9
%
&
. $
*
% ,
/
, 0
/
*
9
%
&
. 6 *
,
9
/
,
/
*
9
/.
4
9%
%
9
%
, *
*
* %
. +
94
9
9% 9
1
&1
&
.
,
/
*
9
. ,
/ *
9
9
,
* %
%
(.&. / , %
,
9
. .).
"
/%
*
%
, %
, %
%
. $9
9%
9
&
%
.. (
),
1
/%:
x %
:
%
&
%,
& /
9 9
9
x %
:
%
/
%
&
,
%,
%
/
:
95
%
%
%
& *
*
/
%
&
%
%. & *
/
%
,
& &
.
,
%
%
,
&%
*
%
.
"
,
* %
%
% *
%
. ! 1
9% $
,
& *
&
&
%
.
9
,
, %
/%
&
& %
*
. 4 % 9
, ,
1 &
%
.
1
&
&%
& 0
,
&% % 9 (
* /
9)
. ,
9
&
,
*
&
%
9 9
&%
.
C56
, ., 8
, $., ", 3. & 6
-+9
. (
). 4
/
"
. @ 3 !
;
#
& $ +., @
., 22-23
*$
2004.
"
, . & ", 3. (1999). ?
&$
. %
: "
.
L9
-, 3. (2001). «' &%
: %
% ;». $ \,
". 4. (.)
! # #.. %
:
, 53-61.
$
, !. (2004). @
#$# #! # .
. %
:
"
.
\
, . & \
1
**, $. (1997).
# #..
L
:
.
Grabe, W. & Kaplan, R. (1996). Theory and Practice of Writing. An Applied Linguistic Perspective.
London: Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1976).Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Johnson, K. (1983). Communicative writing practice and Aristotelian rhetoric. $ Freedman, A.,
Pringle, I. & Yalden, J. (.) Learning to Write: First Language/Second Language. London: Longman.
247-257.
Kirby, D. R. & Kantor, K. J. (1983). Toward a theory of developmental rhetoric. $ Freedman, A.,
Pringle, I. & Yalden, J. (.) Learning to Write: First Language/Second Language. London: Longman.
87-97.
Martin, J. R. (1989). Factual Writing. Exploring and Challenging Social Reality. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Martin, J. R. & Rothery, J. (1986). What a functional approach to the writing task can show teachers
about ‘good writing’. $ Couture, B. (.) (1986). Functional Approaches to Writing. Research
Perspectives. London: Pinter. 241-265.
96
0$010&)(' %# $&)%0"%# ',%# $%#&%$',%# %)%# !(
0)"!(', 0$',%'"!"', /'/',('
}
"
'*'
%
0
,
&
% *
& % /,
3 &
,
%/
#
-
9
. ,
&
&
%
,
&
,
,
&%
9
.
*
-
«
»: , , %
,
9,
&
1
9. -
,
&
-
&
,
&
-
9%.
% &
*
1
-
,
%
/
.
-
%
,
& %
,
. ..,
9
*
,
&
.
$%
,
**
, &
9
%
%
[1]. H %
-
9
%
. L
0
%
*
.
&
&
9
-
%
/
.
8
'
"
%
/
% &%
&1
%
&
,
,
1
%
& -
,
%
%
% /.
4
1
*
&%
,
-
(modes), &
.
9-
9 9 9
&,
, / %
&
. \
%
9
+
“Ut
pictura, poesis”
Ars Poetica [2]. }
%
& & %
-
1%
,
/
&
20
. ..
[3].
R. Barthes
6. Foucault
0
*
corpus
(Barthes, R., 1999, 2001· Foucault M., 2008).
$
&
&1
% -
G. Kress, *%
-
1 97
&
&
9 %
9%
-
.
*
&
%
. 9 &%
-
.
1
&
%
&%
. Q 9
&
9%
%
.
H 1%
&1
-
/%. "
.
&
/%
(Bernstein, B.,
1989· 8aynham, M., 2002· 6
4., 2006·
, 6., 1997).
*
/
&
/
-
.
4
&1
% 0
8'
– 9'
'
&
&
/%
«
»,
&
9
%
%
.
1980 ..
+ «
»
%
,
9
,
&
98 2
9
(Cope, B. – Kalantzis, M., 2000). 6
-
(
/
%
),
,
$ (
-
*
)
(&%
-
*
), «
» &
%
,
,
*
%
%
%
.
%
-
% 9
%
&
-
.
&
..L., . \
$. \
1-
**
9
&
*
*
-
(\
, . - \
1
**, $. 1997). L 1
-
,
%
6... Halliday, % %
9
. +
-
&
&
/
%
%
-
%,
% &% %
,
-
% &
% "
%. 6
-
1
% &
% 9
%
' *
'
'*
6 *
0
-
,
*%
-
%
, 9
.
4
9 %
*
% %
, 9
( 9
,
, & . ..)
% -
.
-
.
9
«/»
9 &
,
/9
, -
9,
. ..
4 &1
. 4
%
& -
&
%
«
% /»
«
% » &
&
%
« » .
&-
,
9 /-
&
%.
&%
%
&
% /
%
9
/
.
-
1
#
%
«
9
», «
%
», «
*%
» . ..
4
&%
9
.
-
,
/1
&
9%
*
.
&%
& 9 9 9
. !
, %&
,
*%
&
%
. + 9
&
9
*
. N
&
-
%
-
%
.
Q
&%
&%
-
%
%
,
%
&% 9
-
%
. 4 * ,
%
3 99
/
&
&
-
9
%
,
9
.
Q&
*
&
&%
**
/
-
.
* 0
/ «
»
**
,
-
.
: '*'
!'
* * ' *
H
9
9
%
%
-
/
3 &
%
&%
%
-
/
,
*
% ("
, }., 2006
).
4
/
-
%
,
. 4
-
/
9
&%
%
9.
$
&
,
9%-
,
9
. ..
*
&
,
-
9 &
&% &%
. \
%
%
&%
.
H
9
&
-
/
. $
% *
-
%
9
. + «
»
-
*
1%
0
&
. 6
%
&
*
-
&
%
&%, &
,
. ..
9
&
0
,
« %» /
,
/1
&
&,
&
%
%
.
/
1
/
-
,
& & /
%
&.
$
&
%
,
& /
-
. $
1
% *
. "
&
%
,
& %
%,
1 *
#
&,
/
.
$
&
&%
-
. "
9% /1
%
-
9
9,
9
.
/1
,
-
.
1%
&
&% . "
9
,
1
*
100 4
.
&
-
%&
,
%
. $
%
&
9
*
.
6& #
/
9 9
-
. "
« » &
%
/
,
/
* %
&
%
. "
-
9%
&%
-
, % &%
%, 9 . ..
"
% "
%
'/
/.
6
« %» /
#
-
9%
1%
,
/%,
&%-
.
(5
$ &
& &
,
% &
-
/%
/
,
9
:
(
)
%
&1
&
&
. 4 %
9
%
%
9
-
(Robertson-Egan, A. - Bloome, D., 2001) [5].
(*) G « »
1 /
-
. $
%
9
,
&
-
%,
.
() 4
/%
&
&
.
&%
. 4 /
,
-
,
&
,
&
9
.
$
%
-
,
/
/%,
%
%
/
-
.
#
[1] 8 . 3
–
$
&-
%
(3....$. – ..$), =...L. -
!, D: 1366, . 8'
18-10-2001 / 1373, . 8', 18-10-2001, 1374, . 8', 18-10-2001 / 1375, . 8', 18-10-2001 / 1375, .
8', 18-10-2001 / 1376, . 8', 18-10-2001.
[2] "
9
, * . G
". (1997), ?
. !#. %
: $ ,
&% **
9
.
[3] 8 . Lyons, J., 2002
, L., 1995.
[4]
J. P. Gee, G. Wells, R. Hasan, C. Luke &
-
, * . \
., 2006.
[5] %
9
&
,
* . "
. }. (2005). 9
*
%
.
$
* %
1%
*
. $ F
,
, -
, 2
%
,
D
% -
%
,
1 – 3 / 4 / 2005, (CD
-
,
.
. 59).
5 101
C56
Arnheim R. (1991). Thoughts on Art Education. Occasional Paper 2. Los Angeles: The Getty Cen-
ter for Education in the Arts.
Arnheim R. (1999), /
" A "#
# . (69. !.
). %
: L .
Barthes R. (20014), & – % – ?
. (69. ". $
, . ". 8 ). %
:
.
Barthes, R. (199921). Elements of Semiology [1964]. (Trans. Lavers, A.-Smith, C.). New York: Hill
and Wang.
8aynham, M. (2002). @ #
!. (69. 6.
). %
: 6
&.
Bernstein, B. (1989). @#$#
. $ # [1971].(
. - 69. –
$. !. $ ). %
: /
.
Cope, B. – Kalantzis, M. (ed.) (2000). Multiliteracies. Literacy learning and the design of social fu-
tures. London and New York: Routledge.
"
, }. (2005). “
”
:
.
%
/
% &%
*
.
$: $
-
+. (.), & @
. Icon and Child (. 465 – 478). L-
: Cannot not design publications.
"
}. (2006
).
&
-
% &%
. $: % # #.. A
#.
: ,
26 %
"
, %
D
, D 9% $& %, ..L., (. 81 – 98). L
:
% L
.
"
}. (2006*), 9
%
% &%
*
. & . & .
$, 11, 117 – 124.
Foucault M. (2008). * ( #
102 6
, L. (1995). &
+$ . L
:
%.
Perkins D. (1994), The Intelligent Eye: Learning to think by looking at art, Occasional Paper 4.
Los Angeles: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts.
Robertson-Egan, A. - Bloome, D. (.) (2001). +. @
. *
/- $
/- . (69. 6
%). %
: 6
&.
\
. (.) (2006). +
, $
(
),
L
: ..L. – ! } $
[
6
9
].
\
, . - \
1
**, $. (1997²). A
#
#.- $
#. L
:
.
\
, . (1999).
%
. +$ ~#, 1,
(
http://www.komvos.edu.gr/periodiko). L
: % "
.
Wenden, A. L. (1998). Meta-cognitive knowledge and language learning. Applied Linguistics,
19(4), 515 - 537.
Zimmermann, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course
attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31. 845 - 862.
7 103
‘5 5’
% 3
3
%
,
, #
/
*
9
%
.
/
%
,
*
,
:
9
%
,
1
9
9
9
*
,
%
&%
*
&1
*
&
&
‘&
%
’, ‘%’
‘
%’
,
%
*
*
.
+
*
/
. $ 9 ,
&
/
,
*
‘
’,
%&
. Q
%,
9%
,
**
&
,
/,
% *
.
, ,
,
9*% *
%
%,
*
/
&
9 *
:
&%
,
% *
,
,
*
.&.
*
$, . .
/
%
*
*
1%
*
*
. 9
%
1%
*
*
,
*
9
%
1
4
%
%
*%,
/
&
$
&
:
3 , . (2008) «+ ‘*
9’
% /
*
», \
1%
, 3. et al. (.) @ /
&
, %
:
,
$
3 , . (2007) «‘* ’ *
»,
\
1%
, 3. et al. 5 @ ;: & @#$# & F ,
$
, L
: 9
Delikari, V. (2006) «What an actress (Elli Lambeti), a composer (Eleni Karaindrou) and two secondary teachers
have in common?», %
: www.esrea.org2006
Delikari, V. (2006) «Constructing “resemblances” to artists: the articulation of the concept of students’
assessment in discourses of Greek secondary teachers» in Education-line,
9
:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk-educol-documents-157139.html.url.
3 , . (2005) «4
‘*
’
»,
, \. (.) A $ %
. $ @
F ?$
+., @ &# $, %
: "
&
1
9%
1%
,
9%
1%%
,
&
&
* % *
%
%
%
,
&
%
.
104
*
&
,
* ,
% ‘
9
%
’.
9
1%
9
(5
15
)
(6
14 )
. +
1%
9
$* 2003-D*
2005
9,
…
%
»(Stavrakakis, 1997, 274). + ‘*
’
‘* ’ (nodal point) 9
Laclau
Mouffe, 1985,
112,
$
, 2004, 155): «
,
montage
%,
*
*
‘*
’
%.
$
&
&
*
,
1
‘
%
/
’. 6
Laclau (2004*, 49,
$
, 2004,168):«
% / $
$ [affect]
&
%
…
, % %
,
,
9
%…»(
% ).
3. 5 ‘5 5=’ 5
4
&%
% /
%/%
%
*
%/*
%
O
* &
,
1
&
/
*
.
*
*
&
,
&%
,
&
2
2
8
,
9
23/5/2005
9
% 3
/
8/
"# %
% 3/ 3
% %
%
/
, *
"
9
,
:;
. .
&( +9 ( A
&. '
9 ( & ! &. '
, /&& &. %
$,
2005 ($& D251/ 43707/*6/28-04-2005 =L)
*
/%:
,
* /
% /, *
, /
( , "
,
, Q & 6
!
%)
1
«
/
%
&». $
1
«
/ %»
& &, «
%
N 3
9
,
/,
%0
/
»,
«9 24 * 8
», «
9
/
}
&
% %…
}
&
%
105
9
, &
,
/
%,
%
9
,
% %
*
%.
3
&
$
#!,
% /, «
», 1
&
&
*
. +
&
9
9
% *
&
&
&
,
1
(3 ,
2005). $
%
9
% (‘
%’
‘
’)
&,
,
&
*
%
‘
’,
% %
‘ ’
,
*
%/*
%
*
% %
/.
«
» *
*
9% *
9
1
% /
*
&
«
*
*
1%
»(14,5,
,
) % «
&
,
%,
/
…»(29,13,
, 9 ). "
9
«
»
9
9%
9
&
*
%
*
.
$9
/
$ #!
*
/%:
) $
$
«» *
. 3
%,
*
‘
’
&
1
‘’
‘/’
9
%
‘%’
) ‘
’
* ‘
’ % ‘
’
*
,
*
. + &
9. $ ,
«
» *
*
‘
’
. $ , «
»
9
1
‘% &’
-
.
) 4 *
‘
’ . % .
%
*
.
) "
9%
%
*
,
9%
9
%
. $
%
‘
’ ‘*
9’3.
) $
*
9
% *
%
/.
3. $5 :
*
,
9
. $
&
0
$
#.
($ .,
%
%&
«
»
4.
$
,
% 9
!
#
,
#
%
8
, 9
,
3
% 8/
"#%
…».
3
"
%
‘*
9’
*
, *
3 , 2008.
4
&
% *
.
106
:«…
# #
20
#. #
…. ., # . @!
# .
#
: ! # , ! , #
#
#
…»(25,6,
, 9 ).
#.,
/
/
:«…;
#
( ,
. $ $
,
(
( …»(27,1,
,
). 3
%, 9
,
% /
# , ! .
&
25
,
*
%
%.
9
* %
*
,
1997
.
6
, ,
%
&% /
*
%
/
9
%
*
,
%
%
*
%
%. $
‘%’
%
*
%
("
#.
25)
%&
& (+
($ . . 22 ,
…)
! (@ #
#
. . !
,
"
##
;
!# #$
.
!
»(31, 13,
, 9 )5.
$
&,
:«…
!
# ( , …. #$
#
#
…
#.
, #,
$
#! !,
#" 5-6,
10 # 10 .
…»(26,6,
,
).
%
%
«
»,
9 « #$
!
$ (
($…»(30,5,
,
).
5
+
/
0
*
%,
%
*
1
$
*
, $
20
#!
:«…
.
#
!
$
, $
!, # !
$! « #
#
.»
#
!
, $
,
…
! }$ '
$ !
!, $ « . #!
- ! - #. .
…
.
,
, . ?
«
! »
«12»
, #
#
…&
$
( # .
# (% #
# ( $ .;) F , . /
# 18 . # # #
# .
$ $
#
#
$ «
»
(
. #.
,
« #.
(! 11 12».
F$
#
#
. $, ‘93
$
20
#!
. /. (
#
. ? $ .
. /
$
, $.
,
. ,
! , #
$
.
…
!...» (31,16,
, 9 ).
107
4 $
%
& %
%
*
(
# .
)
*
,
9% # $
$ (
):«… # $
, «
$,
»,#
# . , ;…$
$
$
,
$
» (16,7-8,
,
). &
* %
:
,
&
,
## ! ,
,
.
. 4 9
%
,
9% &
6,
, 9
,
*
%
/
. Q&
9
, &
.
+ *
,
&1
.
,
&
9
.
9
(
)
‘%’
.
,
9
*
‘
’. &
&
% %
9
# .
*
% ,
%/
,
/
$! &
(
, )
! &
,
1
$
‘
’
*
% :«…#
#
. $
( . +
(
,
$
$
. &
#,
!
(#
#
#. &
(
#, #$
,
, …
(
$
,
! ! $
!
«
» «»[
] $
$, .
. %
#
! . .
; /
;»(5,3,
, 9 ).
6
&
,
% *
, *
$ #!.
%
# !
#
.
!
$,
9
%
/. Q&
9 ‘%’ *
&
9
%
%
*
% % *
: #
# !
,
$, ; / # !
#
,
.
! $.
9
‘%’ *
!
&
«» 9
*
%
,
,
% *
.&.
*
(
#)7. '
6
"
* %
, *
3 , . (2005) «
», ", . (.)
@$
&
,
: 3
%
,
%
3%
/ $& %
$
(
%
9%).
7
+
%
%
,
108
/ %
%
9*%
. +
/%
/ &
:
&
$
#
%
# %
: @
"#
#
#
#
!
( , … ( ,
# ,
( !
" #. $
#
. @ !$
…
$
. # $
$
" #. $…»(27,11-
12,
,
).
$
&
,
,
*
Stavrakakis(1999, 128,
*1
'
),8 9
$#
#
. +
%&
%
*
*
%
%,
% *
&
,
9
/ &
,
%
%
$
,
%
,
,
%
9.
=
&
1
«
» ( ),
(;
?
#
!,
, (
# %!),
9% « $
.»(
.&.
: , #
,
).
9
%
&
9%
&
9% &%
, 1
*
(.&.
! #, /
!
#). 4
&
&
.
$
,
%
9
&
, *
%
&
«
»
% *
:«…',
#,
#
, ($ #$,
, ? ,
>$
. '
$
#
,
#;
$ #, $
, #
. #,
$
$ # $
$ 25, $
…$
$ , ($ ! #. +
; ;
?
#
!,
, (
# %!.(&
;) , ,
,
# # . ;
#
,
- #
,
! "
#
. # #
$
,
!
#. &, . , $; /
! #.
. ,
# !,
, , ,
9%
/ («
/
9
,
&,
/
;») ($9
, 2003,25)
*
%
%
.
8
$9
Žižek (Looking Awry, 35),
Stavrakakis (1999, 128)
& 1
: «
&
(real) %
(senseless actuality), &
9
[
] %
%
.
& ,
, &
% /
0
%
& 9
,
,
/
%
,
%
/ (..37)…
* ,
% 9
0
* :
9
» (.., 49).
9
+
&
9%
*
. 8 &
$
(2004, 167).
&1
$. . &
/
%
/ &
.
109
. (@!
;) ;
# $
.…»(17,6,9 ).
$
*
&1
& ‘
’
$
/
1
%
$ #.
*
10. $
%
#
. Q&
9 (
! $
.
( $
1
/ &
1
&
&
*
%
&1
9
%. 4
,
*
, &
%
*
,
9% «
»
%,
:
«…; $
# . &
#
(
. @ !$
!
#
. !
$. +
#
,
! ,
! !
,
/ ( .
; (
!
#
# #
, . .
! ‘
" #
#
’. F !$
#
,
# . %
! (
! (.
$ !. * @
( !
. % #
#
#
18 10
"
. &
…»(8,4,
, 9 ).
) ‘$ #’ ‘ ’
#
4
#
‘
’
% /
%
*
, **
%
(
,
,
.&.«…? #
(
. % #
! ,
( , #" . 6
(
#
($
.,
»(16,6,
,
).
=&
«
#
»,
% *
% ( )#
&%
/
/,
0
% *
*
9
% /
%
. $
% *
1 /
*
«
»
. 4
:«… $.
,
$
#
. &, $ > +
,
#$
$
,
, .
$. .
#" 14 , #. !$
16. (@#
! ;)
& $ $
. , $, $
.
$
# , #" …»(23,2,
,
).
&
1
1
% 9
9
*
(
! !
! # ). C
()
&
10
& %
%
%,
*
9
. 3
%
/
%
8
,
&
% / /
*
0
*
,
%
1%
% ()
. Q&
9
% %
/,
9 &
&1
&% &
##
.
.
110
9 *
& ,
9
/11. 4
%
0:
/
&% &
9
9
*
,
-
9%
0 *
%
9
%
9
&%
. 3
&
*
%
9,
/
,
# #
(
),
**
*
%
.
1
%
(
1
)
**
*
Q. "
%
**
,
:«…[ !-#!] !
$
#! ! #
),
&
($
$ ’99). /
‘
’ &
‘&
/
1
’, % 1
%
&
9
/
1
9* *
9
/
%:«…% ! . , ! . ,
#
,
$
#$
$
,
$ #. ,
. /
#
,
#
#. .$ !
#
, #
# !
. ;
$, .
!# !
, #
. $
$ ’99. >
$
$ #
#
$ !… $ ! . ~ . . ### $
$. $ . (
$. &
, $ $. &(
!
.; !
# & ; / !
# &; #.
F $ "
.
F . / #
F
. (
#’ …»(22,8,
,
9 ).
N
*
.
#!
9%
%
#
,
&%
%
,
*
. " 9
*
%
9%
. "
,
& **
#
#
,
!
#
$
#
(19,6,
,
).
&
9 % &
,
1
*
,
% *
%
«
»(23,6-7,
,
).
4
/
01
*
9%
9
. +
11
&1
1997, 9% *
/
/
!
1
% *
.
111
% (& -
%)
9
’
&%
*
%,
9
#,
,
,
$ 12,
, ,
. $
&1
%
,
&
*
:
. % .
. >
#
# 13. }1
9
&
&
.
*
: . $ . #.
$
$
. $9
,
*
%
! ,
, &
#. ,
$, $ .
!, ! [ ] … [
*
,
&
9
9%
9]. $
,
#
#
#
!
#
# #
…
#
$, . . $ [
] $
#
#
( . 3 /
91
9%
%
« . ’ ;»
’
# !
# !
,
!
($. &
.
}1
&%
#.
(#
$
)
%
(
# !
# !
,
, ! ($)
%
&
,
9
9%
.
:
,
%
%,
,
& & &
.
9
&%
*
%
%
9*
,
%
,
1
9
:
!
#
# #
…
#
$. C
% /9
%
%
**
14.
12
$
*
%. 3
1
&
&1
9
% ,
9% *
.
#!
&
% *
.
13
&
% &%
,
,
9%
.
& $
!
%
9
6
(1997, 29)
%
,
/%
: «
*
/
%
,
* ,
&
1
,
1
9
,
& (
&
)
1%
%& ,
%
&.
F «» !
, $ $ #
,
#
» ( 9
%
). 4
9
,
**
,
9
9
, « &
(
-
)
3
,
*
, &
, -
, %
/,
(habitus)
» (6
, 1997, ..).
14
6
: «…#
[
#
] ! . &
# ,
,
,
#
$ . >
#
#. #
!,
# #
.…@#
# [
#]
112
4. (
9~
$
%
%
%
$ & *
& 9
%
*
. "
&
:
*
,
$
9 9
*
‘
’
-
-
#.
4. C568
658
3 , . (2008) «+ ‘*
9’
% /
*
», \
1%
, 3. et al. (.)
@ /
&
, %
:
,
$
3 , . (2007) «‘* ’ *
», \
1%
, 3. et al. 5 @ ;: & @#$#
& F ,
$
, L
: 9
Delikari, V. (2006) «What an actress (Elli Lambeti), a composer (Eleni Karaindrou) and two
secondary teachers have in common?», %
: www.esrea.org2006
Delikari, V. (2006) «Constructing “resemblances” to artists: the articulation of the concept of
students’ assessment in discourses of Greek secondary teachers» in Education-line,
9
:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk-educol-documents-157139.html.url.
3 , . (2005) «4
‘*
’
»,
, \. (.) A $ %
. $ @
F
?$
+., @ &# $, %
: "
Laclau, E. & Mouffe, C (1985) Hegemony and Social Strategy, London: Verso
Laclau, E. (1990) New Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time, London: Verso
Laclau, E. (1994) «Introduction» in Laclau, E. (ed.) The Making of the Political Identities, London:
Verso, 1-5
Laclau, E. (1996) Emancipation(s), London: Verso
Laclau, E. (1997) + & &
, (9. " $
), %
:
}%
. . , #
$
,
,
,
…#
.
. % .
. >
#
# . }
. !. &
#. ,
$ $ .
!
! … … #
#
#
!
#
# #
…
#
$ . . $
# #
( …
$ , # ,
. $ . #.
$ $
;
« . ’ ;»
’
# !
# !
,
! ($. &
»(28, 15-17,
, 9 ).
113
6
, L. (.) (1997) ?$#
& &
. #
, ,
,
: &
(
#
$
%
,
1995,
)
Stavrakakis, Y. (1999) «Green Fantasy and the Real of Nature: Elements of a Lacanian Critique of
Green Ideological Discourse», Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society, 2 (1), 123-132
Stavrakakis, Y. (1997) «Green Ideology: a discursive reading», Journal of Political Ideologies,
2(3), 259-279
Stavrakakis, Y. (2003) «Passions of Identification» Howarth, D. & Torfing, J. (eds.) Discourse
Theory and European Politics, London: Palgrave.
Stavrakakis, Y. (2004) «Jacques Lacan (1901-81)» in Simons, J. (ed.) Contemporary Critical
Theorists. From Lacan to Said. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 18-33
$
, ". (2004) «
9
:
Laclau
» &
?$
12, 149-172 (
).
$9
, 6
(2003) / ' $ &#
%
, %
:
=L/
% , www.kleidiakaiantikleidia.net (%
,
/
)
114
,
:
?
58
4
,
9 8’ *
, & 6
,
0%9
"
L
1. 0
$
%
*
,
/ %
9
% "2 (Wilkins, 1972:
206).
, 9
Van Els et al. (1984: 238),
/
9
*
"2.
=
&
/
/ % *
&
(James, 1977).
,
1
9%,
201
%
%
. &,
&
%
9
.
,
9
/%
*
9, &
2. ,
% 9
% /-
"2,
*
&
1
) 9!
'
4
/
1 9
%
,
%
,
9 /
1 9
,
/
9
1
. C,
&
&
1
/% /
(Gass &
Selinker, 2001: 372). +
% 9%
9
&%
, &
. $5
,
/
%
, 9
&
/
/ ,
,
/
*
(Politzer 1978). /=5
,
/
& (Gass & Selinker, ..). 5
, 9
/
1
4
&
%
&
,
&-9
%
%
. "
9%
%
* . «
», . \, L
: %
"
, 2001: 320.
1
115
& (Johansson 1978). 85
, /
1
/
,
, , &
&
9
&
/ (..).
$8
,
,
/
1
%
9
(Hughes & Lascaratou, 1982: 174), &/%
*
% .
H
*
/
%
/%
. 4
*
1
&
:
!)
x
/ (formal misselection)
$
%
"9
" (synforms).
9
% /
&
1 /
9
%
9
. 4 Laufer (1992 James, ..: 145)
1
*
:
)
*
• .&.
-
,
&-
, *)
*
• .&.
9 –
9 , )
9
*
9%• .&.
1 –
1,
)
9
*
9 .&.
9
–
.
&
&
/
&
/
1
.
,
,
&
%
%
/ "2
& /
&
%
%
,
,
& / "1
9
&
x '
(malformations)
9
/,
"2.
&
1
"2 , "1.
$
%
.2
/
9
&
% %
"1. .&. *0 ,
3
, */
, *
, *&
9
,4
*1-*
, 1-
.
$
%
/% 9:
- 6
/ "1 &
"2 (code-switching) .&. *
,
*
9
.
- 6
/ "1 &
"2,
9
&
%
/
"2,
%
(foreignisation) .&.
< terror + (* * %
).
- 6
/, 9 %
91
/ "2,
&
&
,
9
(transliteration) .&.
*
% "
;"
&%
"
" (8
. ),
& % " ".
x $* (distortions)
&
% "1,
/.
:
-
0
9 .&. * &,
&.
- '
%
9 .&. *&%,
%
- '
9 *&
,
&
2
, %
,
"2,
&
&
/ &
9%
.
3
*
9/%
&
.
4
&
, 2006.
2
116
- $
&
%
/
.&. */
,
/
!!) $
,
&
&
"2,
91
&.
*
,
% % / /
*
/
/
1
%
&
.
$
**
, &
,
9
. =&
, , ,
&
–
&
–
.
:
1. '
&
% & /
2. '
% /
*
($
/)
,
x '
&
% & /
+
/
1
&
:
- \
.&. *1 (
).
- \
/
%
.&. * ,
.
- \
.&. +
9
*
,
0
.
- \
1
, .&. *,
.
x '
% /
*
($
/)
6
9 &
%
&
&
/
* , /
1
&%
%
/, &
*
O
%.
*
9 /
&
:
- $
% / .&.
0
"
*
&
",
"
*
",
& *"
* 9
".
- $
/
&
.&.
0
* &
,
0 /*
.
- D
/
.&.
0
"
9",
& *"
9
".
- D
/
.&.
"
%
",
& *"
% ".
"2,
% "1.
%) "
!) 69
C 9 1
91
9
% 9
,
&
.&. * "/ ** ",
/ **
.
!!) $
3
/% :
x '
% %
$9
&
/ "
#$
!
!." (James (.. 156)
&
% %
,
%
James (..):
)
+.$.,
+.$.,
1
+.$. .&. 9 *"+
,
%
&
,
"
*
+.$. "
%
&
".
3
117
)
%
+.$.
1
+.$. .&. *"&,
, *%
*
"
*
+.$. "
".5
x '
% %
$
%
:
- §
/
.&. 6
% *
1.
-
.&. 4 & *[+.$.].
- %
.&. *
% ( .
:
).
- '
% / .&.
*
(
) 1999.
- \%
.&. 3
*
. *% &
9. ( …, % &
9).
- 6 %
9
=-G
=-G-: .&. *0
(0
)
**%
(*%
)
/.
*
%
&%.
,
9
&%
9 %
1
/% 9:
- =* % &% &
&%. $
&,
, /
1 "2 &
/
*
/ % 9,
1
**
%
&,
%
9
.
- % &%
*
&
.
- '
% &
*
.
- '
*
/
&
.
, ,
&%
*
&
&%. N
*
&
,
%
3. #
&
1
* 9%
,
%
/
%
%
.
4.
4.1 /
4
/%&
L
.
201
9
"
(67
/).
5
% +.$., /
,
/
&
%
9
1
9 .
% %
%
+.$. 1 /
% %
, , ,
%
&
1
.
4
118
4.2
8
&%
%
()
.
%
**
%. $
9
%
0
9 % %
%
1%
0
.
1
9
%
. $
/
402
. $ 9
9
&
%
9
.
,
9
/%
*
9, &
,
4.3
8
$5 85
6 85
. ('
6 *
/
9
12.833 33.797 /.
, ’ /
9
4.738 10.663 /, 8’ 4.002 11.383 /
"’ 4.093 11.751 /.
4
%
&
9
/
09
1
.
,
9
8.825
(2.093 )
,
9
1815 .
9
, 9
%
9
1
1
1
%
%, ,
%
9:
9
1.275
%, 526 /
414
&%.
$'",( 1
$
#5
? )5 (
<
#=
526 1275 414
(=
2093
1
%
&
%
&
%
,
0
9
,
% *
&
,
%
%
. $
, &
%
*
&&
«
» (.&. =-G-)
&%
&1
* 0 (.&. «
»),
/
& .
’
,
%
/
.
$
&
/1
,
1
.
9!
'
/#
4 *
%
/
/
:
9
95, 78
39
&
/
. !
&
/
&
&%
9%,
9
9,
«
9%»
% 9
9.
&, ,
&
&
&
.
,
5
119
9
/: /
’
9
: 34, 26, 9.
&
&
/
&
"2,
+ &
;
#
0
1
% &
(74
0,58%
). 4
%
9
/.
%
/
/
/
,
,
,
%
. ,
&
/
/
. N ,
&
%
/
&
/ ,
&1
/
9
%
.
0
&
/%
/ /: 7,88% - 12,27% - 17,21%
/
(
& 19, 20
21
&
). ",
&%
/
, ,
, 9
, &
%
.
=
«
/& /».
/
1
: 4,98% - 8,59% - 22,95%
&
/
(12, 14
28 ).
"
4 /
1
*
9 . $
9
716
356 9 .
;
& /
0
/. 8*
,
1
/
/ /,
,
.
, ,
&
,
/1
&
,
.
1
% %
.
,
+
1
/
%
%/,
9
-
-
. $
&%
, ,
0
%
%
9
$
%
06
1%
1
.
/,
/
&
9
%
/
"1
.
*
1
%
0
%
%
=
%. $
&, ,
9
9
-%
-
.
,
9
9
*
%
*
&%
. ,
&
,
,
. ",
0
/
.
6
=
"
9
aspect
"
#
&
&
9 Mirambel, [1978] (1988. A & +..
@ # . 69. $.
1. L
:
6
9
)
Holton et al.
(1999. +
%
&
. $
&%, ,
&
. +
, , **
,
,
/% &
.
6 , ,
/
1
,
9
.
$
(111 ).
, &
1
&
91
’
/ ,
9
1
/
9
%
,
. "
9
/
*
. ,
1
,
/
.
0
1
9 ,
1
%
.
'
$
,
%:
1 2,80%
.
6+
1
%
/. 4
0
/
%
9%
%,
0 *
.
,
9
&
/
9
,
9
1
9
.
$
&
. !
9
*
1
–, –
/–
, –
–, –%
–
&
*
. C,
1
. $
% &
/
&%
% ( +
). , ,
&
/
&%
. $
, 9
% %,
&%
%
0
%
,
&
%
&
0,
%
&
1 9 %
.
1
% / /
% 0,
*
&
%
.7
7
* .
, 2005: 39-54.
7
121
+
1
9
. /
%
* % "1,
*
%
&
. ,
1
%
*#
1
% /
%
(.&.
. -
,
#. - #
),
*#
1
*#
/
.
& 1
&
,
9 9
%
.
;
6 *
%
&%
%
%
%
, &
G
*
5.17
5.18
,
9.
,
9
195 /
1
( 46,76%) . $
&
&
% &.
*
1
(
/)
9
.
«'
% 9».
9
116
( 37,81%
&%
). D
%
*
*
%
& / /
9
,
*
. $
:
1
. 4
«'
»
*
,
& & *
, % %
9
9 . ,
Zamel
(1982)
Raimes (1985) ( Krapels, 1990: 48),
/%
&%
*
&
"2 &1
%
"2
&
&%
"1. $
,
//
.
% &%
9
(
9
2 ’ /, 2 8’
5 "’)
(1
’
1 "’)
9
1
/
**
.
C 6 85
: 65 55
5
6
9%
/
%
*
%
*
1
.
$'",( 2
%
*
x
*
x 8
x !&
x
%
x
#
x
#
x $
&
9
6
%
&
*
,
%
9 *
&
.
8
122
(5
/ &1
/
%
,
, %
.
/
"
.
4
1
/ .
=
%
*
1
* 9%
.
&
/
&
%
. 8
&%
%
%
,
9
&
%
9%
%.
$5
x 6
/
O
,
,
9
*
&
*
,
/
& 9
*
.
x =
%
*
,
%
/
%
%/
%
.
C56
&#$
, . & . ". 2006. |
&:
#.
4
3
, !
/
#$
Gass S.M. & L. Selinker. 2001. Second Language acquisition and introductory course. 2nd ed.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
James, C. 1977. “Judgments of error Gravities”. ELT Vol. 31, n. 2: 116-124
Johansson, S. 1978. Studies in Error Gravity: Native reactions to errors produced by Swedish
learners of English. Gothenburg: Gothenburg University Press.
Hughes, A. & Lascaratou, C. 1982. “Competing criteria for error gravity”. ELT Journal 36/3
April, 175-182
Krapels, A. R. 1990. “An overview of second language writing process research”. In B. kroll (ed.),
Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom (37-56). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Politzer, R. 1978. "Errors of English speakers of German as perceived and evaluated by German
natives". Modern Language Journal, 62: 422-427.
Raimes, A. 1985. “What unskilled ESL students do as they write: a classroom study of
composing”. TESOL Quarterly, 19: 229-258.
Richards, J.C. (ed). 1974. Error Analysis: Perspectives on second language Acquisition. London:
Longman
Vann, R., Lorenz, F. & Meyer, D. 1984. "Error gravity: Study of faculty opinion of ESL errors".
TESOL Quarterly 18: 427-440
Zamel, V. 1985. “Responding to student writing”. TESOL Quarterly, 19: 79 -101.
9
123
$
$58 ) =
/ 8
A+A; +~A;
%?A *'+
$59
$&
(
)
9 3’ . Q
,
&
,
&
%
9
1
&
&
*
.
:
1.1 0
+
% /
1
&
L
90%.
9
1%
9%
9
(", 2006). 6&
9
,
%
%0,
,
.
%
%
(&%
% %
)
9
9
%
,
1 &
%
(
, 2000).
4
9
%
% %
80,
&
9
% ($
%, 1951). "
%
1%
9
,
9
%
,
&
9
98% (4
1997). , %
9
%
9
&
9
& ,
% %
,
«9
» &
80
90, %
9
%
1
+
1
&1
1
&
9
&
%("*, 2002).
,
% %
%/
,
& &
&
9
.
+
&%
, %
.
&
&
,
&
. "
&
&
&
%
%
%
%. 6
/
&
&%
0
&
&
/
9.
%0 %
& %
%
&
% &
*
&
. 4
%
&
%
.
124
*
*
%
9
&
. 6
9
1
&
1
%
.
$
&
9
&
-
–
&
/.
1.2 )
8 5
/
$55
4 % **
9
9
162
1
%
. %
9
9
1
.
1
% **
9
,
%
1
&
. + Baker (1992)
%, /1
*
(
5,
56)
&
*
&
. $
%
/
&
. ,
9
%,
%
9 . +
*
/
&
*
0 /.
%
% & &
«
» %. + -
-
*
9
&
&
&
9
(Baker, 1993).
1.2.1 5 ~5
,
&
1
. + %
&
*
. $
1
&
9,
/
9
% 9
% /
9
(Baker, 1992).
1.2.2 5
%
9
. 4
%
1
%
. H 1 /
,
.
1
&
(Baker, 1993).
1.2.3
$9
%
9%
*
.
*
&
9
.
,
9 9 .
9
*
%
*
.
,
&
%
/
(Baker & Jones, 1998).
1.2.4 5
5
8
4
9
%
9 .
9
9
%
9
.
$
*
&
. $
9
125
9
. $
&
&
(Cummins & Swain, 1986).
.
1.3 05
5-
/%:
8
<5=
5 565
;
32
9
3# . 4 *
%
«"
»
’ %
%
9 &%
9
/.
1.4 8
$
%
- 09
. $ 5
«"
»
’ %
=5
%
&
9 %.
1.4.1 )5 <5
C
% /1
556
. + L
(2007) (http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/studies/guide/thema_d11/index.html)
«
9 9
«%
9
»
». /1
, =5 <
9
1
%/ (-, -, -, -
)
(=<
=
=
=
=. +
9 9
1
&
(
9
)
&
%
(%
%–
% 9%, 9- 9
).
&1
()5
;)
&% &. $
&
, &%
(" & 6
)
&
, / 6
$
6
("
8
&
).
1.4.2 $565 <5
65=
<5
&% %
9
9% &%
&1
* &
. 6
/,
%
. "
«
%
,
-% (L
, 2007) (http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/studies/guide/thema_d11/index.html).
&
/
9:
x / &
% &% ( +.# +.#)
x
*
%
9 (&%
)
x = ( )
x / (
%
* % /
,
*&%)
4
& 9
/
%
9
126
65=
=
,
9 9
(
)
(
)
.. .
x ?,
&% /
%
&
%
. 4
9
.
9
( 9
.
1.5 (~
4
% * %0
,
*%
&%
%
. +
,
9 . ,
, 9
%
%
,
%
%
,
0
.
4
%
9 9
%
,
O
% ,
,
*
%
, % %/
&
%
,
%,
.
!
9
%
,
%
&
-
%
&% %
. 9
%
&
:
1.5.1
58 =
56
$
&
,
1
&1
1
%
%
9%
%
*
% (G, 2002).
1.5.2
58
= 8<
+ &
* %
&
«
»
«
»
%
.
%
%
%
. + &
&
*
%
%
%
9
. + 9
%
%
/
127
&1
&
/
.
9
% 9. N
1
1
9
&
%
%
%
. N
1
1
&
1
&
&
(G, 2002).
1.6 (=
9
, &
%
,
/
O
0
%
%
. +
,
&
,
,
&
1
&.
C56
Baker, C. (1992). Key issues in Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Clevedon: Multilingual.
Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual
matters Ltd.
Baker, C. & Jones, S. (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Clevedon:
Multilingual.
Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (1986). Bilingualism in Education: Aspects of theory, research, and
Practice. Essex, UK: Longmans group.
", . (2005).
- & $ ! ( #..
9
3 $
, !V,
, 3
", . (2006).
- & $ ! ( #..
9
3 $
, !,
, 3
"*, . (2002). &
.
#$#.
6
& %
4
, . (1997). 6, /% %
(Minorities, Foreign
Policy and Greece). In K. Tsitselikis & D. Christopoulos (eds.), T
&
(The Minority Phenomenon in Greece). %
(Athens): % & 6+ (Kritiki A.
E & KEMO).
, . (2000). A #
+.. Blacklist, %
G, 6. (2002). / ' $ %.
%.
Gutenberg, %
128
8
5 ,.0.0. (
13-14/12/2007)
!
N
%
..3..
/
=0%9
..3..
/
<
=5/?8
1. &#$#
4
%
//
&
1
1%
:
9
%
%
&
1
#. (interlanguage)1
& &
2 (White 2003, Ellis 1994, Lakshmanan & Selinker 2001, Sharwood Smith & Kellerman
1989)
$
(Mackey, Gass & McDonough 2000, Kormos 1999, Lyster 1998, Olsen 1999, Morris & Tarone 2003,
Mackey & McDonough 2006, Leeman 2003). $
%
&
&
&
%
.
/
&
%
/ %
#.
.
& * 0
%.
$
,
&
,
%
*
%
9
.
1.2. A
$ .
4
%
&
//
:
1. 9
/
*
.
2.
,
%
0.
3.
0
//
.
4.
9%
%
%
,
0
&
.
,
«
»
%
*
,
1
%
%
*
. 4
&% 9
&
9
1
%
%
.
5. 8
$ #$# 9
/
& % *
.
6.
%
%
*
9
1
/. 4
%
&
%
&
%
*
&
.
1
4 #.
//
(Selinker, 1972)
&
9
&
1
.
9
1
-&
. 4
#.
, 9
* *
.
2
O
9
%
-&
,
#.
% &
$
% 9
.
129
2.1. ?#
$ .
(James 1998:179-199) &1
:
1. #$ /'
(interlingual)
2. &#$ (intralingual)
3. ' $ # (communication strategy)
4. ; #$# (induced)
$
%
9
9
%
%
//
,
%
. "
,
9
%
*
,
9
, / %
#
$
&
$ (.&. ?
#
$ / $
),
130
: ?
’ *$ (
#
$) ,
1
%
&
"3
%
.
$
%
%
%
,
#$ .
#$
9
%
9
9
. + Richards (1971)
(. $9
% (2000:168) (
* 0
9
1
,
/
//
,
#$ /
&
(
, %
9
%
%
0 %
&
%
). $
%
#$.
*
1
.
9%
8# "
%
( !
2006)
6 (
6
,
2005-2007). +
%
9
9, &
9%
3
% L
9
. 4
% .$...6. ( $%/
6
) %
$.
&%
%
5
%
%
%
&
%:
1. ( #
! #
)
2.
(#
)
3. 6 (#
# .)
4.
% (
%
% 0 ./
.)
5.
% (
%
% 0 ./ $)
\
%
:
1. ? : &%
/. .&. A
$
(
#
# *
( .
.
2. +
: % 9
9%
. .&. * * (
)
/
*x
(
(
) / *
*
(
" "$
), *
(
).
3. 56 : +D,
%
9
%
9
-
, .&. %
* #.
(
#.) /
*! (
) #.
4. 56
:
9 9
/, &% 9
% 9%
%,
% 0,
. .&. % #
*. (
. ) /
*
(
(
) / @
#
*
(
).
5. %556 : .&. F
*
(
) * (
)
.
6.
=
&1
:
)
0 (
1
), .&. * , * , * ,
*)
( *
). .&. *
, *
, *
.
7. $59 / < 5 5
: .&. F
’
.
# #
3
+
" (
%/
%/
&%)
9
% " %
#
%
(
aspect). 9/%
&
(
%
%
% 0).
131
#
(
.
3%
>
3%
10% ?
3%
9% !
14%
!
!$!
%!@
21%
%!
37%
%!@
@ 1
4
&
(37%)
9
,
,
%
(9%),
1 46%
9
. 3
9
( 21%)
9
(14%)4. ,
0
& 10%
,
(3%)
/ ,
9
9
.
2.4. @ $ .
0
&
9 , 9
9
%
& .
, 9
&
% , 4788 / 707 &
,
,
, 14,76% / &
.
,
% 176 / /, , 3,67% / &
.
4
,
,
%
*
9.
$
,
9
9
400 / 4788 /,
%,
8,35% / &
9 .
9
9
(
) 9
/.
9
9
1
%
%,
9
(
,
/ %
&
).
:
4
4
09 /
..". (2004-2005)
/
9
9
,
0
/, * .
, 8
,
, 6
1%,
(2006:26-
28).
132
1. ' 9
/
9
: $$ (
) / *
(
).
2. ' &%
:
#" ! #
* *
(
) #
".
3. ' & /:
9 9
. .&. *
(
’ ) / * (
’ ).
4. %
% % %
%
0% : % #
# * (
) / * +
…
* (
)
(
) $ #$.
5. %
% 0: * +
#
*"$
(
"$
) "./
*$ (
$)
/ % #$
, *$ (
.$) #
# / } * (
)
.
6. '
&: %
. ;
#.
. * $ (
.)
, *# (
#
)
…
7. '
9
=-G: A
#. * $ (
) !
./
$
$
* (
) #
.
8. \% 9
%
% 9%: &
$
. /
$; ( $; (
( .;).
4
,
10%
,
9
0
& . $
% %
&%, %
&1
,
1
/.
/
9
5.
+
(3%)
/ ,
9
9 . "
/
&
:
1. 4
/
,
: +
% / &
%
9
& «9
%
%», ’
9 :
, * #$# (
#
) .
2. 4 &%
/
1
: @
# ! *# (
#)6.
3. 4
/
&
-&:
* . +
%
%
%
(* ) *
&% +D ( ).
4. 4 &%
: F
* *
(
! ).
5. 4
/
9
:
$ #
# #
(
#
.).
6. 4
%
/-
: %
$ *voley bal
(
). * + * (
) # .
7. 4
%
/
1 9 1: ?
# *
!
(
!
).
5
$9
% Q
(
$
)
*
2003 16 %
9 & %
,
L
, 610
/, 42,5%
8#
3
72%
$# 3 &
/. ,
/
81,3%
8# 3
62,8% $# 3 &
9
9%
.
6
&
/ 9%
&
/
9%
.
/
9%,
1
!
(synforms) 9
Laufer, 1989: 13 $
, 2006: 15.
133
8. 4 &%
/
1 9 1,
&
9%
: *(
(
)
. / /
*# (
#
/
# )
$.
4
*
9 .
%
,
9%
//
&
.
,
9
9
&
9%
:
1. / /ð/
/d/ : $ * (
) / *
(
). 9
/d/ /ð/
/
9
&
9% ( /ð/ ~ /d/) 9%
%
.
2. // /t/,
9
//
1
%
: *$. (
$.),* .$ (
.$), *
. (
.), * * (
).
3. /p/ /b/: * (
), * (
), *
(
).
4. // /f/: * (
).
5. /#/ /k/: *#! (
!).
6.
9
/(/
/"/
9
9
:
*$ (
($), *$
(
"$
).
4
*
9 . $
%
9
%:
1. $
9
-
: *
, * $
, * , * !.
2. $
9
1
: * (
)
* (
) # $#!. /
*! (
) . $
. / @ $ * * * (
!).
3. $
9
=
-
:
*
(
).
4. '
&
: ! *
(
) .
5. '
%
: %
*
(
)
.
* %
(
)7.
&
% 0
,
9
%
1
. 4
%
1
@
2:
7
%
9
&
(56
9
158
9
). 4
%
/%&
6
(2002-2004, #$
, 3: "
%
3
,
$. 6&
:
., .,
., 6&
.,
6). 8 .
http://www.media.uoa.gr/language/exercises/research.php
134
11% 19%
/'
8!
27%
18%
B
&
B
25%
@ 2
ª +
&
0
&
%
% 0
%
&
%, & @
2.
ª +
&
&
%
% 0
%
&
% (27% ~ 11%). 4
9
%
ª
&
6
, &
.
%
% 0
6
(
%
&%
).
$
%
% 9
&
, 9
&1
0
&
&%
%
. =
8
$ #$ (..: 235-237, 259-260)
& 9
&
0 (
% –
%),
&
&
9% %
&
.
9
$9
%
&
//
%
% 0 /
*
& (.&. $, ., $)
#
%
(.&. . ,
$
)
% 0 %
(.&. $, .)
%
(.&. #., #$
$). , (
)
%
135
% 9
//
. +
1
& 9
(#,
% &
%
&
/1
&%
*
. 6
%
$
$!$ (Andersen & Shirai, 1996) 9
&
&
9
0
(
! 1:1,
%,
&1
9%
0)
&
)
’
&
&
%
10.
%
.
&
. &
&
% &
,
/%
9
/
(Lakshmanan & Selinker, ..: 396).
%
/ %
:
1. 4
:
&1
(global)
(local).
*
% %
1
. "
, 9
%
%
$
%
%
: * + * (
) !
*
9
=-: * +
*".
2. 4
: $
9
1
&
,
’
&
&
&
,
%
9% &. ,
&
«
»
&
-&
. "
,
9
-
9
1
%.
3. 4
:
9
1
%
,
. "
, %
#
:
- (.&.
)
.
$
,
/
-
(.&. ), &
(.&. * /
),
&
&,
&
.
&
%
% 0.
10
8 .
Sugaya & Shirai (2007:19),
**
«
/%
%
0»
1%.
136
4. 4 #
: 4
%
&
$
. "
,
* %
* %
.
% 1 %
$
%
$
% 9
,
: $ *
*
(
) !
*
(
)
.
.
%
,
: F * (
)
, ; $ * (
) "($ # (
1
) $.
5. 4 "
:
-& %/
* % %
. "
, %
&
%
% 9
% .
%
&
* !$ (
!
), *$ (
), *$ (
).
H
,
9
/%
&% &
/
% .
6. 4
# !
$ $:
9
9
&,
9
% &, ,
,
9
&
%/: 4
/
% 9% - *#
1
9
-
(
. > !
,
& *
!
).
$
,
%
*
/
%
#.
, &1
9
9%
%
%
.
,
1
,
9
*
,
,
.
C'C'%)&+'
Andersen, R. W., & Shirai, Y. (1996). “The primacy of aspect in first and second language
acquisition: The pidgin-creole connection”. In W. C. Ritchie & T.K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of
Second Language Acquisition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 527-570.
, }., 8
, D.,
, 6., 6
1%, 6.,
, 8. (2006).
« . #$# #! # (
?&+, (# 6)».
% "
. http://www.greek-
language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/foreign/studies/errors, 21-28.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Reynolds, D. (1995). “The role of lexical aspect in the acquisition of tense
and aspect”. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 107-131.
, .,
, ., 6&
, .,
, 6. (2004). «#$
#
».
6
(2002-2004), :
+
137
Li, P. & Shirai, Y. (2000). The acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspect. Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Leeman, J. (2003). “Recasts and second language development: Beyond negative evidence”.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 25, 37-63.
Lyster, R. (1998). “Negotiation of form, recasts and explicit correction in relation to error types and
learner repair in immersion classrooms”. Language Learning, 48 (2), 183-218.
Mackey, A. & McDonough, K. (2006). “Responses to recasts: Repetitions, primed production, and
linguistic development”. Language Learning, 56 (4), 693-720.
Mackey, A., Gass, S., & McDonough, K. (2000). “How do learners perceive interactional
feedback?”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 471-497.
Morris, F. & Tarone, E. (2003). “Impact of classroom dynamics on the effectiveness of recasts in
Second Language Acquisition”. Language Learning, 53 (2), 325-368.
Olsen, S. (1999). “Errors and compensatory strategies: A study of grammar and vocabulary in texts
written by Norwegian learners of English”. System, 27, 191-205.
Richards, J. (1971). “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis”. English Language Teaching
Journal, 25, 204-219.
$
, . (2006). « . #$# #! # (
?&+, (>9 %): / ( . % "
».
http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/foreign/studies/errors: 14-15.
Selinker, L. (1972). “Interlalanguage”. IRAL, 10, 209-231.
Sharwood Smith, M. & Kellerman, E. (1989). “Crosslinguistic influence in Second Language
Acquisition: An introduction.”. In T. Odlin (ed). Language Transfer: Crosslinguistic influence in
language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1-33.
Sygaya, N. & Shirai, Y. (2007). “The acquisition of progressive and resultative meanings of the
imperfective aspect marker by L2 learners of Japanese”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29
(1), 1-38.
White, L. (2003). “On the nature of interlanguage representation. Universal Grammar in the
Second Language”. In M. Long & C. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of Second Language Acquisition.
Oxford: Blackwell, 19-42.
138
'' ,' (#"0$0'0( !" !" !" !". /'/,',0( 0*"',0( )'
" C#"( %#(
,58 ?,
9 ,
%
3
*
, M.Ed.,
0. 3
8 '
,
*
, 3
27 3 $& 8
, M.Ed.
$59
$9
*,
,
*
&
1%
.
0
,
9
/
,
% ’
%
. H
&
,
9
,
. Q
,
9
* , 9
%
0,
%
. H
&
&
09
,
0
*
.
&
0 % 9
&
9
& &
.
* %
*
%
% %
,
,
, &
%
,
9
%0
,
%
&%
,
5
8
<
<
8
$9
%
,
&
9
,
%
%
&
.
,
%
,
1
& %
9
(Sewell,
2002: 24. Muller et al., 2008). +
*
1
,
%
(Smith et al., 1993: 116). 4
,
*
&
1%
(Sewell, 2002: 25-26). H
9
, * , ,
*
, 1 (Kowalski, &
Kujawski, 2004: 297, 302).
$
,
%
,
9
9
O&
,
% %
&
9 :
)
0
&
,
,
,
1
,
, % &
,
*
9
%0, %
*
,
,
%
*
%0,
&
%
&
%0,
%
&
,
139
.&.
&
, &
&
/ ,
,
& %
%,
)
,
1
&
,
*
&
,
&
-
-
,
9
,
9
9
%0,
, 9 *
&% 9
,
%
,
/
%,
,
%
,
,
)
0
,
’
,
% ’
%
(Sewell, 2002: 24-26).
%
%
&
% %
9
%0 (Smith et al., 1993: 153),
&
%
0 ,
, &
, &%
O&
. 4 %
%
%
0
. Q,
&
%
*
/
&
%
,
&
&
,
9&
/
%
0
9
/
9
(Kowalski, & Kujawski, 2004: 297, 298).
H
&
,
9
,
. $
&
%
9
% %
&%,
9
. Q
,
9
* (
0
9 ,
, *
,
),
9
%
0,
%
. $
%,
%
9
. H
&
&
09
,
&
&
09
0
*
(Smith et al., 1993: 153. Sewell, 2002: 26-27).
&
:
)
,
&
%
9
* (Smith et al., 1993: 119),
*)
% 0 %
%
%, ,
, %0
(Garrett, & Fisher, 1926:
417-418),
)
0 % 9
&
%
* ,
66
& &
,
&
%
&
**
1
**
,
&
,
%
, %
, 0 %
&
% (Garrett, & Fisher, 1926: 419. Sewell, 2002: 27),
) 9
/% -
0
,
9
,
%
, .&.
9
%
,
% %
(Chi, 2005: 187-188).
+
,
*
&
9
&
,
&
%
9
%0 /
%
140
&
*
%0 (Smith et al., 1993: 116, 153. Sewell,
2002: 27),
*
*
%0.
%,
%
%0
&
,
1
,
%0
’
9
. }1
,
%
%
,
%
*
,
‘/’
,
/
/ 0%
%
,
**
*
,
(Chi, 2005: 162, 181).
&
%
*
1 (Smith et al., 1993: 121)
%
0
&
%
&
% 0
(Abdi, 2006: 39), **
,
&,
(Chi, 2005: 181). H
%
%0
&
,
1
,
9
%0
*
%
9
%
%,
,
,
%
%
(Smith et al., 1993: 116, 151-154).
=& **
9 &
%
9
%,
% &
%0
(Chi, 2005: 171).
,
%/
9% &
%
9
,
* %
*
:
•
/
%
%,
%
0 %
% 0,
9
,
/
%0
(Kowalski, & Kujawski, 2004: 298, 301-302),
•
%
% %
(Schmidt, 1997: 126-127),
9
%,
,
1
‘
%
*
’ %
%
%
0
%0 (Smith et al., 1993: 122. Sewell, 2002: 28),
•
/ 0 9%
,
%
%
% 9%
(Muller et al., 2008),
•
%
0
&
,
, &
%
,
• &
(
,
9%
)
&
,
• &%
%
%
%
,
•
9
&1
&
,
•
%
,
1% %
/
*
9
%0 %
9
/,
&
*
%0
(Sewell, 2002: 28. Muller et al., 2008),
•
&% *%
/
,
/
&%
,
*
&
9
,
% (Smith et al., 1993: 150, 151, 153. Muller
et al., 2008),
•
,
, 9
%0
,
%
,
%
(Smith et al., 1993: 121, 122, 126. Sewell, 2002: 28. Muller et
al., 2008) &%
(Sewell, 2002: 28. Muller et al., 2008),
141
1% /,
1
*
,
,
*
/ *
9
,
,
%
% 0
&
0
%
(Smith et al., 1993: 126, 153),
•
/
,
/%
:
% &
9
,
0,
9,
%/
,
9
% 1%, 9
0
% 1%,
9%
% /%
,
1%
(Abdi, 2006: 39),
•
,
/ %
,
9
&
(Smith et al., 1993: 153),
• &
,
*
% 0,
/
%
*
/
9
%
,
•
0 (Kowalski, & Kujawski, 2004: 298-299, 301-302),
•
%
%0
0 % (Smith et al., 1993: 117, 122, 154),
•
&
0
(Schmidt, 1997: 134),
•
&
,
,
%
(Schmidt, 1997: 124. Sewell, 2002:
28),
•
%
*
9
/ 9 ’
%
&
,
•
,
,
,
9% (Chi, 2005: 188,
192-193),
•
/&
/ ,
%
(Smith et al., 1993: 125),
• &%
(Muller et al., 2008) %
(Smith
et al., 1993: 122),
•
’
(Altman, 2006: 8),
• %
&
,
%, *
& ,
&
9%
% *
9
9 * 0
&
9
’ ,
(Smith et al., 1993: 149. Chi, 2005: 194.
Muller et al., 2008),
•
%
& %
*%
0
%
1%,
*
&%
%
% *
/ 9 0
&
0,
0
,
,
*
, 1
,
&
142
+
1%
&% & (Sewell, 2002: 28). + Muller et al. (2008) 1
%
/
,
%, :
,
,
%
.
%
1
%
/
%,
%
1
&
(* .
Abdi, 2006: 39),
.
. $
, "
&%
8
,
*# %
D*
2008
/
1
,
143
?
4
%
1
%
,
,
*,
&
9
(&.
! #
, . #
! / &
.
$
#
,
),
9
* 0
9
9 *
% &
& &
% /
.
4
%
2 &
0
%
9
*
&
%
1
(&. ;!
$
(=
)
#
!
/
. "
$ $.
/
# .+ / #
# $ –
&
). 4
%
,
%,
/ 9
&
%
&
9
& ** .
+ 9 &
9
&
&
9,
*%,
%
.
"
&%
% 0
1%,
%
/
%,
’
*,
& &1
&
*
,
&%
9
%
,
.
,58 55
$
1
‘
&
%’
9
%0
,
%,
,
,
% %
*% %
, ,
,
& ,
,
,
0 (Smith et al., 1993: 119. Schmidt, 1997: 123-124. Chi, 2005: 162.
Abdi, 2006: 39),
%. Q,
% %
9
%
%
%
9
/
%,
9
&1
/1 (Muller et al., 2008).
*%
%
,
%
/
)
(errors),
% *
,
& ,
9
%
9, *)
(misconceptions),
9
*
&
& %
0, )
%
,
(mistakes) (Schmidt, 1997:
124), )
/
(slips),
,
)
(attempts),
% &
%
% .
+
/
’ ,
, &
*
0
9
9
9
,
,
&
% % & %
&
144
&
/ %
,
*
9. 4
/
,
,
*
% ,
/
*
%
(Byrnes,
2004: 58). 4 %
&
%
, ’
& &
%
/
*
%
/
9%,
9
%
*
9
*
.
%
% %
,
% (Abdi, 2006: 39),
/
%
/ portfolio (Byrnes, 2004: 61-62),
/
/ .
+ Schmidt (1997: 134)
1 «
%
9%
* %
, 1
%/
. […] %
,
&
. +
9
9
0
. 8*
,
&
. +
9*
9
. +
‘
*
’
,
&
. […] 6 %
%
9
1
,
&
». + Smith et al. (1993: 148, 152, 153)
&
’
,
%
&
% %
% &
&
9
&
&
&
%
0
. Q, %
%
9
%.
%
&%
9
0
%. + Garrett, & Fisher (1926: 419)
9
0 %
,
1
%
&
*
.
, &
&%
%
%
9
%
% %
(Byrnes, 2004:
61)
/
,
.
%,
*
9
% ,
%
,
9
/ & %
%
,
&%1
% ,
‘
*
’ & ,
&,
% . ,
,
&
&
%
0
**
,
,
%
,
&
,
& &
%
.
,
& *
%
,
&
% %
0,
/ %
.
$
%,
‘ ’
9%
,
%/
9 0
% %
. $
%
,
9
%
,
%
,
/%
%
,
%
-1%
&
,
9%
%
&
.
145
C56
Abdi, S. Wali (2006). Correcting student misconceptions. Science Scope, 29,4.
Altman, William S. (2006). In-class writing: a technique that promotes learning and diagnoses
misconceptions. The Teaching Professor, 20,6.
Byrnes, MaryAnn (2004). Alternate assessment FAQs (and answers). Teaching Exceptional
Children, 36,6.
Chi, Michelene T.H. (2005). Commonsense conceptions of emergent processes: why some
misconceptions are robust. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14,2.
Garrett, H.E., & Fisher, T.R. (1926). The prevalence of certain popular misconceptions. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 10,4.
Kowalski, Particia, & Kujawski Taylor, Annette (2004). Ability and critical thinking as predictors
of change in students’ psychological misconceptions. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 31,4.
Muller, Derek A., Bewes, J., Sharma, M.D., & Reimann, P. (2008). Saying the wrong thing:
improving learning with multimedia by including misconceptions. Journal of Computer-Assisted
Learning, 24,2.
Schmidt, Hans-Jürgen (1997). Students’ misconceptions – looking for a pattern. Science Education,
81.
Sewell, Audrey (2002). Constructivism and student misconceptions. Why every teacher needs to
know about them. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal, 48,4.
Smith, John P., diSessa, Andrea A., & Roschelle, Jeremy (1993). Misconceptions reconceived: a
constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3,2.
146
% 0,$'/0#',%( $0""' ('( 0",',0( &'%($(',0(
$"(0'( !" !", (% $'('% ( "),'%( )' ' "0
1'%%)( ( ((
,58 ?,
9 ,
%
3
*
, M.Ed.,
0. 3
8 '
,
*
, 3
27 3 $& 8
, M.Ed.
$59
/
,
& &
% %,
% %,
%. Q, ‘
’ %
,
%
&
1.
$
%
9*
%,
9
0
. & 9
1
,
, %
,
%
,
’
.
&
%
"
,
&
%
,
&
.
5
8
< 5~8
?
‘
& ’
&
&,
% ,
&
,
& &
%
.
,
& *
%
,
&
% %
0,
/ %
.
$
%,
‘ ’
9%
,
%/
9 0
% %
. $
%
,
9
,
%
-1%
&
147
,
/
%
,
,
.
*
/
, ’
&
(Moniot, [1993] 2002: 102-
103. Carretero et al., 1994: 363). 3
9%
9%
* % ’
(, 1998: 235-245). «/1
*
%
»,
«
9,
*
», «* ‘% ’». «+ ,
9
&
» (Husbands, [1996] 2004: 33). «
9
/
%
1
%0
!
» (Moniot, [1993] 2002: 327). «H
%
,
9%,
,
9 %
&
,
9
» (Husbands, [1996] 2004: 105). 4
%. 4 %
9%
:
9-/
, -, - .
&
!
9
,
(Blanco & Rosa, 1997: 196, 198-199). «4 !
/
&
»,
/
&, , , ,
(, 1998: 338, 366,
376). 6 !
,
%
% %
("
, 2004: 129).
**
!
&
/
&
,
,
,
*
(Hawkey, 2004: 35).
&
, &
,
, 09
, ,
,
% /
(D
, 1997: 195.
, 1998: 409-410). 3
/
(* , 1997: 68).
(3
, 1997: 79, 95).
,
1
«&» (D
, 1997: 159). /
,
**
1
9
/
,
/
9
.
,
,
,
(
1 , 1997: 136, 138). 4 & % !
*
%9
%
,
&
%
9 %
%
(Porat, 2001: 52).
, !
% Annales /1
,
, , , ,
%,
/, ,
(Leinhardt et al., 1994: 147-
148),
&
(D, [1985] 1999: 116, 119),
*
*
(Husbands, [1996] 2004: 90. 6
% &
, 2004:
435).
148
/
1
(&
% !
)
&
9
, 2, !, 22-26,
1
%.
*
,
%
'
,
'
,
.
4 9
,
,
%
0
.
* '!
!, (
$ , $
, ! ( ! ) #
,
!
, !
#
!
,
( () ! #
. *
#$
$ (
#
.
&
$ '! #
$
#, #
#
!. * '! ( ##
() !
, (
) !, ! (
)
(
), ! () ##
’ . ?
. F
.
+ ‘
&’
%
%:
6
%
1
*
, !
#
.
$
#, #
# #
.
6
% 2
% ’ #
$
, ! #
! , . $ ( #. @
,
$ $, .
!
. +’
$.
6
%
3
* '!
. F
, .
(
!
?
%
1, 2, 3
% %
& , &
%
%
%
9
%
. Q,
$
'
&
/
, 1
9
&
%,
9
.
H
%
4
&
,
,
&
,
9
%,
9
, *
*
,
1
. 4
%
/
&
,
,
, , /
*
,
,
% /
.
,
% &,
/
,
1
9 . , & /
& 1
149
/
, * %,
9
.
&
,
%
1%
.
C56
Abdi, S. Wali (2006). Correcting student misconceptions. Science Scope, 29,4.
Blanco, Florentino, & Rosa, Alberto (1997). Dilthey’s dream. Teaching History to understand the
future. International Journal of Educational Research, 27,3.
Byrnes, MaryAnn (2004). Alternate assessment FAQs (and answers). Teaching Exceptional
Children, 36,6.
Carretero, Mario, Jacott, Liliana, Limón, Margarita, López-Manjón, Asunción, & León, Jose A.
(1994). Historical knowledge: cognitive and instructional implications. In: Mario Carretero, & James
F. Voss (Eds.), Cognitive and instructional processes in History and the Social Sciences. Hillsdale,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chi, Michelene T.H. (2005). Commonsense conceptions of emergent processes: why some
misconceptions are robust. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14,2.
Hawkey, Kate (2004). Narrative in classroom History. The Curriculum Journal, 15,1.
Leinhardt, Gaea, Stainton, Catherine, Virji, Salim M., & Odoroff, Elizabeth (1994). Learning to
reason in History: mindlessness and mindfulness. In: Mario Carretero, & James F. Voss (Eds.),
Cognitive and instructional processes in History and the Social Sciences. Hillsdale, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Porat, Dan (2001). A contemporary past: History textbooks as sites of national memory. In: Alaric
Dickinson, Peter Gordon, & Peter Lee (Eds.), Raising standards in History education. International
Review of History Education, 3. London & Portland: Woburn Press.
Schmidt, Hans-Jürgen (1997). Students’ misconceptions – looking for a pattern. Science Education,
81.
Smith, John P., diSessa, Andrea A., & Roschelle, Jeremy (1993). Misconceptions reconceived: a
constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3,2.
Husbands, Chris ([1996] 2004). /
|
; +.,
.
6. '
. %
: 6
&.
Moniot, Henri ([1993] 2002). A |
. 6. Q9 . %
: 6
&.
D, 6
([1985] 1999). A |
. &
|
. 6.
8
. $ : }.
* , Q9 (1997). 4
%
& : «»
« ». $: N
D
& L
3
(.), «/
’
;».
&
. %
: /
.
"
, 3% . (2004). 4
/
%
!
/
!
%
*
: %
. & . & .
$, 9.
3
, L
(1997). H
%
: 0
&
:
% . $:
. & " ".
6
% (.), &
#
, . 8#. %
:
%-3
.
D
, N
(1997). +
%
. $: N
D
& L
3
(.), «/
’
;».
&
. %
: /
.
150
%556 ?
) =
< =6
.$.(.
8
.
5 ,5
$& % $*
3 . .. }.
=09
3 }!+= }!$46!+= L4}C}
1.0
Q
5
5
&
,
&,
%
=
'
>
#
%
%
,
,
91
.
5
1
%
&
&
556
?
% .
N
%
*
&%
%/
%
9%
.
1
&
0
&
1 0
&
%
-
*
&
%
.
& %
" ,
, 3
, M
& ,
-
*
.
1%
9
,
/ %
&
,
&.
L
&
,
9
1
%
% . 'Q
,
%
9%,
&
%
/
. C,
%
1
9%,
9
*
&
&
9
. .&.
9
&
%
9%.
/
, 9%
1
/
0
%
%
*
.
1
& %
"1
"
%
&
,
%
9 1
,
&
9
($ 1991, 30-31).
,
9
9
"
",
% &,
/
.
/
**
:
1. +
9 &
&
9
9
,
&
,
9
, &
9* , 1
% / %
9 %
9
9 .
2. +
9
'*' '
'- «$9
9», * ,
9%
%
%
%
%
%
.&. !
, "
9
, D
% ...,
*
%
'
9% «%
$
151
#
» %
«"9
6
»,
.
3. +
9
, % **
9
&
,
,
%
1
*
«/&» %
!!
#!
%
& , &
/
.
8*
%
/%
% 1%
, 9, , ** .
% 9%
,
9
,
*
%
%
#
/
0
,
*
,
%
%
9 .
6 %
9% /
0
% **
9
/
&
& , 9
0
8' $ (088$
+8$ "*
, *
-( 303/13-3-2003, . B. ),
152
8)
%
% &%
%
.
2. }
% *
% % ,
/
. ...
685 /0$$( $( ) =
<;
(< $( =
<:
1.
% &
,
,
,
9%.
2. /5
/
.
3. )56 5, 5-568
&
&
/&
.
4. (<~ 5 65~ 5=
9% /.
5. (=
/
8<
5
556
.
6.
&1
/
0
.
7. }
9
&
%
,
1
/
, .&. 9 ,
.
< $5
/ 5
55:
1. %
9
9%
2.
%
9%
/.
3.
/
«)»
<
:
x
%
,
,
«5» 5
:
. 5 8? (% /, / ,
,
.),
*. 5 5 (%
,
.)
. 5 8
(%
).
? :
). ?
$
%
, 9 & *
&
&
()
* *
.
$9
"*
''
&
% 9
,
/%. (6
4. 2007)
+
) 8 /55
:
• 3/
• +
•
•
• "
9%
• +
9
• &
•
9%
• 9%
• 3
• 3/
9
%...
•
..
4
9
/%-
%
«+.»,
, 1
(
) «
» (* . 6
4. 2007
Hasan 2006 /141).
153
4 % &
9
* %
/
/%
'
> (
> ),
%
9% /
,
,
/
9
.
4
9
,
/
9
.
4 +
4. 0
) 556 :
$ ; |
& +.
9
«…
!
F ,
8 . .`. (« #
!», « »), . #
# 400 .`.». (%
.
2002, . 16)
H 1
9
% /
.
,
,
&
O
' 1
<8 5<
565 56
5
,
% &
. $ 09
%
%
9%,
*
=,
6, '
*
9
%
.
1. (<8 ?= 6
56
A6 56
9
%
56
6
,
%
&
&
%
9 , .&. , , , ,
4 %
%
,
&
?
(
)
%. =&
9
/
,
&
-
9
,
.
154
~( M T
##
' #
,
!
1976,
(# # ,
# $
.) (
1982 # !
. (1) (#:
(1) @#: ? & +.: +.# @
+$#
#$#
|! . ;.. )
;
$ #.
( ! , # #
$
, #
# #
$.
(' '*
5
'
/
/
:
1. 65=
=
& /%:
1
. 6
/6
: .&. 565 / /
[jariksi]
[iariksi], 9
%
/
9
[ja]: .&.
*1 [javazo].
1*. 56
: .&.
% %
/
%
0,
0,
0· %, %,
%
%
,
%
%/
%.
1.
: .&. 9 \
\
9 \·
9
9
,
-
%
9
-,
&
9%
(, -
)
%
*
.
1.
: .&. &% /
, .&.
%),
5
,
.
'
?
<
8
/
8
(.&.
9%-&
),
?
65
8
=6 (
),
*
%
9
9
1
( &%
.&.
*
). 4 %
&
(
,
%
9): .&. ? =,
6 '<5.
3. 65=
5 56
556 ,
&
155
9 9
"%
9
"
=
(
9·
9*
9*%).
556
%
&
9
, &
9
*
, :
x
%
x %
x
% % %
x 8
- 9%
9
x }%
(
0
%
%
9%).
x D&
9 * .
Q 0
%
%. 4
%
&
* ,
1
& %
%
9
.
%556-
-
:
5568
=
%
.
%
9- 9
9%
%
9%
**
1
& (Bryant,
Bradley, MacLean & Crossland 1989
Bradley 1990).
Q&
*
/
% 0/
%
% 0
/,
,
8
=.
4 %
0
/,
9% : .&. «»- (
)
«»
/ $
9 %
–
& /: (.&. - - ).
=
1
& 556
/,
/
(&) /
/
/
9
&
. (* .
6
"., 1980),)
9
«% »
-
: « »
%
,
.
556
:
/
,
9
,
%
0 /
,
9,
**
9
,
*
&
,
- % *
&
-.
,
9
&
.
156
)
/
65
¬
&
&
,
9
9 .
1 \., (2004),
-5
1.
9
9
9
.
2.
9
&
%
,
3. /
&
%,
%
4.
9
%
%
%
%
.
5.
9
%
,
%
%.
6.
*
&
9%
0 &
*
7.
%
.
8.
9
/
%
.
9.
*
0
.
10. /
! #,
11.
!
#$ ((. (%:
% "
)
12. "
&
&
&
9
9
. (%: % "
)
13. 4
#. (
$ .
#
#$!
.
#. (\ 1987).
14.
%
1
. (%: % "
15.
-
&
9-
,
16.
%
. (%: % "
%
$!
#$#, +.# @
#$#
#$#
. |! & ;.).
?
556
- $ 5
;
8
:
9 +
:
- %
9
:
9 6
%-
.&.
%
…
9 3
& & //, -
9 /
.&.
9
%
9
:
/ (--)
(-
--).
9 L
/
. 6
9
15 /
9
3-5 /.
9
%
9
99&
/.
9 Q9
*
%
9
8
/
(
3000 /).
157
9 %
*
*
.
9
/
*
/
- /
&%
.&.-
9/
/
.
9 -}
%
%/ / ,
(%
)
/,
,
%
% ... `
!
( $,
# ( , . ( ! ,
# ( $ (.
9 -C
? ? < / 6
. /
9
%, 58
?
/. (
.!.)
9 -\%
«+
9
'/ 3#- # $#/ « +38 2007-08.
(
.!.)
9 ,56
5=
=
8?
55 *%
/
/ &
/
9
1% *%
/
9 (
.!.)
9 %
9%/
&%/ %
0
& .
Q9
9%
/
- .&. 9%
%
9%
%
9- ,
, , – (
2002-03:
!
3 &
:
:
%
% % 9
%
& .&.
, %
...: 120
:
«L /
% %
9
,
,
( 56,9%)10%
9
. (
- 6
$
, 2004)
9 Q9
*
*
/.
9
/
9
. (.&. %
–1, -,
–,
–, . .).
5. (5
' 9
& /
/
,
:
i 3
/
i 3
/
/ /
i 3
/
%
%
– \% /
9%
i \
9
(
)
/
.&. / % / –/
-
9 / % / – &
-
-
, &
&
i &
9
% *
i &
/*
/
i
&
«1
» /
9
*
&
%
i 3
%&
&
*
i /
9
4/=
i 3
/
i +
/.
158
i
(.&.
%/ ,
, /
9 /
).
$%
Ǭ
%
'
»
&1
*
1
&
%.
-
/
,
&
/
*
, %0
9
-
-*
%
9
.
C56:
x (Boud D., Keogh R. & Walker D. (Eds) (1985), Reflection: Turning experience into learning.
London: Kogan Page.
x Fravell, J. H. (1976) Metacognition aspects of problem solving. In L.B. resnick (Ed.), The
nature of intelligence (pp. 231-325). Hillsddale, NjQ Erlbaum.
x Fravell , J. H. (1979), Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area og cognitive
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906- 911.
x Holton D., Markridge P., D – Waburton ., (2007) > +
;!# & +., %
: .
.
x !
., *# #., (.)
x
1
., (2000), «+
, +$
@#
, %
: . ".
x 6% }., (2004) A
+.
$
##, %
: . Gutenberg
x 6
, 4., A ; /(, 8#, ?
## +!
'#, %
2001, . ".
x 6
". (1980), L% "
, %
.
x 6
". (2002), ; |
& +., %
2002.
x 6
".,
!. .. (2000) ?
- &$
: @. +
@. ?!
?
&. 1 &
, %
, .
"
.
x D 303, 304/13-3-2003.
x
1 \., (2004), +$ +$
- %
: . Gutenberg
x
- 6
$
(2004),
9
, _
6 , %
: 6
&.
x
.3. «,
x Porpodas (1993), «The relation between phonemic awareness and reading and spelling of
Greek words in the first school years” Oxford, Pergamon Press, . 203-217
x Porpodas, C. Pantrelis S. N. & Hantziou, E. (1990), “Phonological and lexical encoding
processes in beginning readers: effects of age and word characteristics”, Reading and
Writing, An Interdisciplinary journal2: 197-208.
x $9
6.,
G
% /.
:http://www.media.uoa.gr/language/exercises/appendix.doc.
-
: $. . 6&$
%
: $. . 6&,
. , 6.
, 6&
, . 3
" %
: !. "
)
159
/= 8 j
&
% Q
3. "
4
& %
/
9%
&%
«
» ( II, "# $)
«
"
-'
.
*
».
’
9
3
*
, /
8# "
# '
} %
9 . $
*
&
/
,
9
/ ,
&%
.
,
9
$
. +
%
%
9
1
. 9
%
. 6
9
,
, & &,
.
/
&
:
x
9
&
*
. /
% %
9
, &
%
x L
/
. 4
%
%
/
%
.
/
%
9
.
/
9
9
"
" (1997, 1999: 69)
%
%
.
9
9
9 1
9% %
/
%0, %, &
9. +
9
.
*%
%
30 &
9
&
(
, Leech, 1983: 15)
&
(
% &%
, ibid)
*
. +
:
x 3
x G
9
4
/
%
1
.
160 1
1. /
:
&
.
$
&
. ,
%
% &,
&
%
% /%
9
«
».
&
&
. +
%
&%
&
&%
,
% .
1
9%
*
%. /
*
30
*
* :
)
9
*)
&
.
* %
:
) $
( 4
30)
&
9
. $
9
9
*
&
*
9
,
%
0
/
.
%
: « }
/
,
&
9
9
9
%, 9
‘3
9
’. }
9%
9%
,
*
1%
%
9*%
.»
01
9
%
.
=& **
9
/
9
,
*
9
9 %/
.
: «}
0
&
*
9
: ‘
&%………./
9
’». $’
%
.
30
,
6
2
*
% &
1
4
* % «'%
&
» 1 &
/
9
%
«$
».
%
...
2
161
9 9
Austin (1975)
&
%
Searle
%
&
,
% &%
.
+ /
(Austin, Leech)
: 9 (locutionary)
/ 9, (illocutionary)
/
9 (
**
, 9
, 9
9*
.)
(perlocutionary)
9%
%
% (Leech, 1983:175). + Leech
%
% & (Leech 1983: 200)
% 9. 3
%,
&
%
% 9
% /
9
% &
% &
9
&%
/
. $
,
%
9
&%
/%
/
%
:
3
9
(
&
(
9, 9
) (
, (
) /)
&
)
"9 91
$
"9
0
9
0
0
3
}1 $& 1
Q&
3
0
0
6
30
%
9
%
% ( % &). $
%&
.
%
% '%
&
%
0 (93,3%),
# '
162 3
< (Georgakopoulou and Goutsos, 1997: 147)
&
%
/
%
.
+ &%
&
.
30
20 & &%
05 –
,
6 &%
$5– =,
&%
(6
<,
9
*
1
&
& &
&%
9
. Q
9
*
& &
91
(Georgakopoulou and Goutsos, 1997: 151). 4 %
9
1
&
9
,
%
,
%
%
&
(Hinds, 1979: 137).
H
G% 3% W. C. Mann, C.M.I.M. Matthiessen
S.A. Thompson
(1992: 45) %
* &
&
&
9%
1
«
9
.» 8
% O
% %
%
9 9
(
,
.
.) &
9
%
/
.
&
-
&
%
(text spans).
$
% 9
G% 3%
&
&% '
/
.
4
G% 3% & %
/ &
&
9%
&
/ & &
9
%
1
& % 9
(ideational relations: Georgakopoulou and
Goutsos 1997: 79)
& 91
9
1
&
(ibid.).
0 &
(Restatement), $0 (Summary) %
(List) 91
&
&
& % 9
.
& & % 9
(Georgakopoulou and Goutsos, 1997: 79):
3
O /
/% /
$
31
/
9
,
,
..
H
9
,
%
&
9
9
%
9
.
$
& & '% 9
9
/%,
. +
& $&
3
/ . $
&
& (.&.«
9
», % «
……»),
4
163
%
&%
0 &. 3
%,
&
&
/
%
9,
%
%0.
,
%&
9,
%
9%
/%
,
0
&
.
$
&
%
0
'%
&
2
.
. 0: 9
% 1% & 1 9
;
6
1
; }
% 0%
.
0 56
: Q9
/
: 3
&
9 $, L
L $
&5 (<: -
&58 556: /% – ' - 3
$ <
5
: 93,3%
4
&%
1
. + &
9
9
(
0
&
&
** ).
%
%
9
9
&
«»
&
(
0 9
).
,
*
0
9
91
.
+
*
&
0
9
/
*
0
&
1,
0
'%
&
.
$
&
%
0
'%
&
. ,
%
9 1 &%
&% 9
% &. 3, «O» % &
164 5
). 0:
,
, 1
0
&
& 9% % 9
0
&
.
0 56
: Q9
/
: 3
&
9 $, L
L $
&5 (<: -
&58 556: /% –
- '
$ <
5
: 93,3 %
*
0
&
. 3
%,
&1 %
9 0
&
,
: «3
& , %
‘
’ 0
&
»,
&1 0
&
.
/. 0: }
0
&
*
9
: «
&%………./
9
».
0 56
:
/
:
$, L
1
$
&5 (<: $
9%
&
4
& &%
9%
&
9
/
/
. +
&
&
&
%0,
1
C'C'%)&+'
0
x +
9
', $&
2006-2007, =....L.,
!, %
3
*
.
x Q9
-Q
', & # , +..3.8., %
.
x
%
" %
"
',
*
3
*
– L
6
165
%, =L –
!, %
, 2000, D 561, . 8#, 6.05.1999
(=.. "2/1088).
x C
% ', D 921, . 8#, 5.07.2005 (=..
63447/"2/27.06.2005).
x ,. 1999: 4
/ Q /, 3
%
*%,
% !
.
x ) 5= . /. )= 1999:
, %
,
"
.
1
x Austin J. L. 1975: How to do things with words, Clarendon Press Oxford.
x Beaugrande, R. de and Dressler W. 1981: Introduction to Text Linguistics, London,
Longman.
x Brown G. and Yule G. 1983: Discourse Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
x Georgakopoulou A. and Goutsos D. 1997: Discourse Analysis: An Introduction, Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
x Grice H. P. 1975: Logic and conversation, Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts, Cole P. and
Morgan J., New York: Academic Press.
x Hinds J. 1979: Organizational patterns in discourse, Syntax and Semantics 12: Discourse and
Syntax, Givn T., New York: Academic Press.
x Leech G. 1983: The principles of Pragmatics, London: Longman.
x Mann W. C. Matthiessen C. Thompson S. A. 1992: Rhetorical Structure Theory and text
analysis, Mann W. C. and Thompson S. A.,Discourse Description: Diverse Linguistic
Analyses of a Fund-Raising Text. Amsderdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
166 7
(('%%)', ,' 0$',%'"!"'( 00'%+%'!" !"
#,0'%#. 0$'("(0'(, /'$'(!(0'(, $&%(0'(.
,=~ '
,
3
*
)
565 <
"# '
,
9
&
%
-9
2001
2006.
.
%
% &%
%
09
% ,
,
& .
9
. 9
30-35%.
?
/ ($) &
% &%
.
% &%
,
%
/
9,
/
9,
/ % 9
/ /.
*
&
%
.
*
/
%
, 9
,
9%
9
.
$5
1. 5?
1.
**
9
%/,
.
2. 6
9
.
3. $’
%
&%
9%
*
*
.
4.
& %
& 9
&1
&1
1%
.
5. 4 & %
/
.
6. H *
&
*
. 4
*
.
7. …
/0
&
.
8.
&
* %
,
1 &
,
%
*
.
9. …
*
.
10. …
9
9
* %
.
11. 3
9 1
%
. ( %
).
12. 4
.
13. 4
66,
,
/
.
14. }
.
15. $
.
16. …
&
1
.
17. …
&
%
.
18.
*
* %
.
19.
9
9
,
9
&.
20. 4
9, 9.
21.
0 …
22. 6
%
0
&
.
23. 4 % &% &
1
*
.
24. 6
,
1 * .
25. &
9
.
26.
%
*
.
27. +
& 9
.
28.
.
29. =&
%
.
30. …
.
1
167
31. 4
*
* .
32. $
,
%
.
33. +
* %
.
34. 6
&
/1
&
&
%
.
35. +
/ &
.
36.
, 1
/
%
.
37. 4
9
1
.
38.
1
(
&
).
39. 9
%
*1 9 (
% ).
40.
9
%
& %
.
41. + ,
%
,
09
.
42. …
&
&
&
% .
43. 6 /
%
9 1
.
44. … 1
.
45. =&
,
.
46. + 9*
1
.
47. 4
*
.
48. …
,
1
%
.
49. H
, *
9.
50. 6 &
&
.
51. +
0
.
52. +
% 1
**
.
53. …
0
*
.
54.
,
, &
,
,
.
55. …
&
.
56.
%
% &
9.
57.
&
*
*
…
58. =&
&
&
0
&
.
59. …
&
9
/
9
* .
60. + &
&
%0.
61.
&
,
/ .
62.
, 1
&
* %
%%
.
63. =&
& .
64. }
/
&
*
.
65. 4
1 /
.
66.
&
&
&
,
*
1 «
».
67. …
,
%
.
68. 4 / *&%
9
%
.
69.
*
.
70. $ % &% /
9% & %
*…
71. + 1
/
%
…
72. 3
%
…
73. 4
…
74. …
(
&
Q )
0
.
75.
&
.
76. Q - 9
,
&
Q
&
.
77. + 9
…
78. D
&
%
.
2
168
79.
*1
,
&
.
80. 4 9
*
&
/ 9 .
81. 4
*
&
.
82.
/
,
.
83.
&
%
9
.
84.
% 9
.
85.
’
&
&
1
&
/ /
…
86.
/ &
0
%
&
&.
87.
%
*
,
%/
9
% .
88. + 9
…
89. H
9.
90.
%
% *
9 .
91. 4
9%
9% %
.
92. …
%
.
93. 4
…
2. 6 (
)
1. +
&
9
%
&
%
9
.
2.
%
9
.
3.
& & &%
.
4. 6
&%
9
.
5. +
, & &
, &
…
6.
9
.
7. 4
* % &%
1
«
».
8. +
% / /% . (
).
9. 3
9
.
10.
&
,
.
11. 4
9% 9
9
. Q
.
12. ,
,
&
.
13. 4
0
…
.
14. $
9
9
.
15. $’
(
) 9
*
.
16. \ 9
& 1% * .
17. Q
.
18. 9
*
.
19.
*
,
.
20. $
1%
/
9 /
/ 1%.
21. &%
9
&
,
*
1%
.
22. 4 9
9
9
,
, 1
1
.
23. "’
9
,
9
*%
.
24. H
&
&
.
3
169
25. $
&%
9
&
0 %
*
* %
.
26.
0
*
%
27. 4
&
*
&
.
28. +
%
1%
,
9
&
9
/
.
29. $
&%
9
&
0 %
*
* %
.
30.
66
9
.
3. *5
8?
65
<5 ?8
8?
1. …
1
&
& 9
….
2. …
6.6..
3. Q
%
*
%
.
4. 4
& 1%
.
5. "
* %
*
…
6. +
.
7.
1
% 1%
.
8.
*
media
*
…
9. +
,
. 9
.
10. …
%
1%
.
11.
%
9
%.
12. $ -
91 *
%.
13. …
9
.
14. +
&
1%
.
15. …
&
%.
4. j9 565
1. 4
/
&
%,
/
2%.
2.
,
&
*&
&
%
,
0 .
3. "
%
%
,
%,
&
9.
4. +
&
1929
%
&
9
%.
5. H
(
)
&
*
9
*
1
.
6.
,
9 9
, & %
…
5.
8
= ?
1.
« ».
2. …
&
,
%,
.
3. 6
/
.
4.
/,
*
1
1.
5. 6 %
/.
6. 4
1
.
+
:
1. 4 %
.
,
% &% "
.
2. +
* &
9 .
4
170
3.
,
9
9.
4.
* % &
,
/ &
, /
/
/
/
9
.
C
/
&1
%
/
% /&.
% /
9
:
x %
% /.
x
9
.
x
/
0
3
&
. +
*
%
%
9
&
&
.
- $5
"
:
1. 4
&
%.
2. 4
/
.
,
5,
% /,
9
,
/%:
$ /
"
}
%
*1
& ** . 6 *
&
/
:
1. 59
2. , 9
9
&
9
3.
<55=
4.
5.
% &
9
4
%
%
} .
C
% &
*
%
} .
%
,
%
&
* 7- 10 **
&
.
8
65 5
9
%
%
%
:
1. +
*
&
& %
** .
2. 4
&% %
%. +
&% /
**
.
1
,
.
3. "
% **
/
4. N&
0 ** %
5. $
&%
**
9
6. Q **
*
&
.
Q
1
9
,
9
, 0
/
0 9
.
1
*
.
5
171
$5 5=
5
= 6: A
1
$59
6
&
9
14-16 &
‘*
’ (basics),
% %
,
‘ *
’ (new
basics),
,
1%
9
&
1%.
*
/& 09
9%*
14-16 . 4
9% %
&
% %
&
(1.447
). 4
9%
9% &
%
(4.080
%).
4
1
9
9%
9%*
&
% %
.
&
&
. $
,
% %
&
·
/
,
9
·
&
%
9
9%*
/
(9
9
%),
%
%
,
% ( 9
)· *
&
/%
9
0 .
1. 0
$
&
9% 9%*
14-16
*
,
&
%
9%
&%
.
&
%
& %
,
L
(* .
3)
/
2006. $
%
* % %
9%*,
%
% (9
) % & ( 9
).
4
/,
%
/
,
*
&
%
%
. $
,
,
1
&
%
/
.
,
/
9
%
& %
.
4
,
% 9
&
9
,
&
1%
9
,
&
. $
&
**
9
‘
*
’ (New Basics) %
(New Literacies)
(Lankshear & Knobel 2003, Leu .. 2004). 4
O
*
,
% 9
,
& /. +
9
&
/
%
&%
9%2. 4
1
L
&
%
% "
/
%
%,
6
3
'
. 4
(* .
2007) /%&
‘
%
%
’
&
%
"# ..$.
2
8 . 9% "
. 8*
%, . 230-232.
172
%
&
%
.
&
%:
2
1%
%
/
%
&
,
/ /
. $
3
&
&1
. $ 4
5
. $
01
1
%
.
,
/
&
% %,
& 9
"
.
$
% %,
%
(
/ ) &
0
/
%, & %
(= &% ‘ ’
%
)
% &
, ‘
’,
&
.
4 %
%
&1
*
&
%
, &
%&
/ PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)
(Johnson & Kress 2003).
3
&
9*
9
/
&
&
,
*
1%
&
& & %
(Fullan 1991, Van
Kraayenoord 1996,
2006),
* &%
. 6
% %
,
, ,
1%
%
/ . 3
&
&
,
% %
, 1
9 &
,
/ % %
(Koutsogiannis & Tsokalidou
).
9
&
%
% % %
& ,
%.
%
9
*
,
& 1%
%
%.
% %,
1
* % %
9%*. L,
%,
9
, &
9
173
&
9
9
,
9
0 % %
.
3. 5= 85
+
/ % 3 %
4
*
&,
&
&
%
.
*
&
/ ,
/%
,
/
&
& %
.
$
,
%
/%
%
& %
*
/& 09
9%*
14-16 .
%
!.
:
(
)
9
%
,
% %
%
&
.
(*)
. 4 %
&
&
&
9
, %
%
% (* .
1).
() '
%
&
/
&
,
9
9%
& %
9%*
.
() 4
9%*
/ %
,
%
5.
&
59 %
* ,
9,
9% 09
/&
9%*. 3
% %
&
%%
%, /
.
%
/ &
%
%&
&%
. 4
/
1
35
(* .
5).
3
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP),
, /
4
/
&%
% *
, :
%
,
,
9
%,
,
9
(* .http://www.nagb.org).
4
8 .
/ % PISA.
174
4.174
.
(
70%)
9%*
, %
(44%)
L
(30,2%).
&
9%*
%
. 4
%
9% &%
1
1:
$
1.
) 56 5< (<
$ (%)
%
1.836 44
L
1.260 30
248 6
}
164 4
/
4
142 3
$
116 3
88 2
N*
82 2
D
67 2
50 1
D
4
47 1
$
40 1
$%
34 1
(=
4.174 100
$
2
&
&
%
.
*
0 %
,
&
,
&
&%
%
%
%
%
.
$
2.
%
&
&
& 9%, %
%
&%
.
1
&
(2,2%)
&
(0,2%). 4
%
%
%
.
&
&
(82%).
&
18%,
* 9
& (
%
9
)
&
&
(* .
Koutsogiannis 2007).
$ &
%
,
/1
%
,
!
,
& &
&
%
. $
9
&
,
%%
%
&%. L
, ,
%
& ,
1
&
/ %
. ,
% /&
*
.
%
,
%,
&
&1
9 %
.
175
4.
4 %
&
%
/
9
//
(Corder 1967: 161-170, 1987, Selinker 1992: 150).
/
(
)
,
&
% -
%
,
%
9
%
(*)
(
, 9
),
%
&
,
&
%
&
, ,
% & (* .
Corder 1987).
% &
%
,
/
9
1
%
&.
%
%
, %
%
%
%
. / &%
9
, &
1
5
+
9 "1
"2
&
9%
9%*
&
% % ("1) ("2)
.
6
1
!!.
176
4.2
+ 9
9.716 63.760 / (15%), 9
3.195 12.329 / (26%). 4
9
% (&2=559,420, p<0,001).
4
%
%
:
$
3.
%
,5 )1 )2
*# 1.739 (18%) 802 (25%)
/ 6.447 (66%) 1882 (59%)
% 869 (9%) 309 (10%)
;
343 (4%) 126 (4%)
' (# 308 (3%) 76 (2%)
$
9.716 3.195
3 &
9%*
9
%
:
*
%
,
9
&
%
9
9
,
/ . ,
1
9
,
1
* %
/ 10%. $
&
1
.
:
$
4. +
9 &
,5 )1 )2
?
408 (0,6%) 222 (2%)
@#$#
179 (0,3%) 41 (0,3%)
' (
1.152 (2%) 521 (4%)
} ( 5.984 (9%) 1.661 (13%)
'
463 (0,7%) 221 (1,8%)
(=
8?
63.760 12.329
"
% %,
10%
,
&1
&% /.
9
2,9% (1.739 63.760 /),
10,1% ( 6.447
63.760 /).
&
*
/
1 /,
&
&
&
%,
%
,
,
/
*
13% (6.447/46.227).
9
% "2
6,5% (802 12.329 /),
15,3 (1882 12.329 /). /
1 /
9
9
&
. ,
9
% (&2=40,438, p<0,001).
+
1
&%
:
177
$
5. \%
,5 )1 )2
@ " 100 (1,06%) 41 (2,42%)
'
73 (0,78%) 23 (1,36%)
@ 57 (0,61%) 25 (1,48%)
(=
<5
5
9395 1694
%
&
/
9
, /
%
(
&
) 1
:
)56 1.
&%
%
14
12
10
!@
8 $
6
!$
4
0
! * ! !
H 9
9
1,
9
1
%
` .
%
6,74% (166/2462)
% %
13% (71/547)
% "2. 4
9
9
9
% (&2=23,997, p<0,001). 4
9
:
$
6. \%
,5 )1 )2
@ " ! 39 (1,6%) 19 (3,5%)
'
118 (4,8%) 44 (8%)
@ ! 9 (0,4%) 8 (1,5%)
(=
<5
5
2462 547
&% 9
*
% % "2,
%
%
(* . 9
2).
/1
0
/ 9%*
&
%
*
&%
&% %,
%
%
&
.
, 9* %
%,
&%
&
% %, 9
1
* %
%
. 4 &%
* %
9
9
&
, ,
.
178
)56 2.
&%
%
35
30
25
!@
20 $
15
!$
10
0
! ! * !
;
$
&
9
/
1
7:
$
7. $&
9
,5 )1 )2
;
$
~- 75/10.066 (0,8%) 19/2.234 (0,9%)
;
$
*6 42/4.392 (1%) 9/751 (1,2%)
;
$
~-? 28/603 (4,6%) 14/152 (9%)
9
%
+D
&
9
. 4
9
–
9
*
%
9
&
* %
9
9
(&2=4,820,
p<0,03). C, /
/ &
0
9
–
9
9
$
8. 69
&
,5 )1 )2
%#
140/15.994 (0,9%) 37/2.890 (1,3%)
%#
" 120/10.253 (1,2%) 43/2.224 (1,9%)
` 17/10.253 (0,2%) 14/2.224 (0,6%)
6$ 1/10.253 (0,01%) 4/2.224 (0,2%)
/! 15/10.253 (0,2%) 4/2.224 (0,2%)
;! 153/10.253 (1,5%) 65/2.224 (3%)
. C,
9
9
9
(&2=4,323,
p<0,04)
(&2=21,783, p<0,001). ,
%
&%
% 0,
1
&
(}
&
1985,
&
1995, 8
2001,
2005).
;
$
'
9 &%
2%
9
(28 1431
& &%)
9
(5
252
& &%).
179
$
9. $
,5 )1 )2
@ " ; 11/1431 (0,8%) 1/252 (0,4%)
'
; 9/1431 (0,6%) 2/252 (0,8%)
@ ; 8/1431 (0,6%) 2/252 (0,8%)
; $
%
%
("1: 0,001%, 7/63760, "2: 0).
4.2.3 ;
@
$
%
4,5%
(70/1566)
9
14% (42/300)
9
. 4
9
%
% (&2=40,529, p<0,001).
$
10. D
%
,5 )1 )2
@ " 21 (1,3%) 28 (9%)
'
33 (2%) 12 (4%)
@ 16 (1%) 2 (0,7%)
;! $. $ 1.566 300
$
11. D
%
,5 )1 )2
@ " 29 (0,7%) 14 (2,2%)
'
51 (1,2%) 14 (2,2%)
@ 55 (1,3%) 6 (0,9%)
;! $. $ 4.277 643
;!
6
%
&%
9
1,7% (70
4122 &%)
9
2% (16 800
&%).
$
12. \%
,5 )1 )2
@ "
36 (0,9%) 4 (0,5%)
'
!
8 (0,2%) 2 (0,3%)
@
26 (0,63%) 10 (1,3%)
;! $. $ 4.122 800
180
$
13. 3
,5 )1 )2
0
18 (0,6%) 13 (2,4%)
5 (0,2%) 0
% 2 (0,1%) 3 (0,5%)
C*
% 2.833 553
0
22 (0,8%) 6 (1,1%)
21 (0,7%) 12 (2,1%)
C*
% 2.843 565
?
&
&% ("1: 0,3%, 3 1024
& &%
"2: 2,9%, 5 173
& &%).
&1
9
% &%
%
, % ,
.
$
14.
,5 )1 )2
@ " .. 1 (0,001%) 1 (0,6%)
'
.. 2 (0,3%) 4 (2,3%)
;! $. $ 1.024 173
$
15. '/
,5 )1 )2
69% 92 (0,3%) 18 (0,3%)
$
216 (0,7%) 58 (0,9%)
C*
% 3.1292 6.149
4.3 ;
4
/ %
9%*
/
, 9
9
%, *
(* .
..
). C,
&
0
,
9 ,
*
&%1
.
,
&
9
%
,
% 09
9*
&
9
*
9 9 & . /1
& %
9
9%*
/
,
%
. C,
&
9 &
.
$
*
9
%
. 4
%
&
&
/ &%
% 9
9
(
& % ) %
(Tsimpli & Mastropavlou 2007). + Tsimpli & Mastropavlou,
,
9
9 – ,
, –
&
. ,
’
&% &
*
%. , 9*
&
(.&.
) 9
&
* %
,
&
%
0 %
. +
(
)
*
9
% %
181
(*) *
/
% %
&%1
.
Q
/
%
%
.
&% /
* %
%. C,
&
/
&%
("1: 1.024
63.760 /, "2: 173 12.329 /) &
%
&1
.
,
-
-
1
9
&
&1
% %/,
%
& . Q, 9
*
&
(language awareness)
%
(explicit learning) (* . Doughty & Williams 1998, DeKeyser 2003, Ellis 2006
/ ).
5. /
?
565
Q
9 &
%
/ 9
&
&
1%. 6
%
&%
/
%
.
4
%
*
0 & %
(reading literacy),
*
*
*
,
%
&%
% 9
/ &. L,
%,
&
% %
%
/ %
%
%
&%
(.&.
9%,
9, &
.),
9,
PISA (2006)
&%
(
,
,
9 ..).
% %
%
&
1%,
&
/ – , /
/
,
Google
&% (/
2006). 4
%
%
182
&% > "
> StAkIS > "=GC + 4} ,&%$% ( &...) "=GC +
4} ,&%$% ( &...) !'+$, + · -. +}+6 G\!+=, + · - ...
www.dpgr.gr/usergalleries/thumbnails.php?album=271 - 40k -
$
-
4. $'( ,&#)'"": , '
5!
6
9
9,
9
,
/&
5, &%
6
*
&. ...
www.athinorama.gr/afierwmata/makrigianni/ - 23k -
$
-
5. ESOTERICA.gr - ""0 ,&%$%" - -= +?
=-
4 }
5 9 /
ESOTERICA.gr. ... + 3% +
} ,&%$% 1957.
& % ...
www.esoterica.gr/guests/nea_akropoli/nea_akropoli.htm - 16k -
$
-
www.esoterica.gr
=%/
%
%
%
&
*
%,
%
%. 4 %
% %
:
2. "8 5
$&
%
&
.
D
9
...
www.nea-acropoli.gr/ - 49k - 3 3 2005 -
$
-
(}
),
%
9
0
%
9
&
%
%,
9 ‘
&
’
%
&
%.
%
%
% %.
9
,
&
9
1%
( &
)
%
/
&
(PISA 2006). L%
%,
6. %
2 %
6
2
%
.
$
%
4.080
,
3.585 ( 88%
) &
% %
495 ( 22%
) &
%
. +
16
1
%
:
$
16.
* %
,5 )1 )2 )1&)2
;$ 1.948 (54%) 216 (44%) 2.164 (53%)
' 999 (28%) 218 (44%) 1.217 (30%)
&
$ 638 (18%) 61 (12%) 699 (17%)
$ 3.585 495 4.080
16
9 30%
%
&
% %, 17%
. 9
%
%
,
% &
53%
&
.
+
& %
& 9*
&
%
9
9
(&2=56,316, p<0,001).
, «»
54%
9%*
9
%
44%
.
&
28%
9%*
44%
.
9
9* – 9
% –
. 4 %
, ,
% % (18%),
12%
9%*
.
183
6. (5:
%
/%
:
1.
% %
&
%
%
&%
&
,
9
&
(N
.
.
).
2.
/
1
9
9
&%1
.
3.
1
%
&
9 *
&
9% %
.
,
,
* %
%
.
+
9, ,
&
9%*
9
% &
%
&1
,
9%
%/, &
%
&
& , %
.
4.
, *
&
/%
9
,
%
&
/
&
1%,
/
0 . L
9%
&
,
&
. &
(* . N
..
).
%
&
&1
/
*
&
&1
%
%
,
&
&
.
5. /
&, ,
&
%
%
9%*
%
&
&
&
&
.
9
&
9
% %/
&
9
.
$
,
,
&
1
& 1%
,
1%
% &,
9
%
*
%
.
C56
+''*
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5(4):
161-169.
Corder, S.P. (1987). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
DeKeyser, R. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning
Doughty C.
Williams J. (1998). Focus on Form in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Ellis, R. (2006). Current Issues in the Teaching of Grammar: An SLA Perspective. TESOL Quarterly 40(1):
83-107
Fullan, M.G. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gorman, A., Purves, A.
Degenhart, R. (.) (1988). The IEA Study of Written Composition I: The
International Writing Tasks and Scoring Scales. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Jonson, D.
Kress, G. (2003). Globalization, Literacy and society: redesigning pedagogy and assessment.
Assessment in Education 10 (1):5-14.
Koutsogiannis, D. (2007). A Political Multi-layered Approach to researching Children’s Digital Literacy
Practices. Language and Education 21(3): 216-231.
184
Koutsogiannis, D.
Tsokalidou, R. (
). Designing and implementing a research project on
bilingualism and language education: first findings and remarks. Proceedings of the 42nd Linguistics Colloquium.
Lankshear, C.
Knobel, M. (2003). New literacies. Changing Knowledge and Classroom Learning. Open
University Press: Buckingham-Philadelphia.
Leu, D.J., Jr., Kinzer, C.K., Coiro, J.
Cammack, D.W. (2004). Toward a theory of new literacies
emerging from the Internet and other information and communication technologies. $ R.B. Ruddell, & N.
Unrau (.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (1570-1613). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
NCTE (2005). The Impact of the SAT and ACT Timed Writing Tests. Urbana: NCTE
OECD (2004). Lessons from Pisa for schooling policy in Denmark.
OECD (2006). Assessing Scientific, Reading and Mathematical Literacy. A Framework for PISA 2006.
Selinker, L. (1992). Rediscovering interlanguage. London: Longman.
Tsimpli, I.M.
M. Mastropavlou (2007). Feature interpretability in L2 acquisition and SLI: Greek clitics
and determiners. $ J. Liceras, H. Zobl and H. Goodluck (), The Role of Formal Features in Second
Language Acquisition, (142-183). London: Routledge.
Tsimpli, I.M., Roussou, A., Fotiadou, G.
Dimitrakopoulou, M. (
). The
syntax/morphology interface: Agree relations in L1 Slavic/L2 Greek. $ Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Greek Linguistics, University of York.
Van Kraayenoord, C. (1996). Literacy assessment. $ G. Bull
M. Anstey (), The Literacy Lexicon
(237-247). Sydney: Prentice Hall.
*
, ., 8
, $. ", 3.
6
-+9
, . (
). 4
/
"
. @ 3 ! ;
#
& $ +..
% , 22-23 +*
2004.
, . (2007). A # $
.. @ # (#
$ .
%
: .
8
, D. (2001).
% %
/
. $ 6. 8*
. \
1 (.), %
$
! $
(#$)
.
http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/files/document/practice/texnologikos_grammatismos_3.pdf
[30.10.2008]
}
, 3.
.
, (1984). 4
% 0 } /
/
: / %
9
. % # &
#. 5, (185-200). L
: 9
.
, .
$.
, (1995).
–
,
/
–
/
%,
... 4
% 0 (Verbal Aspect). +$ &
# 1: 9-11.
, 3. (2005). 4
%
% 0
%
//
. Journal of Applied Linguistics 21: 39-54.
$55 '
<8 5
8.
; (.&.
,
, & % *&
.)
18.
9
% 9 «
», 9
1
/
- 1
*
; }
H&
-
/;
35. 4 /
% %
%
%
0 & ,
%
&
. $
&
*%
%
.
%
; "0
/
% %.
185
36. %
&
%
,
,
/%
,
%.
/%
,
&
,
9
%; (=
&
%
).
:
38. = &
*
/
1%
% +
%
/%
%.
1
&
&
,
$55 ''
%556
(
37:
&
,
8'*'
1194:
9!
1258:
9
86: *,
& !
86:
,
56
&
@ "
945:
9 !
,
Internet,
&
&,
'
!
1645: ** %
(
@ "
3474:
0
&
1%
.&.
%
'
1273:
0 /
@
49:
&
$
*
;
$
-
789: … / … (
: …)
;
$
*6
262: … … 58
685
…
;
$
~
-?#
69:
*
58
9 /
'
& *
%#
!
1257:
5
%#
59:
0
&
&
%
1%
9 5 9 59 …
165: …
*
1
photo
%
5 . 55
1243:
(=
)
7
+
&
.
186
$*
@ " ;
135: …
!!
@ ;
208: …
&
9
…
'
;
714: …
&%
power point
*
%&…
$
*
289: …
9 5
…
(
8
8
'
@ "
1642: …
&
&
…
'
577: …
9
&
&…
@
1155: …
0
&
&
$
@ "
350: …
…
'
!
406: … /
% %
%
…
@
1083: …
*
…
E *
/
`
1278:
`
449: L
1
/%:
internet
0
&
@ "
1245:
%
Google
/
&
@ "
1218:
0
(
'
1916: …
google
9
+
8
…
@ "
!
1243: (
)
Word…
?
1464: <58 &%
$
1238: Q
&
187
%
-
:
-
%
L
13-14 3*
2007
1
%
3%
,
% L
&
*
. &
,
9
1
.
% 0
&
, ,
,
&
1
&
,
& 9
9
O %
,
%
.
%,
%
9%
% (Freire,
" .., 2003).
3
&
&
*
. $’
,
1
&
(Freire,1970). }
&
%
*
*
. $
9
%
%
9
. 6
9 /
/
9
& . 6 &
/
0
&
,
%
/
.
& &
9
9
% 1%
.
6
,
*
(6
\.,- "
., 1999).
4
1
&
/
,
%
.
« 9
»
&
«»,
%,
Bourdieu
(" ,2005).
&
*
%
&
- %
188
.
'
%
%
&
%
, 9
/
9
/
&
&.
4
*
%
%
&
/
*
/
% .
3
:
9
"
$
&
& /
,
. =&
& %
**
1
9
: «=&
*
;», « ;», « &
;», «"
%
&
;», «
0 ;».
9
% /.
\
9
9
*
*
&%
*
0
,
/
9 %
&
%
0
.
9
%
9
& %
&
,
9*
9
/. "
9
%
*
9
&
*
9
1
9
1%
9
&
.
$
*
% $&
9,
%
&
–
%/
*
%,
9 % &,
*
/,
%
9
&
9
,
&
/
%
*
/
/
*
&
9%
.
%.
&
1
&
*
,
%
&
%
%
/
%
(
).
%
1%
/ %/
% 9 ( **
,
, ,
..) 1
9
/
,
9
%
%
%
* % .
4
9
/9
% «
1%
0»
,
Freire 1
&
,
&
.
* %
/.
& &
&
1%. 4
%
,
1
&
%. +
1
% /
/
-
-
0
%
.
&
/
%
% /
,
9, ,
&
. \
&
&
&
%
. 6
9
&
(Freire,1974).
189
6
%
,
%
% . $
&
&
/
,
%
%
% .
9
.
+
9. 4
%
%
9
0,
.
+
, «
%
»
9
%
9
,
%
%
.
/ -
%
6%
/ %
/
&
%
%
,
9
/
/;
%
%, /%
%
–
- * &
9
,
,
%
; 6%
&
&
,
*
«
»
«9
»,
9
%
9
0
; 6%
%
% ,
9
&
«»
9
« »
9
0
/
;
/
/& &
9 &
%
&
%
. 4
1%
%
,
% &
-
&
*
*
,
« »
%0
9.
+ Freire
%1
&,
&
1
, 9
%, %
%
9.
%
%
1
% 9
. H &
1 Freire «
/
» (Freire,2006).
*
% %/
9
1
&%
.
H
%
&
%
/
% .
4
%
/
0,
&
1
.
%
%
%,
%
.
% &
9
&
/
« »
«»
. /& 1
%
%,
%
&
%,
,
%
.
190
8*
9
;
, %
: 6
&.
" , ". (2005). * Paulo Freire @#
,L
: 8
.
-$, .(2000). }
# ( , %
: "
.
, . (2001).% @#$# ;
# @, %
:
"
6
, \., -"
., (1999),
#
!,
- ! #
(. $:
: ‘4 % % /
: 6
% ’.
, 25-27 !
1999, !!!,
: 2000.
, ".(2003). A @#$#, L
:
%.
Freire, P. (1970). @ # &
, %
:.
Freire, P. (1974). A #$# ?
, %
:.
Freire, P. (2006).
! . (. . '
).
%
: .
191
")"!(', ,' #%&&#'( !" /%',%# 0
,' *!&'( ")"!(',0( (#(,%'0(: 0$'/&( (" ")"!(',
',"%
6
"*
% L
$59
% 5
6
&
% 6
%
. +
&
&
(3),
%
(\3)
%
%
.
$ %
%
5
5 .
"
%
, &%
«9
&% 0». +
%
.
,
1
%
%
,
&
.
1 /
%
%
(3
\3). $
,
,
/% ,
&
&
%
.
1
%
,
%
1
%
*
.
,
, ,
0
4
%
%
–
&
%
. +
9 %
, &
,
(6
, 2007).
%
(
, 2003). +
&
&
0
(Kintsch,
1998).
$
&
%
0
Kintsch
(Albercht & Myers, 1995¬ Kintsch, 1998¬ van Dijk &
Kintsch, 1983) *
. $ ,
&
( /, )
&
. $
,
% %
9
,
, 9
,
,
*
1
%
O&
.
&
O&
,
& % (Evans –
Commander & Stanwyck, 1997).
9
*
/
. 4
*
,
*
/
. H
,
.
1
192
6
,
%
1
&%
,
*
. 4
*%
%
%
&
,
*
9
(Brown, 1980¬ Flavell, 1979).
&
,
%
&
%
%
&
(Meijer, Veenman
van Hout –
Wolters, 2006). L
%
(Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999)
%
,
/1
,
3
.
$
%, %
%
%
5
5
,
&
3
.
;
5
6 3
&
,
&#
6
%
4
% %
&
%,
%
% . \%
17 %
*
,
Likert
.
: 8
9
% , .&. «
%
*1
*
,
;», 3
% , .&.
«
%
*
, &
;»
6
% , .&. «
%
1
%
&
% –
&;»
+ %
&%
%
%
= .687
3
= .675
,
%
= .703
2
193
= .726
&
.
% %
= .725
3
= .706
&
3
.
%
, “
”,
&
"
9
%
, &
«
» (
% ),
%
(
*
&
) &%
«9
&%
0». 3
% &%
/
*
/
**
"
' /,
9
.
/%
/,
9
.
$ %&
“
(Baker, 1985¬ Markman, 1977¬ Otero, 1998)
&
%
&%
. +
%
:
) / % (
& ), *) (
), ) /% (
% %
), ) %
&% ( 0
&%
), )
%
)
%. 6
%
.
& &
,
&%
Searfoss
Readence (1985) 9
1
–
% (Bossert & Swantes, 1996). +
* 9
&
,
9 *
«
*
9
'
». 4 «9
&% 0»
9%
9%
% &%
*
Pressley
Afflerbach (1995). 4
/
&
%
. 4
9
% 9
98%.
9
1
(,
9
,
,
)
9%
– /,
. 4 % %
. 4
&
1
9
/
*
(Jenkins, Fuchs, van den Broek, Espin &
Deno, 2003).
,
%
1
1
9
& *
&
*
(Searfoss & Readence, 1985¬ 6
, 2007). 4
% *
15.
&
"
% % (
&
) &%
. +
%
'
*
Likert.
,
& *
18 %
9
:
*
, .&. «
*
*1 "
», , .&.
«
/
*
"
;»
9
% &
% , .&. «
9
*1
*
"
;»
+ %
&%
%
&
,
*
3
= .715
= .708,
3
=
.743
&
3
= 845.
3
194
9
% &
%
3
%
= 802
= .707.
Q
9 %
%
.&. «
% %
&
**
/
».
&
%
&%
3
= .732,
= .749.
8
' $
+
3
&
&
3
.
,
9 9
9 %
* [F(1, 133) = 25.578, p <
.001],
9
9
* [F(1, 133) = 13.300, p < .001],
9
*,
%&
9 [F(1,
133) = 130.645, p < .001]
, 9 [F(1, 133) = 23.844, p <
.001]. +
,
1
1.
1: 3
9
&
3
9%
%
*%
6
6
&
3
3
6+ 6+
2.25* 3.23 .22* .62
9
2.04* 2.20 .90* 1.35
7.24* 4.51 .81* .93
6 .48* .77 .01* .12
* p < .01
(
2).
2: 3
9
&
3
/
6
6
&
3
3
6+ 6+
.54* .93 .15* .36
9
.48* .77 .19* .47
7.03* 4.65 1.58* 1.69
2.70* 1.97 .31* .78
* p < .01
%
,
3
.
&
%
9%
/. $
4
195
&
3
,
& %
/,
*
(
9
) /
.
#$
+
3
&
&
&
&
3
. 4
9
9
/
%
(
&
3
)
&
(6+3 = 68.31, 3 = 3.34, 6+\3 = 151.93, \3 = 21.25), [F(1, 133) =
6.912, p < .001].
!
+
*
% ,
, &%
(
),
% % (
&,
)
%
* % “
”. 4
* %
9
1
«
»
%
0
/ John Borkowski
(Borkowski,
1996¬ Borkowski, Chan & Muthukrisna, 2002)
**
9
(Palladino, Poli,Masi & Marcheschi, 2000¬ 6
,
2007).
+
%
9
*
/
&
3
.
,
* %
«
»
%
9
% ,
&%
. + ,
9 9
1
3.
3: 3
9
&
3
«
»
6
6
&
3
3
6
6+ 6+ F
6
%
3 % 2.67 .50 3.44 .35 107.450*
3
% 2.17 .68 3.20 .47 104.097*
% 2.52 .67 3.58 .31 142.057*
.05 .22 .33 .77 7.423**
$
" 1.15 .32 1.87 .34 158.304*
6
3.16 2.65 11.39 4.48 167.162*
* p < .0001 ** p < .001
H 9
,
3
&
% , %,
%,
% , &
& &
3
. ,
%
,
& &
5
196
&
3
. 9
9
1
,
«
».
% %,
*
, 9
1
4.
4: 3
9
&
3
%
%
6
6
&
3
3
6+ 6+ F
&
8
1.25 .43 1.74 .44 38.298*
1.44 .50 1.46 .50 .033**
9
%
&
1.80 .40 1.16 .37 83.115*
23.20 4.98 30.00 2.99 83.546*
* p < .0001 ** ns
+
3
% %
9
%
&
,
&
3
&
1
*
.
, &
% &
%
-
,
%
&
3
*
(
0 %
-
).
#$
4
%
3
%
%,
%
&
3
.
4
9
%
(
&
3
) %
% (6+3 = 4.57, 3 = 3.45, 6+\3 = 9.14, \3 =
2.75), [F(1, 133) = 71.886, p < .001].
6
197
3
,
* 9
(
) * %
.
,
&
3
,
*
&
% %
* 0 %
%
.
(~
+
3
% &
9
. Q
&
&
%
&
&
&
3
.
,
/,
&
,
%
9
.
,
3
**
%
**
9
, &
%
%
%
,
. , &
. +
3
%
9
% &
% ,
1
*
,
&
% &
%
(Botsas & Padeliadu, 2003).
+
9 (
) 9
&
% % 9&%
%
%
. $
&
3
,
*
(
*
&
)
, /
2/3
%
. 4
*
%
&
*
*
%
.
&
,
&
/
%
,
1
7
198
. 6
Cain, Oakhill
Bryant
(2004) 11&
, Protopapas
Skaloumbakas (
)
, Perfetti
Hart (2002)
Landi (2005) 9, 1
0
& %
,
%
/
.
6
, Protopapas, Sideridis, Mouzaki
Simos (
)
&
0
/.
+
*
&
*
, / ,
1 %,
&1
,
,
%
& %
&% (Oakhill, Cain & Bryant,
2003).
4
%
%
9 %
%
3
. 9
*
&
%
%
,
%
.
& %
%
3
(
, 2007),
&
, /
.
4
&
% ,
, &%
,
%
*
%,
&
%
%
%
. N
&
&
%
/
« %»
&
%
. 4
%
%
%
*
0 %
%
,
%
/. H, 9
&
%
,
*
&
3
%
%
.
C56
Albrecht, J. E., & Myers, J. L. (1995). Role of context in accessing distant information during reading.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 21, 1459 - 1468.
Baker, L. (1985). How do we know when we don’t understand? Standards for evaluating text
comprehension. $ D. L. Forrest – Pressley, G. E. McKinnon & T. G. Waller (eds.),
Metacognition, cognition and human performance, Vol 1 (pp. 155 – 205). New York: Academic
Press.
Borkowski, J. G. (1996). Metacognition: Theory or chapter heading? Learning and Individual
Differences, 8(4), 391 – 402.
Borkowski, J. G., Chan, L. K. S. & Muthukrisna, N. (2002). A process – oriented model of
metacognition. Links between motivation and executive functioning. $ G. Schraw & J.C.
Impara (eds.) Issues in the measurement of metacognition. ( . 1 – 42). Lincoln, NE: Buros
Institute.
Bossert, T. S. & Schwantes, F. M. (1996). Children’s comprehension monitoring: Training children to
use rereading to aid comprehension. Reading Research and Instruction, 35(2), 109 – 121.
Botsas, G. & Padeliadu, S. (2003). Goal orientation and reading comprehension strategy use among
students with and without reading difficulties. International Journal of Educational Research, 39,
477 – 495.
Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. $ R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F.
Brewer, Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 453 - 481). Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
Cain, K., Oakhill, J. V. & Bryant, P. E. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent
prediction by working memory, verbal ability and component skills. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 96, 31 – 42.
8
199
Evans – Commander, N. & Stanwyck, D. J. (1997). Illusion of knowing in adult readers: Effects of
reading skills and passage lengths. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 39 – 52.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive – development
inguiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906 – 911.
Guthrie, J. T. & Wigfield, A. (1999). How motivation fits into a science of reading. Scientific Studies
of Reading, 3(3), 199 – 205.
Jenkins, J. R., Fuchs, L., van den Brock, P., Espin, C., & Deno, S. L. (2003). Accuracy and fluency in
list and context reading of skilled and RD groups: Absolute and relative performance levels.
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18(4), 237 - 245.
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: a paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Landi, N. (2005). Behavioral and electrophysiological investigations of semantic processing in skilled
and less – skilled comprehenders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.
Markman, E. M. (1977). Realizing that you don’t understand: A preliminary investigation. Child
Development, 46, 986 – 992.
Meijer, J., Veenman, M. V. J. & van Hout – Wolters, B. H. A. M. (2006). Metacognitive activities in
text – studying and problem – solving. Development of a taxonomy. Educational Research and
Evaluation, 12(3), 209 – 237.
Oakhill, J. V., Cain, K., & Bryant, P. E. (2003). The dissociation of word reading and text
comprehension: Evidence from component skills. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(4), 443
- 468.
Otero, J. (1998). Influence of knowledge activation and context on comprehension monitoring of
science texts. $ D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky & A. C. Graesser (eds.) Metacognition in
educational theory and practice. (pp. 145 – 164), Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
Padeliadu, S. & Sideridis, G. (2000). Discriminant validation of the Test Of Reading Performance
(TORP) for identifying children at risk of reading disabilities. European Journal of Psychological
Assessment, 16(2), 139 – 146.
Palladino, P., Poli, P., Masi, G & Marcheschi, M. (2000). The relation between metacognition and
depressive symptoms in preadolescents with learning disabilities: Data in support of Borkowski’s
model. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15(3), 142 – 148.
Perfetti, C. A. & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. $ L.Verhoeven, C.Elbro &
P.Reitsma (eds.) Precursors of functional literacy, . 189 – 213. Amsterdam, The Netherlands:
John Benjamins.
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. (1995). What readers can do when they read: A summary of the results
from the on – line self – report studies of reading. $ M. Pressley & P. Afflerbach (eds.) Verbal
protocols of reading. ( . 30 – 82). Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
Protopapas, A., & Skaloumbakas, C. (
). Traditional and computer-based screening and
diagnosis of reading disabilities in Greek. Journal of Learning Disabilities.
Protopapas, A., Sideridis, G., Mouzaki, A. & Simos, P. (
). Development of lexical
mediation in the relationship between reading comprehension and word reading skills in Greek.
Searfoss, L. & Readence, J. (1985). Helping children learn to read. New York, NJ: Prentice Hall.
van Dijk, T., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies discourse comprehension. New York, NJ: Academic
Press.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). Self – regulating academic learning and achievement: The emergence of a
social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 2, 173 – 201.
, . (2003). A @#
9
200
0&)(&'%
0
* !
' ,
+F 9
H
, -\
, / 3..
/ # #
?&&. / $
(|
||)
# *. @ , #
# ,
#. &
,
`. @ !,
, $
.
@
: 909 (309 # | || 609 # |||).
%
:
I.
&%.
II. $
&
(%, %
%),
%
1
&%. %
%
%/
&
&%
.
III. 3
,
1%
&
&%.
9
/%
/
%
,
*
%
9
/ (
%
9
/,
)
&%
9
%
9
%
, 9
& % /.
I.1. (
< – ,
(
<
: =
<8
8
,
4
&%
*
1
&1
&
&
( %
,
, &
9
,
&
, .).
«
»
%/
&
. '
«%»
.
C 9%,
, %
,
9,
,
9,
9 ( , $ ,
.). +
%
.
+
%
9
&
(
,
,
), 9
1
&%
*
% (
&%
%)
& &
/
&.
9
( .
: *
- ),
%
,
&
.
1
201
¾ + 8
5~
5 <5
55
8?
0
56
., 2007, A # $
.. %
, .
Adam J.-M., 1992, Les textes : types et prototypes. Paris, Nathan.
Brown G., Yule G., 1983, Discourse analysis. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
"
., " 3., 1999, ?
$
. %
, "
.
L9
- 3., 1996, «4
». @ ;
#
#., %
, 29 }*.-1 3. 1996, 253-259.
Holton D., Mackridge P., Warburton-D ., 1997, +
9
». % # #.. @ 23
/
+$#
6 ; .@.. L
, 31-42.
Macridge P., 1999, «$ %
;», &
,
9
%
9
4 L46G!}4, 9 3.10.1999, 31.
6
"., 1984, '#
+$#
. %
, . 3
6
.
=...L.,
!, Q9
Q, 2005. & #,
', %
,
+..3.8.
(1
2)
9
/
!
2004,
}
% "
,
%
*
/%
. !
(
9% *
%
9
, /
* ):
«6
:
»
4
%
–
&
-
% /
* %.
9
/
$ ' .
,
$
.
202 2
8*
,
&
1
9
,
9
% %
.
9*%
, /
1
*&
,
&
’
/
9
1
*
. C,
&
%
%
% ,
9
*
&
.
& %
&
,
,
%
.
&
1
&
1
&
&
,
%
.
%
5
~ *
,
1%. 4
**
?,
&
9
%
.
/
,
,
,
5
,
,
*
* %
. H
1
9
,
%
%
/
& .
,
%
%
%
&%,
9
/
9
«
%
%». Q,
9
,
0
& * .
*
%
&
,
1 1%
9
. %
,
9
,
, &
1
. ,
9&
,
9
9
* %
9
%
/%
9.
. 4
%
.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
"’
&
%
. 4
&
,
%
9,
9
,
5
.
4 9
%
%
/%:
«#5<
5 56
8
55
. $
=
8 565;»
"
=? 9 8
400 5 8?
. (
. 50)
)5 1
~ $ !
$
.
$
.$ # #
. A .
.$
#
. . A
!
.$
!
#
#
. $ .
* # #! .
.$
,
. #
,
#
!,
( $
! .
,
#
’
# ($
.
F ! #
3
203
( ! !. +
# .
!$ #.
!
.
$.
)5 2
&
# # $
.$
$ #.
! # # !
.
#
$ !. },
$,
#
. /
$
#
# $
#
!" .
&( # ! .
$!
18-35
., !
! « !»
. &
# #
#
$! #
# ! . ?
$
$ #
# #.
$ #
. $
!
.
,
##
(
(
(
$ punks). F ! #
#
(
. ?
# #
#$ !
# ( $
.
$
#!
$ ( ( $
# ! #
. #
( $ # ( $
. ;
#, #
, ( $
(
$ #
#
«» !
. F #
#
.
$
# #! .
! $
. %
#’
! #!
, #’
$.
’ !
!
# " . A
#.
.
$
, , . !
. A
.
204 4
»
4 § «» (
5 § «»
$
6 § «
» #
) (< 8
:
L ª &%
(1,2,3,…) ª $
.
2. 06
8
9%
91
.
: &
.
: ,
(;). 3
1
.
3. )5
) (
< – /55
)5 1 )5 2
1 § Ø 1 § Ø
2 § «» . 2 § Ø
3 § Ø 3 § «
9»
4 § «» ! 4 § «
» ’ , !
…
#.
5 §«» ! #
6 § Ø
)
)5 1 )5 2
3% ª /% ª
3% ª /% /
ª
4. , ?
%
/ /1
/
&%.
$ *
: 20
1) %: 10
2) Q: 10
x 69% (
&%): 3,5 (: 2, (;): 0,5,
. /: 1)
x & (
): 3,5
x "
: 3
4. $5
.
2.
55
8?
(
9%
*
).
3. 6 *%
/ 56 5 8
8
.
4.
/
/ 8
, 56 8
,
5 :
?.
% &
(): 40# /
/
40#
9%
,
30# % .
'''.3.
5 .
5
205
$&&
\
3..
. $*
D 3/
%
%
, 1-2/11/2007
L
, 13-14/12/2007
(
<
+
9
:
x
8 (
, / , 9 )
/
,
.
6
:
(
< = % &
9%
&
,
&
%
& (6
– '/).
:
4
&%
&
& :
x
0 (%
0 %
9 &
9%
%
, .&.
-%
),
x
,
x
9
,
x 0.
, &%:
x
,
x ,
x
x
(
),
&%:
%
(&, ).
$
, ,
:
1
"
“
&%”, “
”, “
&
”, “
” . . * .
http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/glossology/show.html?id=325
206 6
®® ", ,
<
9
:
5
.
8? ,
5 ,
5
556 &
&
2
©
<
, 5< 8
&
“
”
9
3. 6 &%
&%
9
&
%
.
5/<
8
< 8
(
)
i4
&%
,
% /% 9%
(, ,
9,
%)
9
:
1. ,
~ =
/?
/
5 ( , ! , , … ’
….
’ …, -
2.
,
,
: ,
, !, ,
$, $, .,
, ,
,
,
!, , $, (, ., .,
,
,
,
, !, …
3. ?: ,
#, , , #
, , ,
, , # #
$ …
4. 5
:
#
, # , # #
7. : , , # , !, ., , , #’ #$…
9. <5
<8 / 5/
<: ., , , ., , #
$, ,
! , # , , ., , ,
,
$, $
(!, , #$,
., , .,
, $, $,
, ($, ,
, , (…
2
Q9
-Q # '
, .272.
3
}
L
, /
& (* %
=
),
% 1987,
.86.
4
$
,
‘
/’
&
& **
,
&% **
9
7
207
10.
/ :
$, #, , $….
11.
: # , ! ,
…
C.
9 8?/65 (.&.
,
…)
/.
/ :
x
( =
),
x
( $*% Q,
…)
x
/ (
% = ) . .
0. &%
5
/ (
/
,
%,
>
).
. &%
5 5 (.&. 9,
,
>
1
).
. &% /
%
<5
1
% 8
(.&.
&,
,
%
*%).
( .
&%
,
% &%
//9
&
. .&. / ,
<8, ~ ,
, , =
?,
&
/
&
%
.
4
&%
&
, ,
=6
,
9
,
5.
(
i (
=
&
,
.
8
,
,
&%.
i
%
1
65~
,
,
1
&
9
5
-!-‘/$ 8D >, . 277.
208 8
,
.
'E,
9
6, %
&
9,
,
&
9
.
©.&. 9
? .
;,
& &
&% (
-& ., 9
),
*,
&
&
(&, &,
,
)
""
.
i $
&
% (
/
)<
<
=
4
&
&
:
x 6
5
( , , )
,
x
?,
%
/
9
,
9,
.
________________________________________________________
$5
5
.
&%
,
*
% "
, %
:
http://www.komvos.edu.gr/glwssa/dokimes/keimena_dokeimon/a_lykeiou/afigisi_a/afigi
si_5.htm
6
8 . &: http://www.komvos.edu.gr/glwssa/Lexiko/E/ekfonima.htm
9
209
« =
5,
’ ?
;»:
?
« 5»
65
'
, .9.
1. 0
$ %%
&
%
% "
$9,
«
9%»
}
$ 91 9
/%
&
91
/
&
($9, 1979: 7): ̝ ,
ξ ' Φϧ
, πЗ Τ ο,
І
І ϲ
Ϣ: ϵ –Ϡ ξ Ϩ
# –
$ Τ Τ
$,
З ξ
ϧ
ξ χ ": "% І Ϩ Бϧ, #
Τ ' Φ(
;
3
1% &%
%,
&
*
%
9 (
%, 1998). 6
9 0
%
,
9
&
,
*1
"
', /-
&
, /
9
9
,
.
4
%
9
% %
9
&
, *
%
%
/%
9
(
, 2001: 27): %
/
&
%
9% 9
%,
&
&
/
. 4
%
&
/
&
.
& &
9 (
, 1991: 41-42),
/ 9
%
& «
»
"
$9
/% :
&
%
9 /
9
&
%
%
,
1
&% /
9
1
.
3
,
, «
9
» / &
,
&
,
&
/ &
&
%
(
,
1991).
6
&
&
9
&
& % /,
%
,
*
/,
1 3. }. 6
(2007), &
,
9
%
. &
9
,
&
, & &
& *%
,
*
,
,
0
9:
,
/
. $’
,
, 9
/
9
«
»
%
% /.
+
%
9
,
%
,
9
(
|,
*! ),
,
&
% Φ ,
9
.
210 1
(!!) *. 193:
,
1
%
%
«
%», %
/
:
9
,% /&
1 %
%
%
Φ#З
Φ
$ –
,
1
%
(}&
, 2001: 115-117± Finkelberg, 1998± Yamagata, 1994:
185-188),
/ (Snell, 1955) /
,
9
1
,
&
:
/
,
% %
%
,
9
% 9,
/
&%,
//
, &
«
%»
%, %
&
.
9
9
,
&
, 9
9
1
.
«
» (glossed texts). $
&
9
(Parker, 2001: 17)
9
,
&
,
(
&
%
), /-
,
/
9
9
1
.
\
&
9, &
/
9
&
&
9
. H 9
,
1
,
9
9
&
9%. $
%
9
&
9 /,
*
& $ 194,
,
&
% 9.
*
%,
9
,
&
9%
9
%
1
. $
, &%
0
,
%.
2.
8 5 59
65
$
% /
%
9
*
0:
.
(Maronitis, 2008± Berman, 2005± Schleiermacher, 1963: 47).
4 %
9
% , 0 «
»
&
,
9
&
,
,
1
,
9 « &
%» %
/
9
«
*
» (8 &
, 1992: 274, 278-279).
,
%
,
& ( D, 1902: 219)
&, 0
%
&
%
,
&
/
9
&
,
%.
:
2 211
2.1.
$9
%
,
%
%
9
,
% «
%»,
1
9%
%
&%,
1
« »:
% /
&1
/
(Pheiffer, 1972: 14, 49),
, /
9 %
&%,
*
.
&
* %
:
3
%
&
&, *
/
%
. 6
%
% & % «
%» ( .&. &
|, +
%
*! )
«», %, %
(
, 1996: 268), «
%»,
9
,
(
9)
9% «
»
«
».
,
&
,
*1
.
Q,
&
&
1
*
%
: «%
» ( 8, 2002: 266),
(
)
%
% .
6 9
%
&
% /
%0
%
,
1
«
/
» (
, 1991: 42). 4
9
% % «
%»
, ,
,
/
9. 6
*
(
&
%,
%, %, &
%
&%),
9
&
%
,
9
%.
9
%. ,
,
%
9
&
/
%
,
1
9
9
% &
,
9
,
*
&,
%
/.
, , 0
%
&
, 9
&% /
9
9
1
&%
. "
,
0, *
9 /
1
,
*
&%
%
*
9
*1
%.
212 3
/
,
9
%
9
&:
9
( .&. -
% % « »)
&
«
%»,
1
&
9 (
9
&%)
,
/
9
%
9
/
% (Dover
1974: 166).
: 9
9
*
9
9
%
.
, &%
1% %
(
1996± Long 1970±
Jaeger 1968± Adkins 1960)
%
9
%
/
/
(
1
/
«
»
)
-
(
& 9
-
). $
%
% «
%»,
/ «
»,
%
9%
%
&% (
,
/-
/
%),
9
%
,
(,
9
)
*
%
% .
C,
1%
% «
%»
, %
,
&
( «
%»)
/ ( .&. ϳ
!)
, *
% «
» O
« »
%/
«
» % «», &
,
,
% &
% 9
%
(Finkelberg, 1998).
/
,
(Finkelberg, 2002: 35-49± Hay 1991: 140-145)
,
9 9%
0
% (
,
%
,
, 9
),
%
,
&
%
%,
&
1
«&%» -
% % %
(Finkelberg, 1998: 23).
% &
«
%»
9
% «
»
«
»
-
&
(
),
9
«
%»
%
&: &
, /
9
,
%
+
«
%»,
&
9 &
*
1
!
*
/
(Heitman 2005± Helleman, 1995: 245-247). 4 «
%»,
,
9
+
%
&
%,
&
&,
&
,
0,
.
2.3.
4
9
/%
:
1 9
/
%
Parker,
2001: 17± %, 1996: 61-63),
9
&
(
9
9
%,
9
%
,
/
). 4 9
/
% 9%
9
%
,
,
9
(Maronitis, 2008).
=’
%
,
&
,
&
9
%
9%
,
:
x 1
9/
,
9
*
*
&
-
,
x
9 «
» % &
,
,
4 213
x
&
%
,
%
%
/.
0,
*
0
,
/&%
9, 9
&%,
1
,
%
,
9
(
) /
&%
&
21
(Parker, 2001: xiii-xiv).
0
1
9
«»
, %
9 (
&
%
) %
* «»
&
*1
,
1
(9,
2004).
’
,
&
%
9
/%
. C
%
% /
%
,
1 &%
-
,
% &
,
%
,
1
:
9 (
)
,
* ( %
)
,
& , &
9
&
&%
(Burbules &
Bruce, 2001). +
%
«
9»
&
/ %
.
6 *
&,
%
9
1
(
9
)
9
(
9/ 9 /
).
9
%
«
%»,
% &
1 /-
%
&% 9%
& «
/»
&%
.
1
&
,
9
9
«
%»
%
**
,
*
*
% *
.
( *
)
,
%
.
,
1
&
,
1
«
» (glossed texts). 6
%
3
1 &
(. 52.18-21),
%&
( $, &
%1 #$
,
ΦУ
(.
& % /, /
«
/
»
«9 /
»
&
%
,
%
:
x
9
%
1
%
/,
214 5
x % %
,
9
,
,
,
9,
9
&
%
9%
9
1 %
,
x
/
%0 ( --
, )
**1
9
*
9/,
x *
%, , 9
9
9
9, 9
%
.
0&)%)&+'
:
Bakker, . (1997). Poetry in Speech. Orality and Homeric Discourse. Ithaca & ': Cornell
University Press.
Burbules, N. C., & B. C. Bruce (42001). Theory and Research on Teaching as Dialogue. $ V.
Richardson (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching, . 1102-1121. Washington, DC:
American Research Association.
Dover, K. J. (1974). Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Finkelberg, 6. (2002). Virtue and Circumstances: On the City-State Concept of Arete». AJP 123: 35-
49.
Finkelberg, M. (1998). Tim³ and Aret³ in Homer. CQ 48.1: 14-28.
Goldhill, S. (2001). The Poet’s Voice. Essays on Poetics and Greek Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hay, J. (1991). Virtuosity in Human Fulfillment. $ A.W.H. Adkins, (ed.), Human Virtue and
Human Excellence, . 131-193. }.=.: P. Lang.
Heitman, R. (2005). Taking her Seriously. Penelope and the Plot of Homer’s Odyssey. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.
Helleman, W. E. (1995). Homer’s Penelope: Tale of Feminine ARETE. EMC 39.2, ns. 14: 227-250.
Long, A. A. (1970). Morals and Values in Homer. JHS 90: 121-139.
Maronitis, D. N. (2008). False and Real Dilemmas in the Translation of Classical Texts. $ A.
Lianeri & V. Zajko (eds.), Translation and the Classic. Identity as Change in the History of
Culture, . 367-383. +/9: Oxford University Press.
Parker, Jan (2001). Dialogic Education, and the Problematics of Translation in Homer and Greek
Tragedy. Studies in the Classics 17. Lewiston-Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press.
Schleiermacher, Fr. (1963). Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens. $ H. J. Störig
(hrsg.), Das Problem des Übersetzens, . 38-70. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche
Buchgessellschaft.
Snell, B. (hsrg.) (1955). Lexicon des frügriechischen Epos, Band !. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht.
Yamagata, N. (1994). Homeric Morality. Mnemosyne Suppl. 131. Leiden: Brill.
:
Berman, . (2005). A
#
6 215
, I. N. (1996). 4
/
%
9
. 5
(!): 240-270.
, !. }. (1991). * %
9
&
%
&
. L. @
" 11 (3*): 41-58.
, . (2001).
/
%. $ ".
\ (.),
! # #., . 23-33. %
:
.
Pheiffer, R. (1972). |
#
. $ .
$ .
$, 9. . & 8. 6*, . 14, 49, . '. %
:
.
, !. (21928). *
|. %
: ". !. 8
.
$9, ". (1979). }
$, . ". $
**. %
:
.
9, 8. (2004). A
#
216 7
/'/(,' ( $0&'-( +)',!" ,0'0"!" (0
0( ( /%',%#. (#"0(0& .
$ }
*,
3
, & 6.3. % %,
(e-mail: nselima@gmail.com)
,
59
+
,
9
&%
&
.
*
&
9
($
, 2004, 3$, 2001). 6
%
/
/% ($
, 2004)
9
0
9
*
&
.
,
%
*
,
%
%
1
(3
%
,2000).
0
9
,
,
%
/
*
&
& ("
",1999),
%
&
. Q,
/
,
0,
0. $9
,
% %
& 9
%
%
%
%
.
L
%
%
, &
%
(
1,1999).$
%
,
/ *
% 9
, /
%
,
& %
/
9
,
%
9
,
*
/
,
(
1,1999).
Q
1%
& 0,
&
,
/
% 0
1
& % **
.
&
/
217
1
**
, 9 **
&
% &
1
&
,
0
&
(6
, 2001).
,
%
0
. N
:
¾
&
0
.
¾
&
/
% 0
9
,
% /
%
&
.
¾ ,
0
%
9
9
/
(
1, 1999),
/
. "
,
&
. §
9
,
&
% &
,
1%
%
/
% 0.
%
**
(6
,2001),
**
.
,
<55 59
4 0
/&
(genre)
O&
,
% (
9
,
9 .. .). N
9
0%
%
*
.
,
,
9
&
%
9
&
, &
1
:
1. }
%
2. %
3. 9
%
.
6
, 0
(6
,2001),
& 0
9 O&
0
.
,
% 0 9
&
0
/
9
%
0
&
&
%.
$
&
&%
5 , 5
865
O&
. "
/
% 0
%
9
O&
&
9
&%
(6
,2001).
"
/
9
9
*
&
0
:
1.
/&1
%
&
2.
&
1
9
&
3.
%
&
4.
&
/
& ,
5.
&
&%
.
218
$59, 5 89
8
$
,
%
/
0
%. $ 9
%
%
, &
/
,
, % % %
9
, &
9. 6&
% &
9
&
&
9% 0.
$
&
,
*
,
/
9
9
%
9&
.
$
&1
0
%
%
. , % 0
%
&1
%
/ %
&
1
&
9
9
&
9
9
,
1
*
.
N
0
*
O&
, % 0
0
(6
, 2001). ,
9
, 0 &
%
/
% / &%
0
%. '
%
0 &
&
&
9%
3$,
&
3 $&
9*
, &%
*
/
%
%
9
&
& .
0
,
/
&
% &
&
9&%. $
%
1
/
9
,
1
9 . ,
/
0
&
&%
(
, 1985)
/
*
*
.
N
0,
&
. ,
9
&
% %
9
(Wray &
Medwell,1999),
&%
/
219
/
/,
%
9&%.
8 6 5
4
%
%
,
%
9
,
*1
9
.
&
9%
9
9 (.&
&%
,
, .. ).
6
9
*1
, &
. 4
9
/
9
*
%
%
,
%
%
9
($9
, 1998). ,
/
.
9
% %
,
%
%. $
%,
%
* & /
% .
)
=
? 59
4
% 0
%
(6
,
2001)
:
1) & % .
/ 0
&
% *
& .
2)
% 0,
9
/ 0
&
.
3) %
/,
1
,
&%
.
4)
/
*
%
&
* 0
/
%
9%
1
/ %
:
)
,
%
/
*
1%
1
1
& , 1
*%
%
.
*) $
9
. 4
% 0
%
%
0
&
%
.
4 0
0
/
,
9
O
9% . 6
,
/
%
% 0
9*
/
O&
, &
9
,
%
/
% 0
/ 9&%
(6
, 2001).
,
9 0
9
,
&
9
9
&
.
% O
%
.
220
0
85
: 85
5. );
Q
9
.
/
%,
/
. &
%
/
&
&
(
,1993).
$
,
9
1
&
.
%
9
*%
9
&& /
&
/
. $
9
%
9
:
¾
*
;
¾
*
, %
;
¾
&
;
¾ 6 /
;
¾
% /
;
¾
;
¾ 9
%
,
*;
$
9%
* %
9
:
¾
;
¾ ;
¾
;
¾
*;(/
&)
¾
* ;
¾
;
¾
;
1
&
0
0
1%
/
. 3
1
0
9%
. $ ,
,
.
H
9%,
*1
0%
/
*%
& 9
&
1. $
%
9
%
%
. "
&
9
% & /.
221
%
,
0
/
, %
. $ &% %
,
9
,
/
9
. 3
9
&
&
,
&
,
9
.
=
19
* %
post test
5 ?
"
0
,
/
:
¾ ,
:
/ % ,
/,
.(4:
, 3:
, 2 : , 1: ).
¾ 0
,
56
5
: 6
/
%
9
/
,(1: % %, % %, 3:
% %,
% %. 4 9
/
/
3
4,
%
/
3 *%
*
,
&
. $
/
4).
x 0(*'(%' $#,"!((: $
*
/
&
%
0
. +
&
(6
, 2001)
&
%
:
¾ 0
8
8: $9
% &% 1
/
,
%
.
$ «
», 9 *
«&»
.
¾
5
: $9
% &% 1
5
5
%
. $
«
», 9 *
«&»
.
¾ 5: $
9
% 9
&
*
% .
$ «
», 9 *
«&»
.
¾ 5?: . $9
% &%
9 0 % /
9%
&
5:
685 , 5
,
~ 5~ , 5
,
55 ,
, 6.
%
222
%
( /
%
)
,
%
&%. $ «
», 9 *
«&»
.
x )!((', $%/%( 0(*'(!" : $ 9
%
/
,
/
&
%
.
¾
<5 - <5
<8
: /
9
,
% & &%
&
, .. .(1: %
, 2: %
, 3:
%
, 4:
%
).
¾
<8
: /
%
&
/ . +
/
, (1: %
, 2: %
, 3:
%
, 4:
%
).
¾
565
5 : «
»
9
# , «&»
.
¾ 5 = : «
»
9
# , «&»
.
¾ 5 5
: $
.
¾ )
?:
: 1:
%
,
2 :
%
, 3:
%
, 4:
%
.
8
#
1
1
*
%
10.
0
*
&,
&
9
,
%
. $
,
&
0
1
1 .
H
0
&
9
9 .
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
88E#&# &FEG/&#
1
4
0 %
6
/
0 %
. 6
&
9
0
/
% 0. 6
&%
9
/
*
.
223
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
/8&"#8H&H &FEG/&#
1*
&
6
.
0 &
/
%,
9
9
%
%. $
&
(
7,8,9,10)
&
%
*
0.
&
%0.
}}+!+'+"!$ }"C"$
}"C"$ 3G$4$ '+"!$ G!$!$ $=}+'+
37 38 49 124
30% /EEH>9H/&
39% 8E89I9/&
8E89I9/& JB8&#&
>9H/& BH&/H&
31%
1
$
21
,
/
%
124
&
,
37,
30% %
, 38 %
&
,
31%
49 %
&
% , 39%. +
&
& 9 %
% .
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1
224
, 9
0
% 1
*
9
%
%
,
9
/
&
. 6
&
&
*
.
#
2
2
*
%
7. "
0
9
*1
& / , &
%
.
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
88E#&# &FEG/&#
2
&
% ,
%
0.
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
/8&"#8H&H &FEG/&#
2*
4 0 &
,
9
& %
&
.
}}+!+'+"!$ }"C"$
}"C"$ 3G$4$ '+"!$ G!$!$ $=}+'+
4 6 8 18
225
22%
/EEH>9H/&
45% 8E89I9/&
8E89I9/&JB8&#&
33% >9H/&BH&/H&
2
$
20
,
/
%
18
&
,
4,
22% %
, 6 %
&
,
33%
8 %
&
% , 45%. +
&
& 9 %
% .
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
2
$
9
%
%
/
%0
/ %
.
0
Q
,
. "
1%
**
&
%
%
*
9
0
&,
/
%
&
&.
%
**
&1
%
.
%
1
9
.
(5
%
59
4
/ %
&
%
/ 9
*
0
&
&
. 4
/
* &
%
*
9
&
/
0.
6 /%
%
&
% 0
&,
226
&
. 6
&
% 0
1
O& &
. +
0 % &
9
* %
&
. $
,
0 % 1
9 %
,
.
,
&
% 1
*%
9%
%
&
&
9
.
&
%
0 %
. $ pro test
%& &
&
*
9
&%
&
.
"
pro test
%0
/ %
&
%
&
%
%
0 %
..
0. 4
%
&%
. 8*
&
%
0 . H
, %
,
*
&
* %
%
&
&
. 6
%
%
&
% . $ %0
&&% . !
%& &%
&
,
&%
% %
. + &
%/
*
&
,
&
. D
%
/
%
&
%
/
*
. 4
%
,
9
%
*
91
*
%
. Q post test
0
.
post test %
9
,
.
",
%
%
0 %
9
/
% 0
%
%
. $ &
–/
- / &%
&
,
&
*
. H
*
9
*
.
% /
227
/
%,
0
&%,
%
&
/ /
%
& .
(~
&
/
9 /
&
&
.
9
*
9
, 0
9
.
$
9
9
%
&
.
% 0 9
*
/
&
.
,
9%
&
1
& ,
/
&
.
4
% 0 ,
, 9
1
. !
0
9
%
&
%
%
%
9
*
&
%
9
. 6
&
* & /
&
*
0%
. Q
&
%
*
0%
:
; ; ;
*; ;
$
&
*
*
&,
% :
%
,
& %
;
%
/
; "
/ ;
%
%
;
/
;
%
% *
;
Q
0
%
&
* &
/
,
%
&%
. 4 %
&1
/
&
%
,
9
. Q
%
%
%
&
% .
$
&
0,
/
% 0
%
% *
,
,
%
/
%
0.
!
9
%
%
/
% 0 *
%
%
1
/
&
,
228
. +
% &
9
& /
%
%
% 0 (.& :
).
N
&
*
9
*
9
/
%
% 0
&
&%
9
,
/ %
, *
9 ,
0
/
/
**
& * .
C56
1. Vacca, T. and Linek, M.W (1992). Writing to Learn. In J. Irwin & M.A. Doyle (Eds.),
Reading/Writing Connections. Learning from Research (pp.145- 159). Newark, DE: IRA.
2. "
, .,
",3., (1999). ?
&$
. %
:
"
.
3. 3
%
, 8, (2000). @
". %
:
,
4. 3
$
(3$)
;. #
;
. %
.
8.
1, \., (N/ 1999*). A
"
. +., &.48, (75 – 78).
9.
1, \.,
6
%, !., (1998). «/ @#
229
%' 0$'/%(0'( !" !" #,0'%# (" ,"%( ,' $0&'-
+)',%# ,0'0"%#: ' /'0&0#"', 00
}
$9 %,
, 6 3
% }
1. 0
0 % % %
*
. 6
0 % /
-
% %
&
,
01. 4
%
&
, 9 %
&
&
/
&
,
0. C,
% &
*
%
9*%
%
9
% 0,
/,
9,
/
&
,
*
2.
4
0
/
,
9
&
-
,
&
9
%
.
%
,
**
&%
3.
+ Brown & Day (1983)
%
*
,
*
&
0. +
9
9%
)
%
9
*) . 6
- 9
%
. +
9
%
%
9
)
%
9 (9
9
)
*)
%
(9
9
). ,
&
%
9
&
4.
4
/
% 9
%
%
%: + Brown &
Day
1
%
, 9
90%
%
9
%
(
9%
%
9),
&
% *
%
&
0. 6
*
(
, %
%
),
/
9
5.
9 0,
(summarization)
(summary),
%
% ,
*
, 9
1
Kintsch W., Van Dijk T., 1978, Toward a model of text comprehension and production, Psychological Review,
85, 363-394
Van Dijk T., Kintsch W., 1983, Strategies of discourse comprehension, Academic Press, N. Y.,
16. 8 .
Brown A., Day J., Jones R., 1983, The development of plans for summarizing texts, Child
Development, 54, 968.
2
$9
6., 1998, 4 &
9
9
. $
%
,
61 '. (.), +$ B#
, "
, 135.
3
Dole J., Duffy G., Roehler L., Pearson P. D., 1991, Moving from the old to the new: Research on reading
comprehension instruction, Review of Educational Research, Summer 1991, Vol. 61(2), 244.
4
Brown A., Day J., 1983, Macrorules for summarizing texts: The development of expertise, Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22 (1), 1-3.
5
Brown A., Day J., . ., 11-13
Baker L., Brown A., 1980, Metacognitive Skills and Reading, in Spiro R.,
Bruce B., Brewer W. (ed.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 373-
374.
230
/
, & %
*
9
/
/%.
& % &
/
} % "
/
8# '
6
&
%
/
, ,
9
–
9
%0
,
&
%
9%
9
1
.
, ,
*
1
%
0
* & % /
1
9
%
%
,
% %
&
%
*
1
0. N
,
9
&
& (
*
),
&
%
9%
9
&
9% 0.
2. (<
, &
% %
:
- }
9 &
0,
9
%
1
,
.
- }
&
– 0,
%
1
&
.
- }
&
&
&
– 0
&
&
.
- }
&,
,
9
&
.
3. 8
9
,
&
, & / 6
2007. 4
*
,
9
%
,
*
9
. C
9% ,
0 (100 /)
&
%
&
& .
25
,
/,
18. 4 %0 / ,
/
/, &
%
&
,
*
*
.
9
%
&
:
)
9
(
9%)
/ %0
*)
%
*
9
/
%
% & %
0
&
(
% & %
& )
%
9
9
– 0 (
/
%
16/4 4/5/2007,
&
45#
60# ).
6
C , 9
} % "
',
/ *
%
0 (=L – !, 1999,
@#
231
4.
5
&
%
/
*
**
9
&%
&
7,
/%:
) # (genre) ! (type)
:
&
– /
.
(9
)
9
&
%
(
)
( %
&
,
&
), O,
,
/
. $ ,
&,
%
/
/
.
*)
#$
$
. (familiarity): 4
.
8
/
9
,
&
, 9
,
%
/ *
9
9
.
) (length): 4
&
0
–
0. 4
%
&
* / 100,
&%
%
9%,
&
,
9
. / ,
&
/
(/
%.
*
/ %
%
&%
9
, 9 % ,
,
%
9. $
,
%
9,
%
&%
9,
*
,
. C, %
:
9 –
% –
%
(
% &
9
)
&
&%
,
7
Hidi S., Anderson V., 1986, Producing written summaries: Task demands, cognitive operations and
implications for instruction, Review of Educational Research, 56(4), 475-477.
3
3.,
.,
., 2001, %
/ 0, 8*
6., \
1 . (.), %
& $
$ ! #.,
$
, G
, 6 - 8 / 10 / 2000,
, %
, 433-436.
8
(
*
)
*
,
%,
&
% /
/
9
,
&
. "
%
&
&
1
:
%
«1»,
9,
1%
/ *
.
9
Garner R., 1982, Efficient text summarization: Costs and benefits, The Journal of educational research, 75 (5),
277-278, Brown A., Day J., . ., 2, 3
3.,
.,
., . ., 435.
232
10.
$
% &
%
&
– / . $
%
&
. $’
*
/
–
*
/ – 9 (
/
/
9
)
&
,
,
11, &
/%
. 4
%
& «
» «
%
%»,
9
% &
&
(
/
%
%),
%
%& (
O
).
*
%
1
9
,
&
%
9
-
9
%
,
&
&
&
«
»,
, %
,
9
9
12.
5. (5
H 9
,
%
%:
’
&
9
,
& %
9
&
*
%
%13. ,
* %
%
& 9
9
%
/%
&
,
&
.
,
–
–
14
9
,
% *
&%
9
% %
% (
),
9
. N
%, ,
&,
%
/ %
15.
10
4
/
%
.
11
+
%
: «
9
& -
%».
12
+ Brown A., Day J., Jones R. (. ., 969) &
,
9
&
,
, &
9
,
&
&
1
&
9%
& .
13
4
%
%
%
9
.
14
"
/
*
.
15
L
/1,
,
%
1
% 0
9
’
. "
,
%
%,
%
( .&., 9 «/
1%
»)
9
,
&
&
*1
(
%
/ – 9
/ * (context),
,
9
/ .).
233
H &
& 0
, 0
,
16.
0
9
/
. +
&
%
% 9
9%. 3
%
,
9,
&%
, &% 9
,
%
1 /.
% &
–
0 **
. +
–
-
0
%0
/
&
. ,
% &
0,
&
%
. +
0
1
&
*
.
1%
&,
,
& %
,
% 0
%
9%
.
1%
%
&
,
% 9
%,
1
% /
/ .
O,
&%
,
9
017. + &
%
:
*
*
&
&
9
.
&
&
9
&
,
,
&
*1
. ,
%
* %
18. +
/
**
%
. +
/
0
9
&
%
,
/
& * %
.
,
,
%
, &
* %
9
&
*
&
.
$
%
9
9:
,
&
*
,
,
, 9&
* .
%9
,
,
, &
0
*%
&
, ,
%/
,
,
0
/
/
.
$
&
9
&
,
* %
&
, %
:
) 6
*
O&
%
*
.
%
9
&
,
&
O&
19. *) 6
16
9
:
) Brown A., Day, . ., *) Brown A., Day J., Jones R, . ., )
Garner R ., . .
) Johns A., 1984, Summary protocols of ‘’underprepared’’ and ‘’adept’’ university
students: Replications and distortions of the original, Language Learning, 35 (4), 495-517.
17
.,
., 2003, A @
" $
,
"
, %
, 210-215.
18
Dole J., Duffy G., Roehler L., Pearson P. D., . ., 246-247.
19
"
%
0
&
&
%
,
*
%
&
.
234
9
%
*
1
O&
&
/ /
9
%
6. $5
+
&
, %
% 1
9
. "
&
*
&1
/
1 /
&
, %
%
, .&.,
1%
9
,
., &
%
%
&
9
%
/
*,
%
/
.
&
, &1
/
.
"
/
,
,
/
&1
’
& % 1%
.
% 1
%
/
*
&
9 0
%, &
–
&
–
9
9
9
,
/ %0
,
/
9%
0
&
&
22.
,
&%
% /
* ’
1%
&1
&
,
9
1
%
1
* %
. \
1
%
,
9
1
%
.
C56
Baker L., Brown A., 1980, Metacognitive Skills and Reading, 1980, in Spiro R., Bruce B., Brewer W.
(ed.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 353-394.
Brown A., Day J., 1983, Macrorules for summarizing texts: The development of expertise, Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22 (1), 1-14.
Brown A., Day J., Jones R., 1983, The development of plans for summarizing texts, Child
Development, 54, 968-979.
3
3.,
.,
., 2001, %
/
0, 8*
6., \
1 . (.), %
&
20
1%
9 (individual differences)
&
& %
Spiro (Spiro R, 1980, Constructive processes in prose comprehension and recall, in Spiro R., Bruce
B., Brewer W. (ed.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 262-264.
21
Dole J., Duffy G., Roehler L., Pearson P. D., . ., 249-256.
22
.,
., . .
235
$
$ ! #.,
$
, G
, 6 - 8 / 10 / 2000,
, %
, 430 – 442.
Dijk T. van, Kintsch W., 1983, Strategies of discourse comprehension, Academic Press, N. Y.
Dole J., Duffy G., Roehler L., Pearson P. D., 1991, Moving from the old to the new: Research on
reading comprehension instruction, Review of Educational Research, Summer 1991, Vol. 61(2),
239-264.
Q9
-Q,
', 8# &, +38, %
, 240-286.
Garner R., 1982, Efficient text summarization: Costs and benefits, The Journal of educational
research, 75 (5), 275-279.
Hidi S., Anderson V., 1986, Producing written summaries: Task demands, cognitive operations and
implications for instruction, Review of Educational Research, 56(4), 473-493.
Johns A., 1984, Summary protocols of ‘’underprepared’’ and ‘’adept’’ university students:
Replications and distortions of the original, Language Learning, 35 (4), 495-517.
Kintsch W., Dijk T. van, 1978, Toward a model of text comprehension and production, Psychological
Review, 85, 363-394.
Kintsch W., 1998, Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition.
.,
., 2003, A @
" $
,
"
, %
.
Spiro R., 1980, Constructive processes in prose comprehension and recall, in Spiro R., Bruce B.,
Brewer W. (ed.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
245-278.
$9
6., 1998, 4 &
9
9
. $
%
, 61 '. (.), +$ B#
, "
, 107-178.
=L – !, 1999, @#
236
“ 0'(0 ,' "&!$%#( ,"%#0”: 0,$'/0#', $&0C(
)' /'/(,' ( 0"',( )!((( !( /0#0&( 10"(
(0 /%',% (*%0'% ( 0((%"',(
$
1 &
1
2
1
&
9%
2
/
&
% 9%
%
3%
% L
0
4
1%. +
& %
9
%
(Heidegger, 1972). 3
9
%
9
&
, &
% %
,
%
,
& %
.
&
,
/
,
9
,
&
/
&
.
4 %
20
&
/
9
&
1
,
/ O&
,
1
, 9
*
% & %
1
«
%» (Krashen,
1985). $9
Bruner (1978)
9
*
1
%
,
%
O&
.
237
&
%
/
%
. ,
%
&
1
&
,
, *
&
%
* ,
,
%
&
.
$
9
%
%
1
%
,
/
. 3
%
9
, 9
9
,
9
&
&
&%. \
9
/
%
(
&
*
%) &
*
.
3
/&
%
%
* %
% / /
%
/%
&
, 9
/
& ,
.
&
%
&
&
,
1
%
&
1
%/
& . $
&
&
%
,
1.
*
%
’
&
.
9
9
&
, %
1
*
1
*
.
+
=
;
$
,
9
%
, 9
, *
%
9
%
,
&
,
9%
/
/
PISA
(Program International Student Assessment) 1
*
238
%
% (OECD, 2003. 2004, . 2005). $
&
%
/
.
$
&
D
*1
/ *
%
,
,
, *
,
9
/ *
% *
%/
. 4 *
%
&
&
%,
.
9
&
% (Finnish National Board of Education, 2004).
C %
D
%, $
%,
D
%
%.
1
&
*
.
%
1
, & ,
%
.
&
*
9
. $
/
%
%
1
/
%
9
1
%
&
1
,
%
/
&
. 6
&
/
0
&
,
%
/
.
& &
9
9
% 1%
. 6
,
*
. H
&
* 9
132
&
(&
"*
).
&
9
%
% –
. 4
%
(
, 2008,
, 2006,
& \
*, 2007).
& %
65%
,
09
9&
9 &
. 6
9
0
/
&%
&
9
%
.
%
%
0 &
239
&
1
9
/
9
*
, 9 &
%
&
(
, 2006).
4
%
/
& *
,
%
&%
,
1%
%
%
& . +
132
&
&
%
9
,
%
*
*
/
%
. + % ,
/,
%
%
%
&
,
&
/
,
9%
,
%/
1
* %
(
& ,
...). $ %
%,
/
%
%
.
,
&
% %
&%
& 91
& 9
%
.
( ,
*
,
)
&
/
(
& \
*, 2007).
%
,
% 9
,
%
/
9%
,
. 6
9
%-
%
,
%
%
& &
&%
/
%
%
*
(Hofhmann, 1982 3
, 1987).
+ &
&
& / 9
9% %
%
% 09
.
&
9
9,
9
1%
9
* ,
.
%
/
&
/
,
/
9 ,
,
, ,
%
/
*
/1
. $ & ,
240
%
. &
&
%
,
&
&
&
9&
*
% (
, 1997),
&
%
%
/
&
*
/
, 9
%.
4
%
%
%
/
.
,
*
&
%0, %
%
/
, 0
,
/
. 9
&
9
&
.
9 O
, &
9
9
,
. $%
,
%
9
&
&
9*%
%
(
, 2001). /
,
*
1
/%
&%
. &
1
/
,
,
&,
,
*
&
(
&
**
,1994).
4
&
/
,
,
,
&
,
&
*
.
&
* ,
&
%,
9
9
, ,
*
, %
9
.
H
9
, & 9
,
, ,
9. 4
9
%
%
% (Myers, 1992).
& %
&
241
. 4
*
/
9
10 .
$&
*
%
%
%
. 4 &
&
,
,
&
9,
* %, %
%
9
5
4
9
, G
1
-
% D
1
. 6
,
G
1%
,
.
9
&
&
.
G
9
9.
/
9
9
.
/
.
9
%
&
*
%
*%
.
, &
%
«
»
,
*
,
.
+
&
*
&
,
9
%
9
% 0.
/? 55
&
9
&%
&
. 6
9
1 . 6 %
%
. +
9 . 4
/
9
9
. +
0
*
%
, /
.
"
%
9
&%
&
,
,
,
,
. 4
%
&,
%
242
C568
658
243
, $. & \
*, . (2007), 4
%
& : 6
&
. & ?, &. 80, }* 2006 -!
2007.
, .,(1997), «
.
». $:
:
“
/
:
% %
”. A%
, 2-4 O*
1997, 3: $
* E
E
*
"N
1".
, ".,(2000), *# &
, %
: "
.
, ".,(2002), A @#$#,
%, L
, "., (2006), #
!, %
:
.
, "., (2008),
. 3
9
244
5<
0
<
6
-% D
,
% ,
% , %
D..M.
0'()(
/
% 1%
%
. N
9
, &1
, ,
* . 3
9
,
9
,
,
,
.
4
*
&1
9
& 1%
, *
*
,
&
*
/
%.
%
& 0
&
% %
0
%
.
9
%
&
’
,
1
,
1
0
%.
4
&
%
,
&
%
9
%
0%
,
%
9
%
.
,
%
, 1
,
,
/
* ·
,
/
%
,
, ,
% 9
/
%
%
,
9
,
9
%. 6
%
9
1
*
%
&%, 9
%
&% /
.
&
%
9%
«
%»,
&%
%
,
,
O &
* %
%,
/
,
%
1.
58 5
(5, 5, ,
, .)
,
~ «».
1%
%
,
%
&
% $= !#$ · $ $
#
! ,
1
3 $
: «%
& $ % $
! +.», G
-
% %, 6-8 +*
2000, #, 8*
6.,
\
1 .,
%
3
, . 443-450.
1 245
9,
9,
, 9
, ,
,
,
% .
/1, ,
%
«
%»
1
«
»
«
%
»
. ,
&
% « »,
*
&
%
,
&,
*/ &
%
«
»
. 4
&
%
9
/
%,
&
%
& *
,
&
%
%
. =&
%
,
*
1
&
%
%
/
1
, &
**
« ».
! 5=
5
5
8 5
5 =5
2.
Q&
*
&% &
% "
(")
, &%
9%
&%
&
"
/. 6
9
%
6
– 6
2005
$
"
%
# /
'
G ' L
. $
%:
) 8?
=
? 8-< 5
5
56 ,
) 8? 8
8<
< 5 <5
5
5<
,
5, 8<
5=
5,
) 65 8
55
56
8
) 5
= 5
= 5
8
.
%,
/
%
*,
%
9
9
%
*
,
$
,
,
/
9.
/
%
,
%
%
%
# '
,
%
&
/
.
%%
%
, &
9
%
%
, *
26
%, &
&
/
&
,
.&.
¾
; / % /
,
¾ ~
,
¾
,
¾
}
/ F
,
¾ &
% ,
¾ &
@
,
¾ ! *
@ ,
¾ ! &
@ ,
2
L
6. –
"., « », &# *# #
+., % "
, L
2201, . 199-202.
246 2
¾ ~
'#,
¾ @# '#.
..
&
%
%
: ,
&
9%
, *
%
%.
&
9
&
&,
’ '
& ’ "
!
6
%
,
%
9
, 0
%,
, &
%
* % /%
%
. 6
$
" &
& –
&
*
9
–
/
"
, 9
/
/
% &
1
% /
&
% "
9
9
'
.
,
, &,
&
"
–
9 $
" –
&
%
,
&
$
',
1
%
.
3
9
:
i)
,
ii)
-
,
iii) &
%
,
iv)
,
v)
}" 9
,
9
vi) 0
&
, &
%
% –
& %
–
,
*
, &
/
% .
3 247
% ((!
)
%
%
,
&
«
= %
%
*
».
9
%
,
%
%
,
%
/
,
9
% &
*
%
, &
%
&
%
.
N
/
,
9
9
%. N
,
9
9
% &%. $&
&
9
%
. $
, , %
& %
%
, /
«&
" % 3
»,
9
/· ..
& $ $ :
/ % $
,
%
%
%
(=
%
).
H
&, 09
1 &%
,
% &
%
&%,
&,
%/
9% &%
%
·. H &,
&% %,
&%,
%,
, %,
%
&%
%
(=%
) *
&%
. '
%
%
.
4
%
.
+
& &
}
% "
(}")
& ".
%
,
, & & 9% /
&
%
.
9
**
1
&
&
% *
&
,
%
. +
0
& .
%
&
,
& & ,
9
%
. D
, , 1
&
,
’
&
.
$
%
9
$
",
/
«
0
»
9
,
%
. +
65
8 <5
5
.
, &
&
# '
«
&
»
,
&
9
,
9
&
$
,
« »
, .&.
9
(
% ), %
%
&%
(
% %
%),
/
(
,
, ,
9
),
%
%,
,
% % %,
%
9
. 3
%
9 , .&.
, &, , ,
,
. 3
248 4
9
$
,
,
&
*
9. + 9
%
9
,
,
&
" % 3
,
9
9
$
.
\
%
" # '
,
1
,
/
$
",
/
9
"
&
"
"
.
1
% 9
%
,
O
0
&
,
%
%
% %
9
. }
%
, ,
*
%
,
/
, /
&
& 3
%.
*
% 9
&
%
,
9
*
,
*
*
%
. 4
$
,
.
,
%
, &
/ .
H
&
%
,
9
%
. ,
,
&
%
&
&
%
%
.
% &
,
, % «
»
«
», &
, , %
%
&
.
?<
8<
!
5 249
556
5
D $
– }
9 }
N '
H$+"":
$
/
/
%
/
,
&
«9» %
%
. $ *
&
,
; $ *
/
&
25
9
*
%
% %
*
9
* ;
9
&
%
&
;
$(=8=$
}
9%
.
/
9%
/
9
&
&
&
9 /
. +
&
%
&
0
9. L
&%
&
0
9
&
%
%
%
%
/% .
I$/=JH(= C8=B+J=
+ «
%
» %&
9 1925
«
/
,
,
*1
» (Downing & Thackray, 1975). O %
&
%
1
&
9%.
’
%
/ -
/
9 /%» -
, -
%
0,
&
9 (
% %&). 6
&
%
«*
»
9%. 4
9 &
%
9%
.
, & &
,
1
*
0
&%
,
1
9%
. 4
/
,
9%,
,
.
9%
,
%
9
% / /
%
.
%
/
/
*
9%
. "
0
%
*
/
9
*%
9%,
9%
1
/
%
9%
&
9%
.
3
&1
9 % %
,
9
/
/,
1
9
&
/
&,
&
250
& 9 % %
9
&1
4-5 .
&1
/
*
9%
,
1
/
/
*
/
9
/
9%
.
=0=$
% 9
. $
&
9. 3
/
%
0
&
*
.
H
&
1
&.
&
1
9%
&
%
,
,
. &%
0
,
1
%
&
(.&.
-/)
*
*
. +
25 %
-%
&
25
9
,
& 2 %
«
»
%
&
%
%
1
*%
. "
/
9%
’
&
%
*
&
&
9
. L
9
&
, ,
,
,
,
**
.
9%,
*1
9
9%
9
&
9%
-
.
L
%
/ %
%
%
,
/
*
. L
1
%
%
&
% 0
%,
&
&% 0
%.
& %
% 9 %
1
& 9
&
.
«
»
*%
&
%
&
&
;
’
&
1
251
&
& %
&
,
0
,
& %/
&
&
9
%
&
1
0
.
*
,
9
,
&
,
9 /
. +
&
9
,
9
. N
%
&
%,
. 6
&
&%
%
0
& %
&
.
&
% &
%
9
&%
&
&%.
9
. 4
%
9
*%
%
* %
.
& %
/
& %
%
&
.
&
*%
*
%
&
*
%
*
. }
&% *1
(.&.
%
). }
0
«
»
.
&
/
.
%
&
9
%
. "
,
9%
*% 9
. }
*
*
&. "
& &
*
&
&
* .
+8=/9$+/+/$C8J+$+/+
6
9
*
%
.
*1
9
&
. 9 &
&
&
.
Q&
%
9
*
.
4
%
«
»
%
&
%
&
& ,
*
*
&
&
9 /.
, **
, &
9
**
.
252
“15
5
”
?
5
?
8 =
$
\
*
4
% 9
&
/
%1 & %
%
&
. 4
++$ (1996) 1
&
1
9
9
, 1
*
/
*
*
(8
*
– $
& 8, 2002).
4
%
% 91
%
% & ,
&
% &
/
/
(Bernstein, 1989).
,
“
1%
0” (Freire, 1977)
&% 9
9
%.
6 *
%0,
% % 0,
!,
/%
2
9
,
&1 9
%
&
“
” &
1
&
&
.
6
&
%
9
,
%
%
&1
9%
.
9
%
,
&
,
&%
&
,
/
*
&
&
% /
. + *
%
* &
. 9%
%
*
1
*
.
4
*
%
91
,
,
&
,
*
/3
*
1
,
,
*
9%
4.
1
$
&
9
/
*
9
%. &
/
.
2
4 % **
9
9
&
. +
(2004: 19) 1
9
%
% % «
*% &
%
, 0
,
,
, %
,
‘‘
’’
9
/
,
,
%
&
/,
% 9
».
%
9
%
&
. «\
%
*
9
,
*
%
/
% /» (
,
2004: 20).
3
1
9
1
9
1
& %
&
,
&
,
&
%
. 8 . & Charlot (1993),
(1985)
Perrenoud (1996).
4
+ McLaren
Kris Gutierrez (1997)
9
9
1
&
/
.
%
%
1
253
$
% %
0
%
.
,
,
9 9
%
.
/
. 3
9
%0 &
9 9
,
,
.
,
&
%
/% %
&%. +
%
,
% ,
%
(Cope-
Kalantzis, 2002).
4
*%
%
,
%
*1
9
,
,
1
,
*
9
,
,
/
& &
,
&
,
1
.
8
&
&%
%
9
9
,
/
,
%,
%
%
/
,
%
/1
/
&
% (Gee, 1992).
$
, /
,
/
,
(Cope- Kalantzis, 2002).
6 *
&
9
9
%
(
%5
%
6)
%
,
9% 9
&
%
7.
/
%
%. +
%
*,
/
%
,
9 &
.
&
,
9 %
9 &
&
. +
1
. $
,
1
,
&
/
&
‘‘
/
’’. Q
%
,
& % 1%,
&
*
9
0
/
,
1
/.
"
1%
&1
9
%
9%
9
& L * .
&.
(2005).
5
4
%
&
&
’70
. $ %
/
%
,
«
»
. "
/
O
&%
254 2
55 8
&%,
,
,
%
%
&
**
9. "
9
%
.
«
»
9, ,
, % .. .
&
% .&. ,
&
,
% .. . !
%
&
/
. 4
/
%
9
&
%
%
,
%
%
«
». "
(
)
,
,
1
.
%
,
/
% 1%
%.
«
» (% 9
%)
%,
&1
% ,
*
1
* %
&
*%
,
, &
9
,
,
9
».
6
O Goodman (1986)
9
%
1
/:
x 4
,
,
&
%
&% .
x 4
&%
.
x 4
%
%.
x 4
%
/
,
&
%.
x 4
%
. 4 %
%
/
/
.
7
9
\
* 49° 3. $&
(& 1998 - 2000)
&
132 3. $& %
(&. 2002 – 2007).
**
, «
/»
«
»,
132 3 $& (&.
2002),
/ =&%
\
*
/
$
.
8
9
*
9
.
,
&
& &
.
,
.
9
4
/ *
1
..$. (1999)
9
/
:
- }
:
«*
! , . ,
# #, # #
# # #
$ "»
(.@.;. . 42).
- }
* *
:
« ##
# ! " . $. #
.
. » (..$. . 41).
- }
,
,
&
%
/ %
(
/ 25% ):
«/
$ #
$
!
(, . , ,
#
$,
, #
...)…../
!
#! 25% $
$
. » (.@.;. . 42).
3
255
%
,
/%
%
&%
**
,
9
1
1%
%/%
.
9
9
9
%
,
%
/ /%
10.
, &
&
& 1
. ,
9 &
&
9
.
9
/%:
*
, 3
,
9
&
9% . 9 %
9
1%
9
,
9
9%
:
,
/
.
%
,
%
&
9%
&
/.
9
&
&
,
1
9
. "
9%
3
%
%
&
.
9 /.
9%
*
% %
%
%
. H % &
*
%
&
*
&
/,
9
*
1%
.
1
% %
1% &%
*
.
& &,
%
&
/,
91
,
%
. "’
9%, 9
*
1
,
9
&
&
9
9
. 4
%
*%
/, &
/
%.
%
%
9
& ** .
+
1
& **
** %
&
% /. 4
1
,
& &
. +
,
9
**
,
1
9
: % 0
%
& ,
9
&
. $
&
9
&
&
/
,
&,
&
,
9
,
1
1
’
. $
%,
%
%
9
**
%
1%. 6 %
&
&
0 0
**
/.
4
%
9
/
& **
.
&% & % &
9
**
,
. 9
/
9
, 9
&
.
**
/
1
,
*
9
, %
% «
*
». +
,
& “
”.
10
%
&
9
9
. 8 . &.
, }.
, \. G1 & }. 6. $9
(1996).
256 4
$
&
&
% /
, &
&
*
11. + &
%
1
.
$
& % &,
/
& ** ,
1
%
**
12.
4 %
.
&%
1% /
9
1%
9
.
%
9
* %
,
0 &
&, 9,
1
9
, &
,
, . 9
91
, %
*
*
,
%
.
9
9
.
4
9%
/
&
9%
%
91
%
&
9
9
.
,
/
% %,
9
*
&
,
,
* %
,
9
..
1
&
9%
&
&
. 4
%
. 4
9
&
.
, /
9
9
1
project (
*
,
%
, .. .),
*
,
11
9
%.
12
% **
9
%.
13
&. 4
1
%
9
/%
%
. $
%
/%
9
. "
&%
%
* . &. Cummins (2002), $
(2002) &
(2004).
5
257
.
\
%
1
&% ,
1 &
9
.
, %/
&
/.
4
% %
9
/
*
1
9
.
&
, «
/»,
. 6
*
,
&
.
% %
&
9
%
* %
,
,
9, * %
1
&
,
%
.
%
*1
. "
%
«
/».
1
,
9
* %
. H
1%
/
1
*
%
,
&
& %
%
14.
5
?
"
9
%
% &1
9
* /.
$
, 91
1
&
:
, &
**
, 9
(
,
.. .),
% ** %,
&
**
, & , 9,
9
,
9
,
9
/
,
* % &
9
,
,
(&
, &
9 , &
.).
,
/
9
1
%
,
9
%
.
,
9
9
&
’
1%
.
4
9%
.
,
9,
/. 4
%
&
%
/
9
, 9
9
/
9
.
4
%
**
9
. 4 & **
%
&
*%
,
/
,
9
%
,
1
**
** % /
&
.
4
&%
%
%
,
“
”
9
*
,
.
L%
%
’
9
,
9
%
9
/
&
.
4
“
” /
,
*%
,
/
1%
*
/ /
. +
14
"
/
* . &.
, $. & .
\
* (2005).
258 6
/
1
1%
%
&%
9
. $
,
,
9
9,
*
&
9
%. Q
9 1
&%
,
% .
0
4
9%
*
&
%, 9
%
&1
&
&
9
1
&
. 4
9%
9
9 9
1
%
. 4
%,
, %,
/
&
&
.
O
9
%
«
»
/
%
*
%,
&1
.
.
¾ ,
1 &%
/ /
/.
85 ?8
6
9
%
G$.
&
9
. &
, ,
9*
,
&
.
%
\G+$$!,
«
».
+ \
1
*
,
1
.
6+=},
«'4»
}+6G+,
*
«
».
«$6
}$! 6!G»,
1
«
».
\
*
, % 91 *
. %
*
&
&9
. Q *,
*
9
,
,
*
,
1
,
, 9,
1
.
H
*&
*
. 6
%
1
1
. H
& /
1
&9
. Q
9
.
$
9
%
. + \
1
%
*
1
%
.
6 &1
. &
},
*
9,
+
,
,
,
*
,
8,
1
1
.
7
259
+ \
%
. Q
.
/
&
*
.
6
9 &
1
*
1
%
&
%
\
.
6
9
9
1
\
:
+ \
\
&9
&9
1
9
.
H
1
*
%
&
.
&
. ¶
*.
H
\
/
%
&9
,
.
9
%
/1
, &
&
.
9%
&1
.
+ \
%
. $
%& 9%
.
¶
9
1
*
}+.
/
%
9. 3
1
1
*
. «
9
&9
. 3 9
»
1
*
.
+ \
:
%
/; *
; "
9
%; 0
. «Q&
91
&9
»
. «3
,
1. "
9;»
+ }+$ &
%
,
/
0
:
«H
1
*
&
9
,
.
9
.
& 9%
».
+ \
1
*
&
/
. + }+$ %/
%&
9
*
.
/; 3
&
.
*
.
6 /,
, %
,
*
9
: «=& 9
}+=$
*
».
%
*
9
%.
\
&
&
%
}+=…
%
/ =&%.
4
%
**
%
/%
:
$
1%
0
&. $
9
%
&%
&
. 4
1% 9
&
%/
*
% %
.
%/
,
0
&
%
&
9
*
,
/
/ &
,
9
&
&
1%.
&
/ %
9
&
.&.
& 9 /
,
% 9
9,
9
%
&.
$
&
.
&
&
9/.
. +
%
.
*
,
1
** . +
/
,
260 8
/
9
1
,
9% %
% %
&
.
$
& &
%,
9
9
,
**
. $
%/
*
,
% ,
9,
, &
, 9
,
/
9 1
%
.
$
,
9
(
)
,
9
%
**
. 6
1%
9
**
,
/
%
**
«
»,
&%
%
%
.
$
&
,
9
/
9
**
&
&
,
&
: 6 /
/
9
%
**
.
**
/, % %/
&
&
.
/
**
9
%
9
&
. "’
%
**
9,
&%,
,
&
%
.
.
%
1
. 4
%
9
N/
9
.
1
. 4
%
.
- 9
! Q
1
.
1. «
9.
&
1
;»
.
9
: «3 1
.
9
;»
…
9
1
1
9
9
.
9
.
*
*1, 9
&
. 6
9
.
6
%
19
*
&
1
91
& &
. H
, %
19 %
&
.
. N/
&
.
&
*9 .
-
&!
.
&, &
,
&
.
*%
0
.
. 3 9*
.
N&
1
1
&
.
%
/
*
1
.
%
%
9
.
&
.
4 1 %
9. &
%
9
.
9
261
,
*
’
&
;
: «
;»
*/
.
$
%
. $ &
9
.
19 *%
&
.
1
1
9.
&
& *
/.
/
.
4
% %
,
9
/.
%
%
&
. \%
&,
&
,
&,
&
,
%
& .
6 *
,
% ,
0
,
&
,
&1
,
. D/
,
/
9%
9
9
,
9
. 9
, 9
, “
”
, 9&
&
.
9
&
1
(
,
%,
.), &
9
(
9
,
)
. +
9
9
9&
“**
-
”,
1
&
%
/
.
$
9
1
9/
“ ** #
/”,
** -
.
Q %
9
, &, &,
*
%
,
9 %
&
1.
Q
9
,
%
9&
%
9
&1 . H
%&
%
9
%.
9
&1
%
9%
1%.
“
9”,
,
9
*
. 6
9
%
9
,
1
&
.
%,
,
/%.
H
,
*
%
. 9
&%
**
1%
&
,
9
.
%
0
1
9% % 1.
1%
“
”
9
,
9
& . 6 *%
/
.
$
%
,
%
9
** . /9
,
9
, 1,
&
.
**
&
.
4 *
1
%
% **
%. 8
* %
,
9 ’
&
. 4
**
0
,
,
,
0
. 4
%
9
9
, &%
/,
262 10
**
%/
**
,
%
%
*
%
/
9
.
$
**
*
,
/,
%/
&
,
C56
, . (2005). «@. ;» #
&
$ @
% &
. %
: Gutenberg
8
*
– $
, . & 3. 8 (2002). @#
11
263
YL/
!(2002) "
$
: 4
} % "
3 $& -3
& 9
".
\
*, (2006). «Q
**
: + %
% &
», & ? 77: 24-29.
\
, .
\
1
**, $. (1997). A
#
#.: $
#. % #
$
. L
:
.
264 12
% “0##"0(” )'
6& 6
%
% L
mm@enl.auth.gr
1. 0
& &
Chomsky
9
/
&
,
,
/
,
%
/
9
. 6&
&
O:
, /
,
% . ,
*
,
9
, &
%,
9
.,
9 .
, **
, & /
. + 9 &
**
*
%
. "
, ,
;
,
; L
&
/
,
%
,
%
%,
. 6&
% %
, 9 .
.
9
:
, 9 .,
%
&
.
’
, Q
%. &
;
&
1
9
,
%,
1%
«
»
.
;
&
,
9%
,
%
%.
+
1
9
&
%
%. «
» ’
; +
,
,
9
;
%;
9 9
%.
9
9 ,
**
9
&
,
**
,
9
9
(
Joseph Conrad, %
%,
20
).
&,
/
&
&
9
9
.
,
9
’
,
&%
1
.
, / ,
9/9
1
. D
*
%.
, ,
%
%
*
9
%
&
%
, %
,
/0
(phoney)
% (3-4 *
,
.). %
&
9
,
*
,
,
,
9
%
% &
* .
9
9 9%
&
(sit vs shit (
! (
)), sit vs seat, peace vs piss, piece vs piss,
beach vs bitch .).
/
9
9
; /
9
status
9
;
265
2
1
&
&
*
1,
.&. / fruit,
& % !.
1
%
,
,
%
fruit;2
/, , %
9
,
1 %
9
9
,
&
Q .
%
9
, 9
, %
fruit
% &
,
,
&
%
%.
2. $5<8 «
»
2.1.
L
%
9
0
9
9
1
&
.
&
,
0
%
,
9 %
9
9
%
&
%
0
(Kövecses 2002: vii-viii).
4 0
%
9*%
Lakoff
Johnson (1980), **
Metaphors We
Live By,
1
/
9
&
/, &
%
&
& %
,
& 1
(
), &
&
% 1%
&
9
9
0
&
&
& (Kövecses
2002: viii). , &
/
9
0
% &%
.
6
9, Lakoff (1987: 303) 9:
4
9
&
(domains)
&
%
% (preconceptual) %. Q
. 4
9
*
. 6
% [
] 0 (rational thought) & &%
9 .
+ Lakoff
Johnson (1999: 13),
,
9
“
9 &” (hidden hand)
9 (conceptualize)
(aspects)
.
… 3
(entities)
(inhabit)
—
9 9 ,
,
&
0
—
&
(reasoning).
1
* . Taylor (1995: ix) “…
&
(encoded)
&
. +
9 (diverse) ’
. ,
9
(diversity)
/ .”
2
$9
Cobuild on CD-ROM: “A tomato is a soft smallish red fruit that you can eat raw in salads, or cooked as a
vegetable or in sauces”, “A lemon is an oval-shaped fruit with a thick bright yellow skin. Lemons are juicy but sour, and
lemon juice or slices of lemon are often used to flavour food or drinks”, “An olive is a small green or black oily fruit that has
a bitter taste. Olives can be eaten as a snack or with a meal, or used in cooking. Olives are also pressed to make olive oil”
[%
9
].
266
3
6
*,
%
/, 1 ,
« »
9
9
9
& 9
9
9
«9
» &%
.
L
/
%
9
%
%
.
L
/%
9
&
*
.
,
,
%
(source domain)
9
,
1
%
/
. $
9
12,000
9
9
&
/
&
*
,
2,000 &1
.
&,
Kövecses (2002: 16),
9
(metaphorical meaning) &
. L
9
.
&
3.
(!
The heart of the problem vs 4
* %
Learn by heart vs *M
%
(
%)
To shoulder a responsibility vs 1
The head of the department vs * 9 / 9
%
%
? / 9
%
%
Above someone’s head vs *
9
“beyond someone’s ability to
understand; too difficult”
Take it into his head vs *T % 9
“decided, esp. foolishly”
9
To have a head for heights vs *Q& 9
0
Q&
09*
A head-on collision vs *6
9
%
6%
Pig-headed vs *"
9
“stubborn”
As obstinate as a mule
She eyed me suspiciously vs *6
&
6
/
&
3
&0
&
.
9,
9
.
3
C , * *
9
/
%, * ?
9*
. $ %
&
9 %
—
’
—
& % 9
.
267
4
9
0""%'%%)',0( 0+%&0(
I was in seventh heaven
*
She was on cloud nine *
9
$&%''0(
Fine words butter no parsnips *+
/ *
Beggars can’t/mustn’t be choosers *+ 1 /
A creaking gate hangs long *6
/4
1
All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy *H
&
& Jack
4 %
9
You can’t run with the hare and hunt with the *3
&
hounds
9
%
% 9
&
9
%
.
9
*% 9
.&.
% %
%
: «
#!» “sth is running in the gypsies”, «# /!» “he became a Turk”, «($»
“from out”.
,
,
9
/%
/ 9
9% (
I (*))
9
/
(language specific).
&
&
&
9,
&%
1 & .
, ,
,
9
9
%
.
2.2. =
Q,
,
%
9 ’
1
%
(count
nouns)
%
(uncountable/mass),
&%
. %
/
(objects)
(substances)
&
/
,
%
9
9 ;
%
cars-
&
%
&
*a sugar-*
,
Sugar is fattening
%
%
%
,
&
268
5
%
%: *
. "
% 91
1
% &% (generic use) /%:
A car is inexpensive today
Cars are inexpensive today
% &
& .
*F
*
"
%, ,
9
&%
9
%:
/
/
&%
%
&
«
»,
1
.
&
%1
9
.
1
, %
&
,
&
&
. 6
%
,
9/
9
&
*
* %
’
%
% &%.
%
%
&
* %
.
9
scissors, jeans,
binoculars, headphones . 6 *
,
’
91
& %
0%
9
1
. $ %
, %
&1
,
/ –s
,
: my scissors IS made of stainless steel.
Q,
&
&
%
(
9
),
%
&%
/ pair
9
: two pairs of scissors, two pairs of jeans
. 4
%—
—
1 %
%
& %
9
. 4
9
% %
. '
,
, &
.
9
9 “give me THAT scissors”
“give me THOSE scissors”.
;
9
9
9
1
9,
;
*You look ON the mirror and see your face
*The airplane is ON the sky
You look IN the mirror and see your face
The airplane is IN the sky.
,
9
,
%
9 %
%
; "
9 ; + %
269
6
3. (85
/
/
’
/
&
% ,
,
,
,
,
%
9
%
&%
%
&%
9 /
,
*
%
. }
, ,
,
*
9
9
&%. $
&
*
9
9
%
&
& %
&
9
*
. 3 &1
9
% &
, 9
9
&
270
7
$&%(& I
()
()
translation in Greek
69
%
LIDL
271
8
$&%(& II
&
%
%
,
9
%
/ 9 &
9 %:
http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/
()
As mad as a hatter
Meaning
Completely mad. This is now commonly understood to mean crazy, although the original meaning
is unclear and may have meant annoyed.
Origin
Mercury used to be used in the making of hats. This was known to have affected the nervous
systems of hatters, causing them to tremble and appear insane. A neurotoxicologist correspondent
informs me that "Mercury exposure can cause aggressiveness, mood swings, and anti-social
behaviour.", so that derivation is certainly plausible - although there's only that circumstantial
evidence to support it.
The use of mercury compounds in 19th century hat making and the resulting effects are well-
established - mercury poisoning is still known today as 'Mad Hatter's disease'. That could be
enough to convince us that this is the source of the phrase. The circumstantial evidence is rather
against the millinery origin though and, beyond the fact that hatters often suffered trembling fits,
there's little to link hat making to the coining of 'as mad as a hatter'.
()
Meaning
Origin
This is an interesting phrase in that, although there's no definitive origin, there is a likely derivation.
Before we get to that, let's get some of the fanciful proposed derivations out of the way.
The phrase isn't related to the well-known antipathy between dogs and cats, which is exemplified
in the phrase 'fight like cat and dog'. Nor is the phrase in any sense literal, i.e. it doesn't record an
incident where cats and dogs fell from the sky. Small creatures, of the size of frogs or fish, do
occasionally get carried skywards in freak weather. Impromptu involuntary flight must also happen
to dogs or cats from time to time, but there's no record of groups of them being scooped up in that
way and causing this phrase to be coined. Not that we need to study English meteorological records
for that - it's plainly implausible.
One supposed origin is that the phrase derives from mythology. Dogs and wolves were attendants
to Odin, the god of storms, and sailors associated them with rain. Witches, who often took the form
of their familiars - cats, are supposed to have ridden the wind. Well, some evidence would be nice.
There doesn't appear to be any to support this notion.
272
9
It has also been suggested that cats and dogs were washed from roofs during heavy weather. This is
a widely repeated tale. It got a new lease of life with the e-mail message "Life in the 1500s", which
began circulating on the Internet in 1999. Here's the relevant part of that:
I'll describe their houses a little. You've heard of thatch roofs, well that's all they were. Thick straw,
piled high, with no wood underneath. They were the only place for the little animals to get warm.
So all the pets; dogs, cats and other small animals, mice, rats, bugs, all lived in the roof. When it
rained it became slippery so sometimes the animals would slip and fall off the roof. Thus the
saying, "it's raining cats and dogs."
This is nonsense of course. It hardly needs debunking but, lest there be any doubt, let's do that
anyway. In order to believe this tale we would have to accept that dogs lived in thatched roofs,
which, of course, they didn't. Even accepting that bizarre idea, for dogs to have slipped off when it
rained they would have needed to be sitting on the outside of the thatch - hardly the place an
animal would head for as shelter in bad weather.
()
Sleep tight
Meaning
Sleep well.
Origin
This is a very well-used phrase in many parts of the English-speaking world. It's been common at
bedtime for many years in the form of "good night, sleep tight, don't let the bedbugs bite", or
similar.
There are several theories going the rounds as to the origin. One is that bedclothes were tied tightly
to stop bedbugs biting. That's pure speculation and there seems to be no evidence whatsoever to
support it. Another theory, this time a little more plausible, dates from the days when mattresses
were supported by ropes which needed to be pulled tight to give a well-sprung bed. Again though,
this is speculative.
The phrase "sleep tight" itself was well used in the late 20th century, but there could hardly have
been better way of cementing any phrase into the popular consciousness than by Lennon and
McCartney using it in the lyrics of a song at the height of Beatlemania. That's where it found itself,
in Good Night on the White Album in 1968:
Now it's time to say good night,
Good night. Sleep tight.
C'C'%)&+'
Cobuild on CD-rom
Johnson, Mark, (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and
Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
övecses, Zoltán, (2002). Metaphor. New York: Oxford University Press
Lakoff, George, (1987). Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson, (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson, (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh. New York: Basic Books
Taylor, John, (1995) Linguistic Categorization. 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University
Press
273
$
? = /
18
)
3
% - 8
%
$& % $*
% "
8# 3
3.. %
4 %
9
&
% & .
9
«
9
»
,
.
9
. $& %
%
/
*
9
.
L (
$
& . !
/
9
, 9
:
, &
( %),
9%
%,
% % 9. "
9: «
», «
,
».
@
/
;
9
%
9
/%:
%
/
% 9
( speaking, writing)
/
9
(listening, reading). ,
:
-
, /
, 9 %
&
,
%
.
C
,
9
($#
#
.
/
%
%
, , 9 *
. +
9
9
%.
"
, /
%
%
. 3
«
»,
9
9
,
%
, .
,
%
, 0
&
,
/,
%
,
/
*
%
. $
% ,
1
,
.
N /
*
*
%
9%
(
%
% 9
).
&
9
* 0
, &
% &
%
-
&
. C
%
9
, &
&
&
/
,
1
%
*
. 4
%, &
9 ,
&%
.
4
1
-
&
. +
1
9:
9
%
(
9
%,
%
),
9 . + 0
& J. Piaget,
& %
*
&
*
9 1% ,
1
&
%
/
,
«
»
&
&
1
% 9 1%. , &
9
&
9
& . 3
,
,
%
,
6
.
N
1
%
,
%
,
,
0,
* %
&,
,
%
9*
&
/
,
,
9 *
0
&
* ,
*
*
.
9*%
&
%. $9
Gardner
(Multiple Intelligence heory),
%
: %, -
%, &
/%,
%,
1
274
%, %,
%,
9
0 9
%
&.
9
9,
&
*
%
9 /
.
, % &
%
, 0
%, /
&
(
& ,
/
,
9
,
% &%)
,
&
%
-.
@.
$
!; 4
%
«»
/
%
% . +
%
%,
%
*
0. +
%
9
&
%
*
&
0.
,
/
,
9%
/ . $
% 1
&
, &
1
&1
, &
0
. +
&
%
&
%
9% «
»
%
*
%
/
&
-% .
/
1
. C
,
/
/
/ -
9% &
-
.
/ % *
,
9
%
%
%
,
*
,
,
, *
% 9,
/
,
9 &
/%
.
/1
9
&
34
3
$&
%
,
%
9 “He’s name is Jerry”
%
& & 9 “ he is = he’s ”(verb to be)
“his” (possessive pronoun), /
/%
. 9
“ Chess players can play a game for ours”
% 9 “ours”
“hours”
“cantry”
“country”.
9
%
.
%,
9%
%
.
/
9
&
. 6
&1
9
:
% 9 “my number telephone”
“my telephone number”,
&
%
1
%
.
&
. 4
%,
%
.
, &
%
* ,
/
,
-
%, % . +
%
/
% ,
.
,
-
/
%
. 4
-
/ , % %
%
,
*
,
-,
,
&
, &
/
& % /.
+
,
% / *
% . $
-
%
*
%
,
&
. 6
,
%
%
*
,
%
/
%
«
*
».
$
, %
/
1. 4
,
&
&
2
275
,
/%
&
*
*
% /
*
.
&
,
,
,
&
* . O
/
,
,
* ,
,
*
,
,
0
&,
.
%
&
,
/ %
,
*
%
.
Gardner, H. Multiple Intelligence. The Theory in Practice. New York: The Basic Books, 1993.
Goleman D. Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, 1995.
?$ %. & 6 +. %
, .9, 2003.
?$ %. & 6 +. %
, . >9, $
, @( (#
,
2005.
'
-
|. @
?$#
@
, &.?.?.&. 1974 (
2)
%##! A. +. A ; /(, 2003.
%##! A. +. $
, . 9, Gutenberg, 2006.
%##! A. +. ;#
, Gutenberg, 2006.
O.E.C.D. Education, Inequality and Life Chances, Paris, 1975.
Piaget J. & Inhelder B. De la Logique de l’ Enfant à la Logique de l’ Adolescent, 1955 (9 1970).
Piaget J. & Inhelder B. La Psychologie de l’ Enfant, Paris, P.U.F. 1966.
Piaget J. Les Mécanismes Perceptifs, Paris, P.U.F. 1961.
Piaget J. La Psychologie de l’ Intelligence, Paris, Arm. Colin, 1967.
276 3
'5 5
«
» «=
»
6
*
%
% 1%
1% 9
.
&% %
9
. $&1
% 1%
,
.
%
,
%
,
/%:
@. .
: $ *
9
%
% 1%
9
,
*
*
1 %
%
.
&
%
,
,
%
,
/% « 9
».
! .
: 1
9
,
9
%
, ,
9
,
/
%
%
,
, ,
/9*
,
/ %
,
.
/
.
: %
&
,
*
/
.
Q& & ,
*
&
%0,
/
9
. =
%
,
&
9
“&”
,
&
. "
%
%
/ &
, 9
9
&, %
,
9
* &%
/1
,
%
. $ &
,
9
,
%
9
%.
%
,
9
, , ,
*
: 3
%
*
;» 1%
.1
9
&
*
, .&.,
). 9
&
& 0 *
&
/
&
%
% 1%. 4 %
& %
%
%
& , ’
*
/ %
%
%
% 1%. +
9
%
&
%
,
9
,
%
,
.
% / &
& &
«
/»
%
& , %
0
9
% &
& %.
,
*
1
8 .
%
$
% «
: 3
%
*
;» (
% Q
, %
, 1-2
}*
2007 – L
, 13-14 3*
2007), @ .
1
277
& % %
,
/
&% %
%
%
. N
*,
&% 09
%
.
% %
,
%
,
%
9
%
9
,
&
* %
%
%
.
&1
: %
/,
9
9
«» ,
*
%
*
%
9%
%
%
. ,
« »
,
9%
%
%-
,
%;
% /
9
%
,
& ,
&% & %
,
&
%
%,
%
9%
%
0.
/
, ,
,
9
%
&
.
&
,
9,
& /
. + -
&
. % 9
&
9% &
%
9
9.
-
9
&% %
%
%
,
*
. $&
/ &
* %
«
»
«
»
,
*
%
& 9
.
9 %
,
,
9,
0,
&
1
%0
*
. 4 /
, %
,
%
. +
,
9
%
%
&
&
& &
%
.
278 2
,
,
% &
,
& *
%0,
1
%
9
%
.
«
»
«
»
, 0
%
9 ,
%0
/
,
&%
%
. L
& /
9
,
9%
*
%
%
%
. D, .&., , «+ & ‘
’
&
%
&
» %
9
‘
&
9%’;
, & ,
&%
,
9
9
,
,
%, /%:
«
, &
/
9
9
&
». D
9
,
,
*
&, 1
.
6 9 %
9
9
&
%0
0
%
%
.
% 91
,
9
,
9 9
%
%0
.
, .&.,
9
9
(2006) ,
,
,
«
»
1. $ &
,
*
%
«%
% 1
&
,
,
, ….
“
”
%
!».
% 9
&
: «
“
”!», «
“
”
».
9
%,
/
&,
&1
,
9, . \
, %
9
&
& ,
*
%
%
,
&
& 9
%
. 4
%
% %
1
&
. &
%
/
*
&
% 1%. 4
9%
,
&
/ /
,
.
3
%
, *
& &%
%
1
/
9
& &. 4
%
/
1%
9
,
%
9% 9
%
, 0
.
&% /
%
. +
,
&
%
% 1%. 4 %
%
, 9,
*
,
9
/
&
0
*
%
. 6
&
/
&
9%
3
279
&
9
%
%
.
1
&
/
*
/
%
,
,
%
%
&%
. 4
,
,
0
,
9,
& &, &
%
&%, *
. 4
%
/
%
9 , 9
9
%. 4 &% 9 «/
» / % «/»
&
&
9
&1
. $
/%
& 9
«The man in the
street». + 9
%
%
% 0
1
0
&%
1
%
&
% 1%.
&%
&
9
&
6
/
/
9 &%
(
9
1,
&
&
).
%
! 6
/
9
&
, *
1
,
&
%
% /
,
&,
**
9
&
& *
&
“
”
9, &
*
,
&
«
».2
4
&
«» &
%
/
9
&
(
, .&.,
& “1967-1973”)
9
%
/ /%
% 9
«
». ** -
%
"
« »
9
1% &
9
&
/ &
9
.3 ,
& –
2
*. +
.
, | #
( #: “/ ” 4 #!.
, [3
%
%
%
3%
–
: «!
%
»], %
2007.
3
"
,
– ',
/, ,
27
1967-1972, %
, . "% 3
9 (1967-1972).
280 4
,
&
9
9
(
!
),
&
%
% 0
%
,
&
.
% &
9
(1940-1941)
,
’
, * %
&%
"
&
9%
&
%
%
& 0
&
9
%
%
, .&.,
%
8#
.
«»
%, /, «
“” », “
” .
9 9
: «
*
“
”
& %
«
“
”
*
» % «
“
”
» % «
9
‘
’ ,
‘
’
» %
« *
9
» .. , «
&
,
&
/» % «
“
&
”
“& 9
” &». , %
«
»
1
&. , «
& 0,
‘
’». 4
%
9
& /%: «
%
,
9
,
»
%
«
*
«
», «
», «
». D
1
&% 9 «ordinary people»,
,
, &
,
&
9 «distinguest persons»,
, 1,
&
. L
%
&
«eminent persons».
+
&
%
%
%
0. "
%
&%, % &
,
%
%
&
«
»
«
»,
%
%
0 *
.
,
, %
/
%
,
&
% 1%
% . ,
*
&
(
) % &
,
«
% /» % «
%
»,
*
(
)
/
,
,
%
%
3
9.
4 9
%
1
1840,
, . &.,
!
&%
(
% ,
&
%
5
281
,
9
, /
9%
, ..) 91
/%: «…
&
&
«
»,
&
& &%
"
9 “/” &!».4 +
*
&
%
“
” %
%
1%. $
9%
,
*
,
’
, &
%
%
1 & /
/
,
&
/
*
9 & «*
%
/
», ’
&1
«
». & &
9
,
%
*
9%
%
: «3 &
=
& «
»,
1
».
1
9
,
%
9, %
,
&%
,
& %
/
*,
9 .
, .&.
, «
%
», «1
», «
% 1
», «
», «
», «
% 9&
»
.. 4 , .&.,
9
%
, , «
9
% & & &
“
”»,
, %
%
& ,
9
«….& & &
%
&
% &%». ,
,
“
” % «
» 9 « &
» % 9 «
»
« » %
%
%
& &
.
+ «
1
», «
1%
»
9
/
9 «0
&
1
»,
19
,
,
%,
/ -
«1
»
«
1%
». H
%
9
“
1
” 9 «+ Pavarotti %
9
‘1’»,
1
1
%
/
. 3
%
&,
& /%: «+ Pavarotti
*
,
1
. 4 9 & /%:
«…%
1
%!». 6
,
&
&
9,
&
&
, .&.,
% %
9
9
9
%
%. 6
1
&
D
,
/
&
.
& /: "
0 «*
»
«Arabia»; 4
%
9
% ’
: «
“Arabia” ’
0, , %
0,
4
". }. ', «
!
%
%
(1700-1864)», :
,
, .
«!
8*
– .
», %
20063, . 49-78. 8 .
, «%
%
%
(1780-1817
)», :
,
$
, . «!
8*
– .
», %
20055, . 281-335.
282 6
/
*
&. $
&
*
, &
9 ,
!
4
&
«
»
&
%
,
% %
. "’
/
& &%
9
. &
% *
&
,
9 &%
«
»
% 9 «&
» %
% &% 9
%
. H
%
&
%,
%
9
&
%
. $%
&
«
» /
« »
,
9
&
%
9
&
,
1 ,
%
,
9
9
.6
6
% *
, *
&
%
,
9
9 &
’
% (
%)
% *
%
%
&
% 9%
%
.
&,
!
,
&
&
% %
/ "
%
&
%
.
5
*. ". }. ',
, . 9 , .
«!
8*
– .
», %
20063, . 36 ..
6
". }. ', «4
%
(1780-1863
)», :
,
, . «!
8*
– .
», %
20045, . 141-172.
7
283
9
19
. 6
%
%
,
*
1
9
«!
» (1717-1863). 4 %
%
%
*
%
&%
% * , *
&
&
9%
«
»
« ». +
, .&., "
&
% 0
G
%
&
,
1
1
% *
.
&
% *
,
, &
O&
&
&
,
&
/
&%
«
»
’
.
$ &
!
( 9%
18
19
.) 1
%
0 9
, *
9
%
%
*
%
&
‘
’. 4
/
%
(
*%
&
)
& 8
%
1
,
&
/
&
&
« », &
%
9
/ &
%
&%
3
9
"
%
.
6
9%
.&. «
», «
»,
«9& », « », «
\
», «/&%» (&
), «&»,
«
», «
», «
», «
», «
», «
%
&
», «»,
«», «
», «
», «%-
% * », «%», (9
%
&
& ), «
», «9
», «9
», «
», «
%», «
», «
–
», «
», «
-*
», «
», « », «
*
», «
», «
»,
«
», «
», «
», «
» ..
*
%
%
%
1
,
,
% (
). + 9
9
&
9%
1
1
. 4
%
,
,
&
&%.8
3
9
&
«
» % «
»
,
&%
%
!
(1780-1863
),
7
". }. ',
, .., . 144.
8
". }. ',
$
, .., . 365 ..
284 8
«
» (
%)
%
*
&
9
,
,
, &
1
&
«
- »
/
%
. +
&
«9& »
&
, .&., &
‘
&’
‘
’ &%
%
, 9
« » % «
».9
(1841)
,
,
/
*
.
+
&
&
% 0
&
& 0
. $& 1
3
9
"
%
.
% &%
« », «&», %
9,
« »
9%
18
19
!
,
&
%
.
, «…+
&
9,
9, &
9%
9
,
,
9
&
%
,
%
.
9
,
&,
%
,
%
&
9%
!
,
/
%
&
;...».10
9%
9
9 «%
1
% 6
». *
%
09
1
9
,
1 «
»,
**
9
.
&1
,
&%
(1841) *
9%
%
! , &%
«
»
%
. D
&
«
%
»
% » % &% 9 «
%
9
“
%
”», 1
0 %
,
/&1
% 9
/
,
1
&1
.
$
%
&
&
&.
, *
&
&%
&
%
9. 4
%
&%
9
% %
. 4
9
,
&
’
,
9%
/
(
%
%
1
1
«»
,
%
)
0 %
&
9
/
.
9
". }. ',
, .., . 83 ..
10
6.
/
-$
, * ( # ?
1848-1849, .
9
!
, %
1980, . 27-29.
9
285
9
9
%
«…
&
%
,
/
34
&
1%
».
9
,
%
&
9: «+ =
(
9
&
%
)
&%
.
&
,
,
,
;
"
%
9
%
9
: «4 &
‘’» (L. L. }&,
, 25-10-2007).
«
:
, *%
, %
/
% ’
%
,
9
; …
%
,
%
/
9
* ; …
&% %
«
»
9
9
/
,
%
,
1
’
9
9: «
/
9
&
9
».
H
*
, 9
1
/
1 ,
/
1
,
9
% * %
&
’
/
. 3
&
1
/ %
,
,
%
%
0 %
/
* %
/... D
&
%
«
». , 9
«
%», «
%», «
‘
’»,
& %
,
/
& %
.
«58» 8
5 585
865 <5
0
,
1
9
&
9
.
&1
«
» ,
%
%
%
%
%
,
&
*
& %
. & 9
%
&% %
(
%!)
/
%0!!! +
&,
, “
”
“
”
%, %
,
’
,
«&
»
“
%”
. M99-
, ,
9
%
*
9
09
(
)
/%:
« /%
&
,
%
0%9
9!
%
!». %
,
, 1
: «
!
&%
». %
, &
% 0
% «
!
&
%;».
9
9
%
*
,
%, %
1
%
,
,
%
%
(
&,
&, %
%
%,
). 4 9
%
0
/
1%
/%
&
«
9
»
%
: «
9
286 10
,
9
». +
&
,
9 9, & 1
! +
*
& «
», «», «
»
«9
»
9
&% 09
* %
«9
»
,
%
«
»
.
$/ 9
9
0
&
0
&
9 %
. $%
, 2007
$
G
, *
%
9
– $
3
% "
,
9
6 (
"
% 3
),
%
9
, %
9
&
1
: «…
&
(
*%
/), (
) 9
, , 9
, (
9
)
1
» (!).
$
«
», «
*», «
», «
9 9
&»,
«
=
»
<
<5
5
8
? 5
56
%
.
9%
,
1
, *
/
& % 0
.
3
&
/ ,
&
.11 =
9
,
*
& 0
/ %
9
9%
% 9
*
&
&
. \1
0
1
,
9
&
1
%
9%
9
9
,
& %
1%
&
0
. & %
%
*
&
%
,
&
,
,
&
%. , /
&%
&
&1
9 &
%
%
. N&
.$... (
$
*
% )
09
& %
%
%
. 4
& /%: «4 %
%
». $
%, «
»
9
11
". }. ', «/
%
», :
:
.
+ –
, . «!
8*
– .
», %
1999, . 188 ..
11
287
1
%
/1
(+
%
, %
, %
9% ..). , «
» 9
* «»
& (&)
,
&
,
&. 4
1
«
&
*» & 1
%
1
&
%
/ %
%
.
& &
/
/
*
’
&
9 *
%
& *
&
%0 %
/
0
9%
. 4 9
/,
9
& %
,
9
*
%
, %
1
/
/
*
.
*
%
9
,
9
.
%
,
/
,
*
% / % %
. /
«
%
%,
’
1
«&%
%» % «&
… + % %
9
. =%/ ,
%
…», 1
%
,
9
*
9
9
. ,
/
«+ ,
%
» % «
,
»
9
%
1% &
%/
/,
, %
.12
/ , /
, &
.&. «
%
9
,
8
» %
«4 6
» 1
&%
1% &
% .
4
%, ,
/
%
8
1
.
%
,
, «*
» % «
8
1
» %
«»
, **
,
&
%
9
,
0. $ «**
» *
%
&
%
* 13.
12
;
, . 211 ..
13
;
.
288 12
0
/
&
,
9,
%
%
. }
1%
&%
“
”
‘
’
9% % & %
%
*
9
%. /
&
%
*
& .
1
* %
&
,
,
9.
a priori
1%
%
*
9 %
,
%
«
» %
«
» 14.
14
". }. ', «%
%
13
289
290
.
....
!"
ȱ
!
, "#
....
#
03. %&
291
!
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
!
,
"
"
,
!
«
,
#
,
».
Susan Pedersen, «$
;»,
: David Cannadine (.),
;,
"
%
&# , , &# 2007, 81.
#
"
#,
,
'
,
#
,
",
"
,
, #
, #
,
,
'
"
,
"
,
.
Paul Cartledge, «$
;»,
: Cannadine, .., 53-80.
!
, ,
#
,
,
,
, "
,
'
,
, '
,
(discourses),
,
,
,
" .
Miri Rubin, «$
;»,
: Cannadine, .., 155-179.
292
3
&
"
=
#
«
»,
#
>
# #
#
6
#
&!
,
: &
?,
!
;
@, &# 2007, 247-255
#
293
[…]
. B
"
#
#
,
. E
'
#
#
. F
" . =
"
. $
« » ' . /' '
. *
,
'
'
!
. $
.
&
?,
;, @, &# 2007, 113
&
#
#
#
. G
,
20 '#
!
"
,
"
(
/
..).
*
'
- !
"
,
'
'
(Visual Literacy),
#
&
@
(Susanne
Popp),
#
. *
#
# #
#
" "
'
"
"
,
(strategic essentialism)
#
H
I
! I
#,
"
#
-#
"
,
#
status,
, "'
# #
#.
/"
#
Susanne Popp,
*
I
–
,
:
Ö
(visual
perception)
.
Ö
!
.
294
5
Ö "!
,
#
# #
(images visualizing history).
03. %&
1. H
#
,
!
#
,
#
" "
,
# #
,
,
, #
!
. H
#
'
"
.
2. H
#
(
/ #
,
).
3. H
#
'
.
4. H
#
".
5. H
#
(..
",
,
,
,
,
..).
6. H
#
'
#
(
,
,
,
,
" ,
#" ,
)
–
"
–,
"
.
7. H
#
,
,
'
#
.
@
#
" ,
,
#
, ,
''
, !
#
,
"
"
,
,
295
#
#
"
#
#
. G
,
"
"
"
#
,
, "
!
.
1 "
«!$ #
#
#. %’ !, !
#
&#. '
#
. *
!. [...] +
#
#
'
#
#
#
#
- - [...].
# -
#! '! !
.
#
!
#
-
! ! #
'!
[;]
- $
. /#
!$».
X-?
'-Y Bartholdy (1779-1825),
#
. $
6
1803 1804
1805
1807.
2 "
«[...] "
! $,
#
["-
], !
, ' #
-
!
0
-
, #
##
, !
!
[...] 0 #
'
’
!
#
- !'
#
- #
#. 1 [...] - # !
#$#
!
!
#, #'
’ # '.
-
#
’
$ ' [
#
-
"#
#] 0
[=
]
# "#
#
. %
#
#
-
0
$
’ [...]».
F, 26 I 1806
3 "
«[&
! !
# ] [...] '
'
# %
-
-
[...]
!
'
# ' -
#
,
!
$
,
# 2
- ! ’ #
, -
'
! [...] /'
# 0
'
-
# 3
#,
# 3
#
# ,
#
#
!
# '
-
- - . [...] /' 4
#
#
!
#
##
. [...] /'
4
#
’ #! . [...] /
/ /
['] »
\
, 1869
%
#
!
%
% –
Y", 5
$ 3
(1700-1950), &# 2005, 134-135 (2
3
) 163 (1
) .
# !
296
7
1) /
#
;
2) /
"
#
;
3) X !
" ' (
#
" )
"
;
4) F, , ,
#;
5) /
#
"!
"
.
4 "
« 1. "!
#-#
>
# ,
#
#
-
#
# – #
#, #
-
#0
#
-
#
# […]
2.1 @
' […]
2.2 @ '
$ #
#
#. @ #
'
#
'
-
#
- -
.»
H
=
6# 6 , 20 I 1934
(H!
X )
# !
1) H
–
#
(=
,
, # – ,
, "
, ).
2) @
"
; (=
"
,
,
"
,
,
,
#)
3) @
"
(= -
)
"
;
297
- !
1940-53
1800
1932 - 1940 «
»
!
1800 -
1922
1937
1922-1932
[$ ]
1
«/
&#
@
#
46 " (12
34
),
#
"
, #
. /
@,
"
#
'
'
!
'
. F
$
" & /,
H ,
*
,
6
,
6# /
,
/
@
*
, & I
_
& & @. F
#
H /
%
,
H `"
H 6# . /
'
298
9
#
( \)
#
"
,
('
, ") !
* (
)».
B %
, «III. &
1922-1930»,
: \
@
(.),
A
# 3!
# &
- 1770-2000,
7: @ "
1922-1940.
/ # C
4 /#
-
#,
6
X
- $ H, &# 2003,113.
2
«
'
!
1920,
#
#
F
40 ! ,
!# [...]. $ "
#
'
"
#
».
%
%
, «*
, "
'
6
F»,
: !
'. "
'# &
# "
!
#, j F ! 6
, &#
2003, 45-46.
3
«G
’30
,
q
... @
«"»
,
"
/
%
20 ,
1937. /’
@
%
600
". %
. 6
!
#
,
... B
,
" !
1920 "!
15
. %
[ = "]
4
F "
!
; = '!
" [/F.
#
F
]
"
". &
"
!
.
X x
, &-
-
, 1929
299
5
$ 1929 #
"
!
185.000 "
,
1930-36
350.000 ",
– "
[…]. =
[
,
"'
"
*
]
[…] "
,
,
" «» . 6
«
"», " { $!
1937,
«
,
", # #
. $
».
$
%, 5 #
"
!
.
C
- 0
&
# 1930,
\', &# 2007, 37-38
6
%
, "
'
!
,
«"»
*
"
/
F
,
«\'»,
!
&, ' #
…
"
! –
!–
#
"
.
H. X, «=
», 3!
%
, 10.9.1936
7
# @
6
"
" «\'». =
!
"
#
@
.
&
$, 11.9.1936
8
[…]
!
,
. % : >
[…]
#
,
" #.
[&"], «$», /> 3!, 14.9.1936
9
E!
#
-#
’
#
,
#
,
"
,
# ! [=
!,
] ’
"
"
[…]
%., «{
», 2
, 19.9.1936
300
11
10
&
# ""
. 1. &
(%), 2. $
(F), 3. >
(F), 4. $
! (/
), 5. @
(/
), 6. \', 7. F
&'
, 8. 6
,
9. | x. = '
,
,
#
,
"
# 3
’ #. 12
.
X @
, / #
0 #
' C#- / #
/, &# 1937
11
}
! 6
$
,
#
,
"-"
!. 6
6
# #'
. $ «-»
!
" –
–
#'
,
.
[&"], «= »,
!
, 30.11.1937
12
*’
>" $
#
"
" #
#
,
(). 6
#
"
>". $.
/
' 1937
13
6
"
#
. &
"
. […] }
14
6
. B" . B"
"
, "#
. *
" ', #
' , , #
[…]. &
,
F
. [@] ,
# "
. F
. $ ’
, " ". H
. B"
.
F \'
15
$ >" $ $,
301
«
» "
,
# #
#,
"
#
.
6
.
[&"], «&
#
», %
, 22.6.1938
16
@
"
6 '
*# ?
*"
>" $ $
"
6
""
. F
'
" )
')
(
)
"
. $
#’
*/
? *"
''!
6
[…]. $
6
[…] !
>" $ $.
H 1619/1939, {# 21: «@ "
> $ $
»
17
=
%
6# &
. 6
«'» ’
,
"
X
.
`
« !».
& |, «%
», / , 264 (I 1984), 46-47.
18 [«(+"»]
«w
[...] "
“” “
”
,
“\'”, #
. $
#
#
,
#
#
!
!
"
. E
" #
,
&"
F
#
,
, #
.
,
&#
1937, #,
,
!
#. @
#, , "!
#
'
. = ,
,
#
#
"
,
,
# “
, B
6
“\'” [….]”,
"
».
F @
, @
-
# " 0. C
&,
"
F F , G , &# 2006, 341-342.
302
13
19
«[...] "
–
- # !
#
,
. &
"!
#
#
“#
#”,
"
[...]».
F @
, .., 342.
20
w
«"
[...]
@
,
’
6
# ,
"
#
'#
».
/
1936-1940,
6
4
&
, &# 1938, 214.
21
= , «
»,
«
#
#
».
/
, .., 214.
«
!»
. @
0.7 %&
«
», «"»,
«
'
!»,
,
$"%&'1933
",
«»,
'(:)*& «"»,
«» (
"). /
&'
#
!
' ! #
«#
».
!, ,
-.
@ /',
'
#
!0 «
!
»
'
#
# .
% !
-
!
#
#
.
G
- ’
!
'# '
# $!. (= -
)
#,
!
! ,
'
#
#
- ' '
.
"-
'!
-
' />
#
+),
'1936
'(:)*&
+
# #
#
#
#
# #
'
#
#
303
4$ #
'
#
#
!
% ' 4
#
# $
#
!
#
#$.
(&!’
%
-
,
4$!
-
C
$
# ’'
!
.)
+/ ('1935
'(:0
)(4)
"
-
1 !'
,
'
304
15
4
,
#
" 4
#
! !
%
0
4,
#
!
!'
-, -
# -
4 4
# 0
'
'
# '-
$ '$
! ! ! '
! !'
!
-
!
# '
#
#.
305
.
x
;
x
; (
!"
"!)
#. $ %&
x '
!;
x *
" !/
;
x + !"
!
;
. '
:
x *
"
;
x *
" !; +
!
!;
x + !
&
; '
;
,. + ":
x + %!
&
;
x
! %;
x +
";
x '
" ;
x '-
;
- 0
,
,
! !,
"
(Logical-
% !.
mathematical)
,
! ,
! ,
!
,
(Verbal / Linguistic) .
/ !" 0
,
,
,
(Visual / Spatial)
",
! " !.
# / $# "
"
, !
(Musical / Rythmic)
" !
!
.
306
To «»
307
308
/#(,%0#%"' %' 0( ( ',;
TI /0'*"%#" %' 0$'/%(0'( %#( ('( )0"',0( 010(0'(
'!34$ !C}}4$
6.6+$G4 62
59100 8G+!
4' 2331073425
$0&'-
4
6
/
* %
% , *
,
,
. 4
/
9
%
,
*
*. 4
1
6
L%
& %
".. 6 2005.
0'()!)
6
/ *
%
&
2
4
. ' 9
%
%
1 , 1
*
*
. Q
9 ".. + 9
*
&.
6.6..
9
&
&
.
9 **
9
*
.
9
&
%
9
*
*
%.
3
& &
0
,
/ ( "..)
/
&
% *
.
+
".. ,
*
, &
,
&
,
/
% /.
/% %
«
%
; »
«
;»
«
%
%
; »
«
& 9 *
9 ; »
«
;»
%
&
«
*
% ; »
0&0#"
$
&
«
»
0
9 "..
4
9%
*
6
.
&%$%( 0&)('(
/
*
1%
9
*
. $
0
%
0%9
.
6
400
09
L%
349 & %. +
%
%
&
.
309
/
9
x
% *
&
x
%
x
&%
x
% *
&
x
% *
&
*
$%00(
$
1
2 9
09
*
%
,
%
.
&
.
09
*
%
, %
.
&
,
.
%
0
.
9
3
4
0
0%9
%
. $ 2
L%
“
”
&
&
.
$'",( 1.
8BH&8
G/H# /"E>9H#
22%
25%
20%
13% 13%
15%
10% 5,40% 4,25%
2,86% 3,25%
5% 2,00%
0%
G/8 1o G/8 2o G/8 3o G/8 4o
$'",( 2.
"#$&' "('$&)
80% 60,61%
60% 45,25%
31,80% 28,36%
40% 27,25% 20,50%
20% 0,75% 0,28%
0%
G/8 1o G/8 2o G/8 3o G/8 4o
$
3 , 4
1
(
3. L!4 =L=}$4 ,
4. \}+'+"!4 =L=}$4)
310
$'",( 3. L!4 =L=}$4
"('$&) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
"('$&) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
*&" 1 1 37,54% 0,86% 3,15% 1,43% 2,58% 2,87% 2,01% 4,01% 8,02% 37,54%
*&" 2 + 56,16% 2,87% 4,01% 1,72% 1,43% 0,29% 0,57% 0,86% 1,72% 30,37%
*&" 2 . 76,22% 2,01% 1,43% 2,87% 1,43% 0,86% 0,86% 0,26% 1,15% 12,89%
09 0
80-90%.
,
/ %
“$ '
”.
4 9%
%
% *
%
« !1 ' » . 4
% 9
9
*
(
)
(
/ %
) .
91
*
&
.
311
;)(AB.;( B)&='
G/H# /"E>9H#
40
20
0
1o A1
1o A2
1o B
2o A
2o B
2o .
3
3 +
3 .
3 $
4
4 +
4 .
4 $
-20
-40
-60
-80
1
1
%
18 , 2
3. H
1
1
L
4 . Q
&
*
%
9 **
*
.
9
L%
9
& %.
& % &
L%.
%
&
6
"# '
&
/
%
9
.
4
%
1
/
.
0
9 .
N
0%9 % 1
9
% 1
.
$
5 9
L
1 1
1
/
%
.
$'",( 5.
G/H# /"E>9H#
50
40
42,25
30
37
37,54
37,54
20
8,02
10
0,86
0,25
3,15
1,43
2,58
2,87
1,25
2,01
3,25
4,01
2,5
0,5
11
0
1
1
0
9
«SOS»
,
& %
0%9.
3 %
9
9
. Q
&
1
/ %
&
9
%
. 3
%&
/
, 9
.
312
$'",( 6.
G/H# /"E>9H#
60 51,26
40
44,5
43
7,74
35,24
20
2,87
2,87
5,5
3
4
0
0
4
1 L
1 2 1
9
!} 6.
2 L
9
% .6.. %
09
.
$
7,8,9 9
% *
%
.
$'",( 7.
*&" 2
G/H# /"E>9H#
70
60
59
50
40
41,55
30
34,96
29,75
20
18,91
0,29
1,43
0,75
0,29
1,43
1,15
10
2,5
0
0
7
$'",( 8.
*&" 2 +
G/H# /"E>9H#
60
56,16
50
48,75
40
30
35,75
30,37
20
10
3,75
2,87
4,01
2,75
1,72
0,25
1,43
0,75
0,29
0,57
0,86
1,72
3,5
1,5
1
0
0
9
313
$'",( 9.
*&" 2 . .
G/H# /"E>9H#
100
80
22,25
60
76,22
12,89
67
40
20
0
0
9
.
9
1
%
/ ,
,
9
.
L
2 "
/
% %
1
.
0 %
/.
9
1
3
3 3
$'",( 10.
*&" 3
G/H# /"E>9H#
60
50 56,5
40 44,41
39,96
30
20 25,5
10
9,5 7,45 8,5 11,17
0
0 1 2 3
$
10. 9
% *
L
3 %
%
%
.
9
.
*&" 3$
G/H# /"E>9H#
64,47
70
60
50
40
51
12,61
30
8,88
16,25
4,87
2,01
2,29
2,58
2,29
20
15,5
2,25
10
5
0
0
L
3 3 9
0
. Q
%
.
/
& **
&
%
(
314
%)
1
.
&
/
&
0
.
. 4 *
&
/ &
9
8. +
1
%
%
%
1
%
*
.
". Q&
%
9
& ,
9
.
3. Q&
% 0
/
. Q
%
% &
. 4
% ,
&
(#$0&(
x +
/
%
9
/
/
x
%
6
/
x +
/
x =& *
*
9
*
x =& *
x
0
*.
&
“&”
&%
x 4 %
*
& **
x +
,
,
&
.(
( ,
#! $
) (+=6$4$ 1994)
x +
%
x
*
/.
x +
9
1
9
9
. (
)
x +
1
*
,
#!
. &
,
$
$
#
( , !
$
» (+=6$4$ 1994)
315
« &! #
#$ (#$#
,
$ ,
(# ( » ($$C4$ 1990)
«
%
&
;»
0$'%)%(
+
&
%
%
/
C'C'%)&+'
0./5 , (1983)
% / 6 3 4 / $& %
, .
,
L
1983 ,.300-301
0./5 , (1994) /
%
% % ,
9*% , /
. "
, %
1994
., , (1990) 4
/
, 6
, , * %
316
% %( %# "0&%# /%#%# (% 0"!" %# $!":
%$',%$%'( (VISUALIZATION) !(
0%/%( #(( $&%C!"
3
%
6
$& $
delikanlis@sch.gr
5
$
&
/
(NCTM, 2000). 4
%
9
1%
* %
.
/
9
1
0
). 3
%
9
,
%
(Carpenter & Fennema, 1989), &%
(Mack 1995), &
(Lamon 1993), &
(Fuys, Geddes, and Tischler 1988).
4 0
9 9
* . 4 $
9%
& & 9
:
/
*%
%
%
%
1
(Miller, 1983). 6
%
&
%
*
/
&1 .
% 0
. 4
% . "
&
( ., &
*
%) /
. ,
%/
317
/
&
% & ,
. 4 Borasi (1987)
%/
&
x
&
,
x
0
,
x
9
* %
,
x
&
9
.
4 Borasi /
/ %
%
.
9
%
*
* %
/. '
9
% . H
1
9
1
% . $ ,
&
9
9
1
/
9
(Piaget,1970; Piaget, Inhelder,1975). +
Turniaire and Pulos (1985)
4
*
: (
) * %
%, (*) * %
, () * %
/%, () * %
. *
$
*
%,
9
1
%.
&
9
9
1
%
*
*
*
( "
&
9
1995). =&
(De Bock et al., 1998, 2002)
& 9
%
9 **
% %.
4
1
/
% 0
(Arcavi, 2003; Bishop, 1989; English, 1997). L
*
%
&
9
&
9
.
/
*
0 *
&
. 4 Presmeg (1986), Eisenberg
Dreyfus (1991)
%
*
9 .
H
9
&
,
(Brock and Price 1980)
&
&
(.&.). 4 &%
(.&.)
&
(artifact),
%
%: % (.&. ),
* % 9% (
%
), %
(.&.
) (Saxe, 1991),
9
* .
5= 85
4
%
*
/ /.
43
% # / '
, 16
27
.
&
1%
%
&
(Plato, 82 b7 - 82
e3)
6
. 3
&
&
* %
*
. !
1%
0
*
&
. + &
/%: 1. 4 %
0 * . 2. 4
(.&.) * %
. 3. 4 &
*
. 4. 9
% %
. 4 %
$
-
6
,
% *
$
&
:
$C.
,
, 1
&%
;
318
3+='. 6
.
$C.
&%
&
/
.
3+='. 8*
$C. 3
&%
%
;
3+='. 8*
.
$C.
%
,
%
&%
; 3
/%.
% %
,
&%
%
;
3+='. }
%
.
$C. 9
,
;
3+='.
.
$C. 3 9
&%
;
3+='.
.
$C.
9 ; $0
.
3+='.
.
$C. 3
&%
,
&
&;
3+='. 6.
$C.
%
;
3+='. +.
$C. Q
,
%
%
&%
; 4
.
.
/
% 8’
(
}),
1
/
/
9
* %
.
8
.%
4
9%
%
9
1
(* .
1 ).
33%
,
1
. 4 % &%
/
9
( Piaget & Inhelder, 1975). 4
/
&% %
,
%
, 9
1
9
&
&
,
.
4 $&
4
$&
%
4
8
3 / %
$
1.
*
6
&
%
5%
319
28%
%
*%
%
/
1. 0
(0),
().
1 : ',
$
2 :
2
*
=22=4. L
&%
($&.1). 4
2
3,
22=4, 32=9. 8
4
9,
2
3.
3 : *.
4 : 6
2
& ($&.2)
8 *
. (2+&)2=8 % 2+&= 8 % &= 8 -2
2+&=2+ 8 -2= 8 …. D
9 *
8
8 . 8
……
5 : Q&
. 6%
&%
.
* /
.
11 : 3 1
12 : AEBH ($&.5)….
*
…
13 :
*;
14 :
.
15 :
&
;
16 : }
&
=2
8=2….
17 : $
%.
28 : ($ $&.5
2, $&.6 )….…
19 :
/ &%
&
9 &
*
.
20 : AEBH,
&
2
*
4… 8
*
8…
…
0
….
$
1%
3
1
4
() (2)
%
*
2
3. $ (4) /
%
320
2,
2
&
2+&
*
8,
%
&
. ' /
(2+&)2=8 % 2+&= 8 () % &= 8 -2 (),
2+&=2+ 8 -2= 8
().
1 & ()
%
2+&
(),
& % * ().
8
%
&
0. $
&
&
%
0
9
/
&
/
*
8. $
& &1
($&.3). = 1
AC: AC2=AB2+BC2=( 8 )2+( 8 )2=8+8=16 AC=4 …
% AE=2
EB=2.
AB2= AE2+ EB2=22+22=8,
9
%
. 4
AB= 8
%
9
&%
* %
9
& AB2= 8 ,
AE=2
EB=2.
;
10 }:
.
11 : L
/
% &%
;
12 }: 6
. ' =42=16. C& ' & % 4
.
Q&….
……..….. &
;
13 : L
*
0
9
&.
14 }: $9
%
3 32=9, 8. %
2 22=4
2
.3
.
15 : &
;
16 }: $&1
*
8
($&.4). &&=&2=8.
/
*
… *
…
17 : *
. H ($&.3).
18 }: '
8
& *
1
19 : C
.
20 }: Q& &%
($&.5).
21 :
;
22 }: H&,
.
23 : L
*
8.
24 }:
.
25 : *.
26 }: }
/
;
27 : "
&;
321
28 }: % &&=8, ($&.4)
& 8
.
29 : 6
.
30 }: \1 4
,
%
* 2
($&.5). H
/
&
.
31 : 3
%
32 }: 3
& .
& 8
;
33 :
;
34 }:
1…. }
*
1
4 .
; 3 &
($&.6).
35 : 6
, &
;
36 }: H&
3 *
9. 2 2 4. 8
9
2
…..
37 :
.
38 }: & &
1%
* 2,5
($&.7), 4
4
…..6…
…
8….. 9
*
. & / 9&=8… &
9….
9%.
39 : &%
&
&
&
*
1 ($&.8).
,
&
. 6
&
…..
40 }: }
41 : .
42 6: ' & ($&.9)
…. *
…
*
/
%
.
43 : $
9.
44 }: }
……Q& /% &%
…….. 4
3
7
8
($&.10)……
45 : 6… &%
…
46 }: ;
47 : 6…
48 }: L
& ($&.11)….
& 5 …6…7
…..
49 : 6: &
..
&
…
50 }: & ($&.12). ' & 5…6…7…
.
51 : &%
;
52 }:
& 4
…..6
;
53 : 8*
.
54 }: *
6%
3 3; H& & 3
& 5… 6..7
4
8,
…
…
322
$&.8 $&.9 $&.10 $&.11 $&.12 $&.13
$
4: $&
}
55 :
;
56 }: 6
1 1
%
%,
….
%
2 2…,
&
2.
$
1%
3
2
$ 3
2 (32) } (})
(2-8)
. 1
& (.&.) &
&
($&.1 $&.7).
&
($&.3),
2, 1x1
(16-24) &
&
. " 9
1
%
* (14), (24).
(.&.)
*
9
%
%
.
&%
(})
&1
4
%
. L
9
1
$&.13). +
%
% 9
&%
: &%
&
&
,
% "figural concept " % «&
%
» (Fischbein 1993).
(5
/ %
% 0
%
/
(Fauvel & van Maanen, 2000) &%
*
/
. /1
/
$ %/
9
/
%
1%
/ $
%
%
9
(Drodge and Reid, 2000).
$
*% &% &
&
&
&
/
9
0 Duval (1998).
$
01
9
9
% 0 (Aspinwall, and Shaw 2002),
1
* %
%
(Brousseau,
1997).
9
&
.
C56
"
, ., &
9
, . (1995). '
3
"
* %
. $ . "
(Ed.),
$
.. L
: Art of
Text.
Arcavi, A. (2003). The Role of Visual Representations in the Learning of Mathematics. Educational
Studies in Mathematics 52: 215–241.
Aspinwall, L., and Shaw, K. (2002). Representations in calculus: Two contrasting cases. Mathematics
Teacher, 95, 434-440.
Avital, S. (1980). What can be done with students' errors? Sevavim (15). [In Hebrew].
Bishop, A. (1989). Review of research in visualization in mathematics education. Focus on Learning
Problems in Mathematics, 11(1), 7-16.
323
Borasi, R. (1987). Exploring mathematics through the analysis of errors. For the Learning of
Mathematics, 7(3), 2-8.
Brock, W. H and Price, M. H.: 1980, Squared paper in the Nineteenth Century: Instrument of Science
and Engineering, and Symbol of Reform in Mathematical Education, Educational Studies of
Mathematics, 11, (4), 365-381.
Brousseau, G. (1997). Theory of didactical situations in mathematics. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Carpenter, T.P., & Fennema, E. (1989). Research and cognitively guided instruction. In E. Fennema,
& T.P. Carpenter (Eds.), Integrating Research on Teaching and Learning Mathematics (pp.2-17).
Wisconsin: Wisconsin Center for Education Research.
De Bock, D., Verschaffel, L., & Janssens, D. (1998). The predominance of the linear model in
secondary school students’ solutions of word problems involving length and area of similar plane
figures. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 35, 65-83.
De Bock, D., Verschaffel, L., & Janssens, D. (2002). The effects of different problem presentations
and formulations on the illusion of linearity in secondary school students. Mathematical Thinking
and Learning, 4(1), 65-89.
Drodge, E. and Reid, D. (2000). Embodied cognition and mathematical emotional orientation.
Mathematical thinking and learning, 2(4), 249-267.
Duval, R. (1998). “Geometry from a cognitive point of view”. Perspectives on the Teaching of
Geometry for the 21st Century –An ICMI Study. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Eisenberg, T. & Dreyfus, T. (1991), On the Reluctance to Visualize in Mathematics, Visualization in
Teaching and Learning Mathematics (Zimmermann, & Cunnigham, ed), Washington, 25-37.
English, L. (Ed.) (1997). Mathematical Reasoning. Analogies, Metaphors and Images. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Earlbaum Associates
Fauvel, J., van Maanen, J., (2000). History in Mathematics Education. The ICMI Study. Dordrecht:
Kluwer.
Fischbein, E.(1993). The Theory of Figural Concepts, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 24(2),
139-162.
Fuys, D., Geddes, D., & Tischler, R. (1988). The van Hiele model of thinking in geometry among
adolescents. Journal for Research In Mathematics Education, Monograph Series, Number 3.
Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Garuti, R., Boero, P. & Chiappini, G. (1999). Bringing the voice of Plato in the classroom to detect
and overcome conceptual mistakes. In: O. Zaslavsky (Ed.), Proc. of the 23rd Conference of the
PME (Vol. 3, 9-16). Haifa: Technion Israel Institute of Technology.
Klein, R., Barkai, R., Tirosh, D. & Tsamir, P. (1998). Increasing teachers’ awareness of students’
conceptions of operations with rational numbers. In A. Olivier & K. Newstead (Eds.), Proceedings
of the 22nd Conference of the PME (Vol. 3, 120-127). Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch.
Lamon, S. J. (1993). Ratio and proportion: Connecting content and children’s thinking. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 24, 41-61.
Mack, N. K. (1995). Confounding whole number and fraction concepts when building on informal
knowledge. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 24, 41-61.
Miller, P.H., 1983. Theories of Developmental Psychology. Freeman, San Francisco, USA.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for school
mathematics. Reston VA: Author.
Oser, F., Spychiger, M., Mahler, F., Gut, K., Hascher, T., Büeler, U. & Müller, V. (1999). Lernen
Menschen aus Fehlern? Zur Entwicklung einer Fehlerkultur in der Schule. Scientific report (2) to
the Swiss National Science Foundation:
http://www.unifr.ch/pedg/archiv/archiv.htm
Oser, F., Hascher, T. & Spychiger, M. (1999). Lernen aus Fehlern. Zur Psychologie des „negativen“
Wissens. In W. Althof (Eds.), Fehlerwelten. Vom Fehlermachen und Lernenaus Fehler (11–41).
Opladen: Leske + Budrich.
Piaget, J., (1970). The child’s conception of movement and speed, London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., (1975), The origin of the idea of chance in children, New York: Norton
Plato. Menon. TLG (Thesaurus Linguae Graecae). % 20-04-2007
http://www.tlg.uci.edu/
Presmeg, N. (1986). Visualization and mathematical giftedness. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
17 (3), 297-311.
324
Radatz, H. (1979). Error analysis in mathematics education. Journal of Research in Mathematics
Education 10 (3), 163 – 172.
Saxe, G. B. (1991). Culture and Cognitive Development. Studies in Mathematical Understanding,
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass., Inc.
Tourniaire, F., Poulos, S., (1985), “Proportional Reasoning: A Review of the Literature”, Educational
Studies in Mathematics. 16, 181-204.
325
8
55 89
=
*
4
"
'
&
&
,
1
,
/1
/. +
'
/
91
"
, 9
N *
. , / *
« *
, 9
&
/
!, !».
9 *
"
,
1
,
*
&
/ 9
0» (. 51).
6 %
%
,
%
"
–
- &
9
#
%. $9
,
&
"
&
%
% (Fischbein, 1999,
.18 -21), 0,
, /
%
%
/ (Shriki, 1997, .152).
&
&% %
,
9%
9
%. 4
%
&
,
&
326 1
"
,
*
&
0
9
0
/%
.
=
' *
' "*
"
* %
%
, %
,
%
.
,
&
,
9%
% (Duval, 1998, . 38).
4
5
&
%
0
,
*
,
&. 3
1 *
,
1
(
)
&
/
&,
* %
.
4 1
&
,
1
,
& ,
.
%
&%
,
«&%
%/»
*
%.
,
&
* %
(
/ % &%
), %
%
&%
1. % 0, 568
:
¾ 9%
¾ 9
M *
/
:1. % 2.
%
3. % (
, 2003, .228). $
&
1%
.
:
''
=
-
%
9, 1
& . +
*
1
, %
%.
1
* %
% «9
» &
%
.
%
*
1
,
*
%.
$ % «
»
. +
*
%
9
*
,
%
&%
. Q *
* %
–
&%
.
,
&
%
9
&%
&%
. H
9
,
%
.
8
''
;
$
&
: $ %
¾ «$
,
#$
» %
*
1
&
*
1
&%
,
9
9
1
*
. 3
%,
9
(
&%
)
1
* %
.
*
,
9
1
2 327
1 9
. 6
$&%
&
* $&%
*
A A
/ B ) 0 / B ) 0
1
N
%
9%:
¾ «(
#$
%>
»
( ## #
!)
+ B
$ B
¾ «…… .$
;
* ,
. ;*
>» %
+
6
% /%
,
%
&%
,
&
1
&
%
&. "
,
%
&
1
&%
,
&
*
,
. 4
%
&
.
, % ,
&%
,
9
&
.
:
¾
&
&%
%
**
,
&%
.
¾
,
&
. ("
,
, /
&
&%
&
1
*
.
%
%
&
).
4 *
%
%
%
, &
9 %
%
,
. =
% %
328 3
%
. Q
*
1
%
,
9
&
1
,
%
%
. ,
9,
*
1
, *
1
&
&%
.
:
''
4
% *
%
% , #
*
%
9
. + /
&
9%
&%
.
$
%,
/
1
&%
,
&
%
&
&%
% 9.
$
%
8
''
;
9
:
1. 6
&% %
%
1
* %
. "
, •
&
*
:
•
%
$5: $
8" 8="
6,},
/
86}
.
"
'
%:
«/ >%?
#
.»
% &
6,},
.
&
/
%
( #.
!,
#
)
( #.
!)
&%
.
2. N
&
* &
& %
&
.
M - P:
!#
%
P:
#$ >+
>+
M - P:
#$ >+
3. Q
,
&
9
1
,
% 9. +
%
&
4 329
$
8" 8=",
» "
+
% /
9
,
C ,
)
( %>=?)
% 1 (>%? #
)
& «
/%»
& %
&.
4. $
9
1
1 ,
%
.
%
%
9
9%
.
$
,
(+,), $
%
&
$8 , 8
.
«
;»
$ B
'
%:
« ;>
#
…. $ > ; %
#
$
#$ …». +
%
/ $8
,
(
) $8
& *
%
, 0
9%
&
( $ > ;
).
9
%
1,
& &
.
:
*
''
=
%
9
- *
-
. +
% *
1
, *
%
1
,
%
/
/
. $
%
, *
.
&
/
,
* %
,
% 9% (pattern imagery)
*
%
%, %
& *
&
#
.
\
%
%,
%
%
,
0
& %
%
%
. $
&
, &
%
.
% «
/» 9
Rodd, &1
/
1%
,
% /
(Rodd, 2000, .225).
8
*
''
;
1. $ %
5
&%
,
%
%
&1 &%
. +
Duval 9 &
figural change
operative apprehension,
330 5
%
0
&%
.
%
9
,
/ 9 &%
& &
%
&
%
/
&
9% &%
.
"
, %
* %
(Duval, 1998, .41): 3
8"3
6
}.
/
%
3G, G$
$8
.
,
%
/%
&%
,
*
,
&
}"6
3$"
G8 (
) 9
1
.
" C " C " C " C
/ ) / ) / ) / )
4
%
&
1
0
9% %
&%
* %
. $9
Duval, «
# $
-
! #
.
#
!
$ # $
.
$:
–
# ! #
#» (Duval,
1998, .41).
2. +
&
%
,
&
&
%
. $
,
%
&
1
:
¾
/
58
¾
&
5
, &
9 .
4
%
* %
,
#
,
,
1
(%
,
% %
). $ %
% &
%
&
(%
%)
/
.
+ –
9
&,
9
.
*
% *
. &
1
.
,
9
&
.
+ %
/,
«
»
%
&
&%
,
%
1
&
* %
.
+
% /
%
/%
:
&
%
&%
, **
. $
, /
9 %
. Q
%,
,
% & %
%.
+
, ,
,
* %
. +
,
&
%
6 331
. $
%
&% (
* %
),
*
&
.
+
%
/
* %
.
%
,
%
,
,
%
(
/
),
% %
,
&1
(
, 2003, .247).
$
,
%
,
0 . Q,
* %
.
$
&1
,
:
¾
%
1
%
* %
¾
1
%
,
%/
* %
¾
/ 9
¾
, 9
% %
¾ &% %
1
%
/
C
,
,
% 0. Q
%
,
%,
%
.
$
,
% &1
(.&.
&%
)
*
%
1. + &
&
*%
%
*%
,
/
,
&
* .
C'C'%)&+'
1. Duval, R. (1998), Geometry from a Cognitive Point of View, in C. Mammana and V. Villani
(eds) Perspectives on the Teaching of Geometry for the 21st Century, Kluwer Academic Press,
the Netherlands.
2. Duval, R. (2001), The Cognitive Analysis of Problems of Comprehension in the Learning of
Mathematics, presentation in the Discussion Group: Semiotics in Mathematics Education, 25th
Annual Meeting of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education,
Utrecht, The Nederlands.
3. Fischbein, E. (1999), !ntuitions and Schemata in Mathematical Reasoning, Educational
Studies in Mathematics 38, 51-66.
4.
, . (2003), * $ $ '! %
. @
$,
3
% 3
*%
5. Mariotti,M.A. (1997), Justifying and Proving in Geometry: the mediation of a microworld,
revised and extended version of the version published in: Henjy M., Novotna J. (eds.)
Proceedings of the European Conference on Mathematics Education (pp. 21-26), Prague,
Prometheus Publishing House.
6. Rodd, M.M. (2000), On Mathematical Warrants: proof does not always warrant, and warrant
may be other than proof, Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 2(3), 221-244.
7. Shriki, A. & Ehud Bar – On (1997), Theory of Global and Local Coherence and applications
to Geometry, Proccedings of the 21st Conference of PME, Finland.
332 7
( ',
$0&'-
&
.
$
9 &
,
**
%,
/
0
9
,
&1
.. / & &
,
/
/ &,
.
.
0'()!)
9
9
, /
&
*
.
9
,
&
&%
9
* N *
.
&
/
&
,
&
*
,
%
9.
$
9
,
9
0 &
. + 9
%,
,
**
,
,
%
,
&%
:
%
9
6
. %58
8 5? <5 5
39
%
/ :
17 - 3,4 3 x 2 3 : 5
54 : 4,5 4 5 5 4
54,25 : 3,5
h h
h h 5 5
6
2
333
8
85
;
&%
& % (1909)
&
%
9% (x+
)2 = x2+
2, (
2)3 =
5 ... .. .,
x =+
, _x_
2y+
2y
/,
1977 6
, 126
*
/ 2,746
2,7471.
$
&
’80
2 24 &
*
11-15 , & &%
%
,
,
%
.
’
&
& *
,
&%
* ,
1
* /.
$
3 S.E.S.M. (Strategies and rrors in Secondary Mathematics),
C.S.M.S. (Concepts in Secondary Mathematics and Science)
"
/
&
%
9
, * &
,
&
9
4.
"
&
;
&
. H &
* %
&
*
3
*
"
.
$
5
300
9
3 $&
& 1979-1980
*
5-7
62
# "
1980
&
%.
3 &
, +. 1982,
6
30 &
%
41
&
,
/%: $
%& *
,
%
09, % «0»
,
60%
,
%
% %
%,
&
% 63%, 80%
90%
&
.
&. 1985-1986 &
3
% %
7 /
&
*
*
/. &
&
%
95,53%,
91,37%
9
&
87,86%,
68,05%.
&
9 40,8%
.&. 9%
1.260:12. N &
%
«0»
%
105
,
*
15.
&
%
/
.
%
/%:
1
N. Balacheff, «4
%
», 9. 8.
, «6
% »,
. .6..,
# / 1985, . 4
2
M. Macgregor - K. Stacey, «Students’ understanding of algebraic notation: 11-15», «Educational Studies in
Mathematics», 33, 1997, .2, 8, 11
3
L. Booth, «Algebra, Children strategies and errors», 1984, . 1, 4
4
. "
, «4
, L/ 1985, .216, 233
5
3. \
, «+
9
&
:
%
/ »,
«
"#», . 5, . .6.., 1984, . 66-67
6
3. \
, «* %
*
», «$&
», . 12,
6-! 1983, . 55-57
7
6.
- $.
, «
/
/;», «$&
», . 32, !
.-D*. 1987, . 48-51
334 3
/: 2 x 5 -
&
: 35,85%
3 3
» 3 x 2 - » » : 41,85%
4 5
» 3 : 5 - » » : 15,65%
5 4
» 3 x 5 - » » : 15,33%
4
N
&
:
/: 54 : 4,5 -
&
: 29,07%
» 17 - 3,4 - » » : 25,88%
» 54,25 : 3,5 - » » : 14,7%
Q
%
3 &
"
9
. L
%,
%
9%
& *
4 /.
&. 1986-87 1.375
# "
8
&
3
,
"
*
, /
+*
1986
6
1987.
%
/ 9
** # "
, **
/.
C. )
;
5 - 9 - 5 5
Q
1
9 %
%-
%
.
Piaget *
% 9.
=1
,
&
*
&
10. "’
,
. Q, 0
&
9
011.
9;
M
&
%
*
%
/
, % % &
&
/1
9,
/
9
%
12.
=1
13
0 *
% &
O% . 6
11-14 ("
)
Piaget
9
, 9
&
%
55.
014 «
&1
1
* , &%
9 5
<8
». + 9*
8, 9
1
65. 4 %
&1,
9* &
65
89 .
8
. , «6
"
;», «
"#», . 5, &. 17, .
.6.., 3. 1987, .25, 29-32
9
.
1, «M
&
%», . .
, . }.$
, %
1979, . 37
10
8.
, «4
%
’
%0
», «$&
», . 25, 1985, . 56
11
.
, «M
&
6
%», . 3, %
, . 70
12
}. 6
, «4 », %
1970, . 172, 173
13
\. D
, «M
&
%», .
1%, %
1977, . 287
14
. 3
%-9, «
% M
&
», . #, 6
/, *# ., %
1996, .
451
4
335
Q
1982 %
15
&
/ «
» (
7-12 &),
&
1
0
,
%
9 0.
$&
*
%
9
’
,
*
.
+ Kuechermann
/16
*
:
1.
%
% % &
.
2.
%
.
+
17 & 6
&%
/%:
1. $
%
/
.
2.
&
.
3.
9
%
(.&. 2
+ 5b = 7
b).
4.
,
/.
5.
.
6.
*
.
&
&
1
,
,
& «»
,
18, 9
,
/
,
.
D
*
«
»
9. 4
0 &
/
3
%, *
% & %
«»
&,
«». 4
%
/
,
,
*
1
/
.
;
5
4
.
*
0
19. 6
69 % M
&
%1
&
5
8
«»
&
&
<55
20. $
<~
,
0
«»,
&%
,
21.
6
1 9%
* &
9 . + Van Hiele22 (1 +
%
)
9
1%
(
)
, %
%
&
&%
(.&.
, ,
),
*
/
&%
9%, &%
, *
. Q
15
3. \
, «* %
....», .., . 57
16
M. Macgregor - K. Stacey, .., . 2
17
L. Booth, «Algebra....», .., . 4, 5 &
K. Hart, «Children’s Understanding of Mathematics»: 11-16, 1981, . 104
18
L. Booth, «Child methods in secondary mathematics», «Educational studies in Mathematics», 12, 1981,
. 30, 34, 38
19
M. Bigge, «L 6», .
, %
1990, . 109-110
20
". 6
, «4 . M
& % », *# ., . 4 , %
1974, . 176. +
0
&
,
%
.
21
6.
- ". D
%, «6
3
, . #, 6», %
1981, . 99
22
.
, «L
% 0», . 3
&, . 79-80
336 5
/
/
%
0
23:
0:
&
9
%
9
&
.
1:
% &,
&
9%
&
& % %.
2:
& &
%,
&
0
%.
3: $
,
% %
,
/
.
4:
%
/
%
.
D
9
1
.
"=
24
tests *
.
/%
,
/1
1
%
%
*
9
* .
8*
9 & 5 25. !
9
%
0
& 9%26.
Koffka27
%
%
«gestalt»,
%
9%. 4
/%
1
5
5
.
4 %
% *
1
/
0
9 «
9
» 9% .
% * (
%0
%
-
, .)
% /
% , % /
%
. $ *
&
,
&
9
1
. H
. $
%
/
9
1
%
%
/
&
1
*
(& % ),
*
.
,
,
(
9
),
9,
* ,
*
&
.
. $
Piaget
1
1
/
? = x !528.
.
!5
29
1
% &
,
/
. $ %
/,
9
1
%
% /
,
9
9
,
. 4
(
%)
0. H
0
,
23
6.
, «$&
%
», . Gutenberg, %
1994, . 333 (
1-5)
24
- M
& -
'/: «}», . 3338
25
- M
& -
'/, .., . 3342
26
. 3
%-9, .., .130
27
K. Koffka, «Principles of Gestalt Psychology», International Library of Psychology, a mentor book from
New American Library, . 677
28
. 3
% - 9, .., . 422, 19
29
/ - M
&/ -
/ '/: «6
C
»
6
337
30
,
& & «65»
8 (-).
%
,
,
/
, &
% 0
.
N
5<,
1
%
&1
.
&
8
658.
9
1
&
%, &
&%
. + 31
Eysenck
9
/9 &1
9
&%. 6
&%, 5< 8 5
9,
/1
/
. 6
(
&)
9 /
9% 9. 4
9
&
55,
&1
, ,
&, &
/
,
* 9
%
%
.
&%
&
&
.
.
32
(
- %
) 9
. 6
8
(&
,
, .) 9
89
5<. =&
1
%,
5
.
+
9
. N &
1
33
&
, 9*,
,
1
*
6
0%
34. 4
0
1 %
0,
9
.
89
4 0
*
%
%
&
. 6
1
0
*
35
,
&
9
. $
%
5 89,
’ /&%
*
. $%
&
9
:36
x
9
* %
x 9
* %
30
!.
, «/ % M
&
», . 4, %
, . 97
31
/ - M
&/ -
/ '/: «&%
6», . 4149
32
/ - M
&/ - / - '/: «6%», . 3164
33
/ - M
&/ - / - '/: «$
», . 4535
34
.
, .., .189
35
/ - M
&/ -
/ '/, «$0», . 4307
36
A. C. Ornstein, «Strategies for effective teaching», Harper Collins Publishers, . 41, 42
338 7
x &
/ &-
x &
/ &
x 9
%
&
Q
*
9
1
5 89. =&
9
. =&
«&
»
&
curriculum 9
*
’ 0
. $
37
5
& - 4..., "
,
, !
, D - 9
/
. $ (&
)
/ 0,
,
/ ,
,
%,
% *
,
,
&
.
38
/
% 0
0
/%
0
- 0
&%
9
,
&%
9
0
, & %
,
& ,
* % 9
%
, 0
,
%, 9*
&
/ 9
, 9
/
-
9
, 9*
% 9
%
.
&
%
&
,
%
/%
.
$
% 0,
1
(
%) 89.
’
%
* %
9
-
0
. 4
(
)
0
&
%
. L
%
« »
* ,
* 9
& 89,
’ /&%
* .
N
% 0
&
<8
/
0
&
/.
Polya «Know how»
8
=
5,
%
86 5.
5 89
=
5.
& 5
=
%
&, 0
55. H
9 &%
*
%
&
,
1
&
/
,
%
%
,
& 39.
5
Q
&
%. 4
9%
* %
*
%
9
,
/&
.
&
9
,
9 ’
. Q
/
Polya40
5 (best motivation)
9
%
9
*
&
.
*
«
» . % = ? 558 <5
8 5= .
&
&
&
. Q
9
/
37
A. C. Ornstein, .., . 46, 47
38
!.
, .., . 124-126
39
$. 8
, «4 M
&
6
», . Gulenberg, 1994,. 144
40
$. , «/
%
Polya
», : «}
», %
, N/ 1984, . 169
/
5
<
(/,
,
9).
8
339
&%
.
/1 %
,
& %
,
.
%
&
.
6
&
& .
0 %
%. H %
% 9
.
9
&
0 &
%
% &. 8*
%
0 -
. H
%
*
9
1
&
( -)
9
9
.
%
9
/.
,
*%
%
; 6
**
.
%
,
%
&
%
,
%
. Q
%
*
,
9%
9
%.
9 %
,
%
&
/%
%
%
42:
x
9
%
x %
%
x
%
*
%
.
9
&%, 9
&
%
%
/.
%
**
. 6
/
&
&
9
-
/43. $& *
9
44.
* 9
.
Piaget 45
&
8 5= (cognitive
conflicts).
%
/
,
5=
(situations -problems)46.
&
9
,
%
&1
&
%.
6 *
%. +
9 *
%
%
%
. =1
47
%
« »
%. N
&
( 5 ( -
).
41
8.
, .., . 55
42
6.
, «/
%
», «
"#», . 5, . .6. , 1984, . 45
43
6.
- $.
, «+
9
4 / -
9%
», 4
%
.6.., . 223
44
M. Macgrecor - K.Stacey, .., . 17
45
A. Bouvier, «$
», «
"#», ..5, &. 20, . .6.., + 1988, . 94
46
. Bouvier, «
», «
"#», . 6, &. 21, . .6.., !
. 1989, . 79
47
G. Halm, «H
* », .
. 3. $
, «6
%
», . .6..,
# /
. 1985, .16
340 9
N
* %
,
1
. !
&%
%
%
**
%
. N
«problem solving»
*1
9,
&
’ /48. + Mialaret
1
*
,
*
%
49.
6 *%
%0. + Anderson
50
1
3
.
x
%
9
.
%0,
/
9
.
x
1
&.
x
&
%
.
+
Spacing
9
, %
/&
%,
&
o
%
&
&
.
9
%
, , &
*
,
,
&
,
/&
.
+
&
1o
..
91
** .
.
/. .$. < <5
& **
1
/
**
..,
& 9
.
1960 *
.,
%
9
9
%
%
/
.
3
&
-
%
%
% 9
*
51.
$
%
9
1
*
&. $
**
.
&
** ,
0
9
&%. + Stenhouse
&%
&
/ ..52.
..
9
, &
%
&
1
9 %,
&
9
- %
–
53. $ Agenda for
Action,
1980 4,
*
curriculum
«problem solving»
%
«
%
»54. H
%,
%,
&
%
91
9%
9
.
&
48
S.P. Kalomitsines, «Attack your problem», experimental school of the University of Athens, . 49
49
. +
, «4
’
%
», «6
%
», . 27, . .6.., *# / 1984, . 85 - 86
50
$.
, «9
% % 0
&
9%
** », «}
», . 28, %
1983, . 111
51
3.
, «...
, ! #...
», «}
», 13, %
, N/ 1980, . 65
52
Fr. Hazel, «Learning to teach, psychology in teacher Training», The Falmer Press, 1985, . 171
%
*
curriculum
%&
P.M.E. (Mexico
1990), * . C. Hoyles, «Illuminations and Reflections - Teachers, Methodologies and Mathematics»,
«The Psychology of Mathematics Education [PME16]», New Hamphire, Aug. 1992
53
!. }. 6
, «’
..
.. $
», «}
», . 46, %
,
/ 1988, . 69
54
C.E.R.I (centre for educational research and innovation), «Information technologies and basic
learning», OECD 1987, . 221
10
341
9
% &
Bloom
6
,
&
&
91
9%
9,
=
, 5
5 8<.
,
1
/
&%
8 <
,
%
4/=.
9 &
.
H
9 . &
5=, 8
8<.
9
,
% 9% (
&%
)
*
«658»
%
?5=
5 58.
H
&
%
%,
/
%
,
&
%. "
*
3
&
: ,
565 (
%
& )
55.
Q
9%56
%
%,
&
,
%
* ,
*
/
, &
&. 6
%
9%
,
. Q
&
%, *
% -
% ,
4/=
5 865,
5=
, 5=
~,
&
&
.
H
,
,
& .
% 4/=
&
.
(5 - 5
$9
9
,
* %
&
- .. - **
. L
&%
*
,
/
&
%
%
%
. %
%
% &,
%
,
&
. $
:
x *
/%
/
1%
.
x 3
&
*
.
x
-
,
*
*
,
*
*
.
x $
1% %
,
’
&*
,
0 1
55
B. R Hodgson, «The roles and needs of mathematics teacher using IT», «Integrating information
technology into education», . 32
56
F. Nicassio, «An action research role for teachers», «Integrating information technology into education»,
. 40, 43
342 11
C'C'%)&+'
BOOTH L., Child methods in secondary mathematics, Educational studies in Mathematics, 12,
1981.
BOOTH L., Algebra. Children strategies and errors, 1984.
C.E.R.I., Information technologies and basic learning, OECD 1987.
HART K., Children’ s Understanding of mathematics, 11-16, 1981.
HAZEL FR., Learning to teach, psychology in teacher training, The Falmer Press, 1985.
HODGSON B.R., The roles and needs of mathematics teacher using !, Integrating information
technology into education.
HOYLES C., Illuminations and reflections - Teachers, Methodologies and Mathematics, The
Psychology of Mathematics Education [PME16], New Hamshire, Aug. 1992.
KALOMITSINES S.P., Attack your problem, experimental school of the University of Athens.
KOFFKA K., Principles of Gestalt Psychology, International library of Psychology, Haurcourt,
Brace and Company.
MACGREGOR M. - STACEY K., Students’ understanding of algebraic notation: 11-15,
Educational studies in mathematics, 33, 1997.
NICASSIO F., An action research role for teachers, Integrating information technology into
education.
ORNSTEIN A.C., Strategies for effective teaching, Harper Collins Publishers.
0
BALACHEFF N., 4
%
, 9. 8.
, %
., . .6.., # /. 1985, . 1 - 11.
C'GG0 ., $
, .
, %
1990.
C%("'/%# (., (.). A "#
$
., Gutenberg 1994.
BOUVIER A., $
, &
+#, .5, &.20, . 6,1988, .84-104
BOUVIER A.,
, &
+9, .6, &.21, . .6.., 1989, . 69-86
))( ., A
$
.
$, L/ 1985.
/"(( - +0", "., @#$# B#
. 9 % (, *# .,
%
1996.
0#(%$%#%# C., 4
%
’
%0
, ;!#
, .25, }-3. 1985, .52-61.
HALM P., «4
* », .
. 3. $
, %
& ., . .6.., # /
. 1985, . 12 - 21.
,%('" ($., «9
% % 0
&
9%
** », @
, . 28, %
1983, . 108 - 118.
,((!, . - +%#& )., %
. 9, %, %
1981.
,'(%# ,., B#
% $, %
.
,% 0., 6
"
;, &
+#, . 5, &. 17, .
.6.., 3. 1987, . 22 - 32.
&),%#/, )., A
, B# ., *# ., . 4 , 1974.
#&%)'"" "., ’
..
..
, @
, .6,1988, .79-91
0"'%# "., A
, %
1970.
%',%"%%# $., 4
’
%
, %
& ., . 27, . .6.., *# / 1984, . 79 - 94.
$'/)!)',% - -#*%%)',% - 0),#,%$'/',% 01',%
$$/, ". - (',%$%#%# (., * #. $
$
! 4 (
- # $ $ ., 4
%
.6.., . 209-223.
$$/, . - (',%$%#%# (.,
/
/;, ;!#
&
, . 32, !
- D*. 1987, . 46 - 52.
$$/%$%#%# /., ......’
*
’ ......
, @
, 13, %
, N/ 1980, . 164 - 179.
$&(,0#%$%#%# '!., &( B#
, .3, %
.
$&!" .,
.
", . 3
&.
12
343
$0&/',& (., /
%
Polya
, @
, %
1984, . 169-174.
$'0 ., B#
@#$#, . .
, . }. $
, %
1979.
%#( $., /
%
, &
+9, .5, . .6., 1984, . 47 - 60.
%#( $., ;!# $
, . Gutenberg, %
1994.
+&),%# *&., B#$#, .
1%, %
1977.
*($ /., * %
*
, ;!# &
,
.12, 6 - ! 1983, . 54 -57.
*($ /., +
9
&
:
%
/ , & +#, .5, . .6.., 1984, . 61 – 69.
344 13
1
< <
=
6
", PhD
$&.$*
6
/
“
!
,
$ ”
(Brouner,1985)
0
T
&
1
9
(Skinner: In Smith,2002)
&
%
9*%. $
, 0
%
% 9
9
/%
,
*
“”
*
*,
.
,
/
. 4
*
0
%,
%
%
**
%
*
&
“9
”. &
&
,
%0
.
,
,
*
/%
%
**
&
&
,
&
. 4
&
/
*
9
, &
& (Glasersfeld, 1984; Vygotsky, 1988; Cobb, 1997; Noss, & Hoyles,
1992). $
%
%
%
* »
,
9
**1
,
%
%
. $’
/* 1
,
“”.
%0
%
1
(Cobb, 1991).
.
%
.
%
/ &%
9
(Davis,1983;Ginsburg,1977)
/%
&
.
C,
*%
,
%
%
, :
-
&
;
-
&
&
;
- \1
;
- &
;
- 6
&
3
;
%
%
&
.
**
9
2007,
**
345
2
% &
&
*
&
,
%
. C
&
9% &
%
,
&
.
,
&
, &
& &
,
**
8
.(2006,.19),
&
&
9
:
“ ( : $
&
.
.
…..
.
.
"
%
*
%
: .
=
+
+
+…+
+
“
-9
H
&
1
9
%
9%
, 9
*
.(2002),
9
%
,
* /%,
,
*
%.
1
9 9
(Ernest,1989) 9
:
1.
%,
/
.
%
*
,
2.
&
%
.
3.
& **
&
,
& 9
%
.
4.
&
%
9
&
& .
&
%
/
. (
,1994)
$’
%
/
.
&
,
*
&
.
H
*
*
&
,
«
»
. +
.
. +
%
&
&
*
* «*» .
346
3
3.
&
*
,
%
,
,
, %.
4
% 9
&
.
4.
1%
1
&
.
$’
%
-
.
*
&
&
&
,
&
&
%
&
&%
. $
%
%
& - * ,
/
,
9
91
. (Nicholls,
1992).
+
%
&
&
&
9
(Duda, 1992). $ 9
,
0
1 .
$
&
,
/
%
&
0
. $
1
1
1 *%
.
4 ,
%
9%,
,
, & %
*,
&
%, & %
%
*
,
% /
&% /% (Schmidt, 1999),
1
(Mosston
Ashworth, 1997)
-
,
0
&
,
9
%
% .
&
,
&
&
&
(Doise
Mugny, 1986).
+
/%
.
&
1
*%
. "
Dewey
($ Davis,1984): «/ ,
$
»
6
« "
(
& )
;»
1%
. $
. 4
9
*
1 *
, % &
,
&
.
+
&
&*
*.
* %
4
%
1
9
/
,
&
&
%
1
. $9
Thorndike(1922) 9
-
(S-R)
. 4
/
&
&% / (Bouvier,1987). $’
1
%0
9 %
%
(Strike,1983). $& Gagne(1983,15)
: «
1
. +
»
T
&
& 1
9
(Skinner: In Smith,2002).
1
%
9
%. $
347
4
/%
,
*
“”
*
*,
.
,
/
.
x
%
*
& “9
”.
$
&
&
,
%0
.
* ?
4
%
1
9
, /
&
&%
’
9
%0
,
’
1
% &.
/
,
9
.
,
,
9
«
»
9
%
%
.
&
1
*
%
%
%
«* »
. 3
9
**1
,
%
%
.
4
&
&
9%
. $’
/* 1
,
“”.
%0
%
1
(Cobb, 1991).
4 “
”
* :
x Q
* 9
0
x
%,
x &
%
&
9
9 %
% %
$ & &
,
%0
.
1.
2 1
}
:
3 2
:
2 1 3
+
% 9:
3 2 5
348
5
x
*1
;
x
%;
x
&
1
%
;
6
/%
:
+
%
&
. C
%
/%
%
%
%
/
.
&
1
&
.
! ( ! $! …
! # #
(
#
’
$! »
%
:
x
;
x
;
x
;
C,
%
%
&
%
%
9
%.
6
9
%
%
9.
}
%
:
+
%
: 2 1 3
«
+ =
3 2 5
9 2/3
1/2
,
& 9
3
5
!»
N
: 2 1 3
3 2 5
$
&%
.
:
1. 6-H
2.
3. $
%
4. '
5. %
6. 3
1
D
%
&%
9
:
349
6
¾
%
;
¾ "
&
%;
¾ 3
;
;
2 1 3
&
,
&
& : ;
3 2 5
4
%
:
D J D J D J
2 2 0
E G E G E G
2.
}
/: &2-3&+2=0
:
9
%,
:
1.*
#
.
$’
%
% & &
&
&%
/.
2. +
% 9:
&2-3&=-2
&(&-3)=-2
2
x
x3
% ( ) &
& &%
*# /
&%
9 # /, 9
&
9,
&
&
(&-3) !
3. +
% 9:
E r E 2 4DJ 3F r 3 2 4.F 2 .2
+
: x
2D 2F 2
+
%
&
&%
9
&%
.
%,
%
9
/
.
%
%
%
&%
,
1,
&
&
9.
3.
;
:
350
7
29%
0,532
25%
0,4 (Resnick et al,1989; Nesher,1987)
*
; 6
;
1. + 0,532
0,62
&: 532 > 62!
&
9
&
09
,
2. + 0,4
0,62
!
9
&
/
,
%
.
4.
+*=8,
+*+=; (Olivier, 1984)
:
58%
$’
%
%
, %
:
1.
+*+=12
2.
+*+=11
+
/
/
, %
&
9
*%
%
/.
- $
&
/,
4+4+4=12
- $ ,
9 “”
& “3” , 8+3=11
D
1
%
*
.
4.
(
+*)2 = ;
log(
+*) = ;
(
+*) = ;
:
(
+*)2 =
2+*2 , log(
+*) = log
+ log* , (
+*) =
+*
«
»
9 /
"# "
8#'
(
&). 9
1
,
&
%
&
&%
*
.
0 02 02
= +
01 01
5.
) Q
1
1 0,75
. 1
1
12
;
351
8
8) 1
&
&
9/
12
.
9/
0,75
&
;
:
&
%
&
#"
%
21%
73%
6
,
,
- 6
/%
1
. 6
/%
*
.
- 6
/%
:
x $
%
9
%
: 12. 0,75 =
0,75+0,75+0,75+…0,75
12-9
(8
&%
**
)
3
%,
*
“9
” &%
: « +
,
».
%
“9
” &%
’
*
.
6.
$
& ,
/
. 3
6
, 0
/
9
.
4
!
3
%
/
&%
.
- %
D 91
* ,
- %
D 91
,
%!
(~
6
9%
/
%
&
.
C
%
9
Ginsburg(1977)
9
«
», 0
&
&
.
352
9
+
&
%
9 %
&
%
9
“
”
&
.
4
% &
9,
%
9
& &%
&%
/
.
9
%
,
& ,
9
&
.
*
& «9
/»
% %
*
. 3
/
9
%
&%
.
,
*
. "
,
0 «
&%
,
&
0
,
& &%
.
* 0
&
%
. C
&
*
1
9 9
*. $’
%
1
9
%
%
&
, &
%
*
. $
%
&
1%,
,
**
&
,
C56:
Bandura.A.(1991). “Human agency: The Rhetoric and the Reality”, American Psychologist,
2, pp. 157-162.
Bell, A., Swan, M. & Taylor, G. (1981). Choice of Operations in Verbal Problems with
Decimal Numbers. Educational Studies in Mathematics 12: 399-420.
Bruner.J. (1985).“Models of the Learner”, Educational Reseacher, 14, 6, pp. 5-8.
Bouvier, A. (1987). The Right to Make Mistakes. For the Learning of Mathematics 7,3: 17-25.
8
.!.,
.\., 6
.}., D.$.(2006). %
9+
- .
**
. =L
Cobb, P. (1991). Reconstructing Elementary School Mathematics. Focus on
LearningProblems in Mathematics, 13,(2), 3-32.
Cobb, P. (1997). Learning from distributed theories of intelligence. Proceedings of the 21th
PME Conference, 2 (pp. 169-176). Lathi, Finland.
Davis, R.B. (1983). Complex Mathematical Cognition. In H.P. Ginsburg (Ed.). The
Development of Mathematical Thinking (pp. 254-290). Orlando, Florida, Academic Press,
Inc.
Davis, R.B. (1984). Learning Mathematics. The Cognitive Science Approach to Mathematics
Education. London. Croom Helm.
Duda.L.(1989). “Relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of sport
among high school athletes”, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11(3), pp. 318-335.
Duda.L.(1992). “Motivation in sport settings: a goal perspective approach”, G. Roberts (Ed.),
Motivation in sport and exercise, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, pp.57-91.
Doise.W. & Mugny.G.(1986). A $ (
!,
, %
,
Ernest, P. (1989). The Knowledge, Beliefs and Attitudes of the Mathematics Teacher: A
Model. Journal of Education for Teaching, 15 (1), 13-33.
Fischbein, E., Deri, M., Sainati, N. & Marino, M.S. (1985). The Role of Implicit Models in
Solving Verbal Problems in Multiplication and Division. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education 16: 3-18.
Gagne, R.M. (1983). Some Issues in the Psychology of Mathematics Instruction. Journal for Research
in Mathematics Education 14: 7-18.
353
10
Glasersfeld, E. (1984). An introduction to radical constructivism. In P. Watzlawick, The
invented reality (pp. 17-4
): }. York: Norton & Company.
Ginsburg, H. (1977). Children`s Arithmetic: The Learning Process. New York. D. Van Nostrand
Company.
K
*, D., 6 , \., +9
, $, $
%, \., 11
, ".(2002). “/
#
: (# . %
"
”
«
%,
%, % M
&-
» . A
.
Lakatos (1976). Proofs and Refutations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mosston.M & Ashworth.S.(1997). A
6 #$#, 9. . 6
, SA'+,
L/, (1997), .7.
6
#"
(2006). >
& !, =L/.!., .19.
Nesher, P. (1987). Towards an Instructional Theory: The Role of Student`s Misconceptions.
For the Learning of Mathematics 7,3: 33-40.
}oss, R., & Hoyles, C. (1992). Looking Back and Looking Forward. In C. Hoyles and R. Noss (eds),
Learning Mathematics and Logo (pp. 431-470). Cambridge, Ma: MIT Press.
Nicholls.J.(1992). “The general and the specific in the development and expression of
achievement motivation”, G. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise, Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, pp. 31-56.
Olivier, A.I. (1984). Introductory Algebra. In-Service Education Course, Cape Education
Department.
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic Epistemology. Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
Resnick, L.B., Nesher, P., Lèonard, F., Magone, M., Omanson, S. & Peled, I. (1989).
Conceptual Bases of Arithmetic Errors: The Case of Decimal Fractions. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 20: 8-27.
Schmidt.R.(1999). ?
, M9
:
.
1
,
, %
, .59.
Skemp, R.R. (1979). Intelligence, Learning and Action. New York. John Wiley & Sons.
Smith, D.L. (2002). On Prediction and Control. B.F. Skinner and the Technological Ideal of
Science. In W.E. Pickren & D.A. Dewsbury, (Eds.), Evolving Perspectives on the History
of Psychology, Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Strike, K. A. (1983). Misconceptions and Conceptual Change: Philosophical Reflections on
the Research Program. In H.Helm and J.Novak (Eds). Proceedings of the International
Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Mathematics (pp 85-97). Ithaca, Cornell
University.
.6.(1994).;!# $ %
.. : Gutenberg
Thorndike, E. (1922). The Psychology of Arithmetic. New York. Macmillan.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1988). Thought and Language. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
=...L. (2001). .&.@.@.; (3
$
)
6
,.!.
354
Children’s concepts of fractions
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to apply Vergnaud’s (1997) theory of concepts systematically to the
analysis of the concept of fractions. Kieren (1994) remarked that current analyses on the concept of
fractions seem to have taken either an epistemological or a psychological framework as the starting
point. We suggest that it is possible to coordinate these two frameworks through the systematic
application of Vergnaud’s theory of conceptual fields. Vergnaud defines mathematical concepts as
formed by three sets: a set of invariants that define the concept, a set of representations used to think
and talk about the concept, and a set of situations where the concept is used and that give meaning to
the concept. We propose to start from the lay conception of fractions and enrich this definition of
fractions by asking what are the central invariants of this concept, what are the situations in which it is
used, and what are the different types of representation related to it. We will then consider data from
two studies, one that provides a quantitative and a second that provides a qualitative analysis of data
generated by the hypotheses developed in our theoretical analysis. Educational implications and
questions for further research are discussed in the concluding section.
Fractions are defined by most people on the basis of their representation. Thus fractions are
numbers written in one of two ways: either by placing one number over another or by using a decimal
point. The two ways of writing fractions are recognized as related to each other because a decimal
point indicates that the same fraction could be written with a denominator like 10 or a multiple of 10.
There are also fraction words, such as a half, a quarter, a third, a tenth etc., which children may or may
not connect to the written numerical representations.
Although a concept cannot be defined solely by its representation, it is possible to use this
definition as the starting point for our investigation, and proceed to a consideration of invariants and
situations in which fractions are used, and to other ways of representing the same ideas using
mathematics or language. In the sections that follow, we consider each of these.
1 This project was supported by the ESRC Teaching and Learning Research Programme through the grant
# L139251015. T. Nunes was supported during the period of this research by a British Academy Reseearch
Readership that allowed her to dedicate considerable amounts of time to this research. We are thankful for their
support and to the teachers and pupils who generously gave so much of their time to this project.
All correspondence should be sent to: Professor Terezinha Nunes, Department of Education, University of
Oxford, 15 Norham Gardens, Oxford, OX2 6PY. Fax: 00-44-1865-274027. Email:
terezinha.nunes@education.ox..ac.uk
355
1
Children’s concepts of fractions
an important element that is related to the quantity designated by the fraction, the unit or the whole.
However, as this analysis will show, changing the whole does not always have the same effect on the
quantity designated by a fraction.
Applying Piaget’s questions about natural numbers to fractions, we are led to ask several questions
about the construction of invariants. How do children form an understanding of the classes of
equivalent fractions? How do they understand the asymmetrical relations that exist between these
classes? Which operations change fractions and which do not?
Piaget argues that correspondences provide the most direct measurement of the equivalence
between two sets. He hypothesized that the beginning of quantification must be understood in relation
to correspondences. With his collaborators, Piaget investigated whether direct correspondence
between objects or a sort of correspondence mediated by counting can provide the basis for children’s
inferences regarding the equivalence of sets. His results are well-known: when children depend on the
perceptual correspondence between the elements, they neither infer equivalence of the sets when this
correspondence can no longer be perceived nor infer the number of elements in the second set after
counting the elements in the first set. Correspondence must become operational, rather than dependent
on perception, to provide a basis for the understanding of lasting equivalences between sets. Gréco
(1962) further observed that children might establish this form of correspondence mediated by
counting but still fail to realize that two sets are necessarily equivalent if they count the elements in
two sets and come up with the same number word.
In spite of his observation that counting does not provide children with a sufficient basis for
making adequate inferences about equivalence, Piaget argued that, when children start to consider the
idea of empirical reversibility, counting may hasten the process of evolution, and correspondence
mediated by number words can justify equivalence from the child’s point of view. Piaget’s analysis
leads us to ask two questions: Do correspondences also play a role in children’s understanding of
fractions? And how can the signs for fractions – half, two quarters – play a role in this understanding?
An analysis of the signs used to represent equivalent fractions raises the possibility of a different
role being played by conventional signs and language in the domains of natural numbers and fractions.
In the domain of natural numbers, the fact that two sets are labeled by the same number word – say
both sets have six elements – might help children understand the equivalence between two sets. This
situation is likely to be more complicated with fractions, where equivalent fractions are designated by
different words – one half, two quarters – and different numerical signs – 1/2, 2/4.
An analysis of the asymmetric relations involved in natural numbers and fractions also exposes
some of the difficulties that ordering fractions could cause for children. There are two ideas to
consider in ordering fractions. The first is that, for the same denominator, the larger the numerator, the
larger the fraction. The second is that, for the same numerator, the larger the denominator, the smaller
the fraction. The first idea is simple enough, although the assumption that the denominator must be
constant for a direct comparison to be made between numerators could offer some difficulty. The
second idea may prove more difficult: children have to think of an inverse relation between the
denominator and the quantity represented by the fraction. A question of interest then is: under what
conditions is this inverse relation between the denominator and the quantity understood by children?
The systematic application of Vergnaud’s theory to the domain of fractions suggests the next step
for investigation. What are the different situations in which fractions are used and how do differences
across situations affect children’s constructions of classes of equivalent fractions and asymmetric
relations? We turn to the analysis of situations in the section that follows.
Situations in which Fractions are Used
To propose a classification of situations where fractions are used is the same as to propose a theory
about what affects children’s reasoning about fractions. Different hypotheses have been raised in the
literature about what classes of situations might offer a fruitful analysis of the concept of fractions.
Kieren (1988), Behr, Lesh, Post, and Silver (1983), Ohlsson (1988) and Mack (2001) proposed
somewhat different classifications of situations but it is not possible to decide a priori which one
should be adopted to describe the development of children’s concepts of fraction and to design
356
2
Children’s concepts of fractions
instruction. Among the different situations identified are part-whole, quotient, measure and operator
(but some authors – e.g., Mack, 2001 – seem to use the term partitioning to cover part-whole and
quotient situations). These are certainly situations where fractions are used but we believe that it may
be premature to choose one classification of situations over another in the description of children’s
concepts because any classification should be supported by evidence that shows that learners treat the
different categories of situations differently. This has already been accomplished in the domain of
additive reasoning, where the classifications have converged and the distinctions proposed are
supported by differences in children’s behavior (Carpenter & Moser, 1982; Riley, Greeno, & Heller,
1983; Vergnaud, 1982). So far the evidence to support classifications of situations in the domains of
fractions is missing: we simply do not know whether children behave differently in the different
situations or not. Also lacking is a detailed analysis of how the core invariants in the concept of
fraction are defined in these situations and how the situations might help or make it more difficult for
the children to understand these invariants.
In this paper we propose to focus on the use of fractions in three situations that we have
investigated so far: part-whole, quotient and a numerical representation for intensive quantities. We
will also restrict this paper to the discussion of one invariant, the notion of classes of equivalent
fractions. We analyze how these different situations might affect the construction of the notion of
equivalent fractions, we consider how the fractional representation is connected with the ratio
representation of the same situation, and we raise hypotheses about which strategies children might
employ when asked to solve questions related to the equivalence of fractions.
Part-whole Situations
In part-whole situations, as already stressed by Piaget, Inhelder and Szeminska (1960), fractions
refer to extensive quantities.2 For this reason, in part-whole situations the classes of equivalences
depend on the size of the whole (or the unit). The fractions 1/4, 2/8 etc. only belong to the class of
equivalent fractions if the wholes are equivalent. If we were to refer to 1/4 of one whole and 2/8 of a
non-equivalent whole, 1/4 and 2/8 would not longer belong to a class of equivalent fractions.
Children are often taught about equivalence in part-whole situations through perception: the same
whole is partitioned in four parts, each of which is subsequently partitioned once to yield eight parts.
Given this specific way of partitioning the whole, children recognize the equivalence of 1/4 and 2/8,
and could in principle recognize that there is a whole class of equivalent fractions.
Note, though, that the logic of part-whole situations should not depend of perception. To use an
example of the simplest question that can be asked about classes of equivalence, consider the problem
in Figure 1. Two equivalent wholes were divided each into parts of the same size but the way in which
they were divided is not identical. Using the logic of part-whole relations, we could sustain that the
shaded areas in the two rectangles are equivalent, although we may not be able to make this judgment
on the basis of perception. So in order to test children’s use of the logic of part-whole relations to
establish equivalences between fractions, it is necessary to create situations where the equivalence
cannot be established perceptually. For example, children can be asked to paint 1/4 of figures that look
very different, divided into different numbers of parts. If the whole is divided into 8 parts, they would
have to paint 2; if the whole is divided into 12 parts, they would have to paint 3 and so on. They
cannot use perception to solve this problem, but could use the logic of part-whole: painting one part
out of each group of 4 means that 1/4 of the figure was painted. (Figure 1)
2 Extensive quantities are susceptible of addition and are measured by units of the same nature as the
quantity. In typical part-whole situations, the whole is an area divided into equal areas. If we add 1/3 and 1/3 of
equivalent wholes, the total is 2/3. Intensive quantities are not susceptible of addition and are measured by the
relation between two magnitudes, each one being different from the intensive quantity. For example, the
concentration of orange juice, can be described as 1/3 concentrate and 2/3 water, and each of these quantities is by
itself not concentration. If we add the orange juice from one jar where the concentration is 1/3 water to juice in
another jar where the concentration is also 1/3, the concentration of the mixture is not 2/3.
357
3
Children’s concepts of fractions
It would also be possible for the children to use a correspondence reasoning: to each painted part
should correspond 3 unpainted parts. Correspondence reasoning here expresses the ratio between
painted and unpainted parts. The repeated application of this ratio to the figures would lead to a correct
solution. Although correspondence could play a role in understanding equivalences between fractions,
children may not be aware of this or may not be taught to use this reasoning in the classroom. It should
also be noted that the representation of the fraction by the symbol 1/4 and the representation of the
ratio as 1 painted to 3 unpainted parts may be an obstacle for children: the numbers that the child has
to use in the fractional and ratio representation are not the same.
Quotient Situations
Quotient situations are those where a division is indicated: for example, something is shared among
a number of recipients (Streefland, 1993; 1997). Understanding equivalence in this situation would
mean, for example, realizing that sharing one chocolate fairly among four children is equivalent to
sharing two identical chocolates fairly among eight children.
There are similarities and differences between part-whole and quotient situations. The major
similarity comes from the fact that in both of these situations the fractions represent extensive
quantities. So the wholes must be the same for the classes of equivalent fractions to be defined.
However, there are also differences between these situations. Two of these differences will concern
us here. First, in part-whole situations the values in the fraction express a relation between the part and
the whole; the numbers refer to quantities of the same nature. In contrast, in quotient situations the
values in the fractions refer to the division of one variable by another of a different nature: the
numerator indicates one quantity (for example, two chocolates) and the denominator indicates another
quantity (for example, eight children). This difference results in a second one: quotient situations can
be analyzed through correspondences more naturally than part-whole situations. It should be simple
for children to realize that if there are 2 chocolates and 8 children, 1 chocolate could be shared by 4 of
the children and the other chocolate by the remaining 4. If the children reason in this way, they could
easily conclude that 1 divided by 4 and 2 divided by 8 result in equivalent quantities. The ratio 1 to 4
can be easily connected to both fractions, 1/4 and 2/8.
The experience of working with correspondences in quotient situations might also give children
insight into some aspects of proportionality because they can use scalar strategies (for the concept of
scalar strategies, see Vergnaud, 1983). It is quite possible that children find it easy to understand, for
example, that if there are twice as many children who want chocolate, one needs to have twice as
many chocolates for all the children to continue having the same share. A similar generalization
cannot be found in the part-whole situation.
It should also be noted that in quotient situations the fraction 1/4 could have two meanings at the
same time: it represents one chocolate shared among four children and also the part that each child
receives (Mack, 2001). Thus it is possible that quotient situations allow for understanding fractions
from different perspectives at the same time.
Intensive Quantities
When fractions represent intensive quantities, they pose different problems for children and
highlight different aspects of the meaning of fractions. We will deal here with one type of intensive
quantity, concentration, which we have explored through different experiences involving taste. If I
make 1 liter of juice using 1 cup of concentrate and 3 cups of water, the juice will have the same
concentration and taste the same as 2 liters of juice made with 2 cups of concentrate and 6 cups of
water. In intensive quantities situations, 1/4 and 2/8 are equivalent even if the wholes are not the same.
The equivalence of fractions in the context of intensive quantities is unlikely to be based on
perceptual equivalence of the quantities themselves. In English classrooms at least, there is typically
no attempt to explore intensive quantities in this way. Outside school, if we double a recipe, for
example, in order to serve more people, it is quite unlikely that we would taste it before and after
doubling; we are more likely to make a double amount from the start.
In intensive quantities, as in quotient situations, the two values in the fraction refer to different
quantities: in this case, concentrate and water. Thus, similarly to quotient situations, in order to
358
4
Children’s concepts of fractions
establish the equivalence of the fractions in intensive quantity situations, it is possible to use a
correspondence strategy, and discover that the ratio of cups of water to cups of concentrate is the same
for 1 and for 2 liters, in the example given earlier on. In this sense, intensive quantities can be
approached through correspondence strategies and are comparable to quotient situations. It is also
possible to use a scalar strategy with intensive quantities: both the amount of water and the amount of
concentrate must be doubled for the recipe to continue tasting the same. Thus exploring fractions in
the context of intensive quantities might give children insights into the concept of fractions that are
similar to those obtained in the quotient situations.
However, there is a difference between quotient and intensive quantity situations with respect to
how the fractional and ratio representation are connected. As indicated earlier on, in the quotient
situation, the fractional and ratio representation converge: a 1 to 4 ratio of chocolate for children
means that each child receives 1/4 chocolate. In the intensive quantities situation described here, the
representations diverge: a 1 to 3 ratio of concentrate to water means that 1/4 of the juice is made with
concentrate and 3/4 is made with water. Thus there may be a difficulty if children are asked to pass
from one form of mathematical representation to the other.
To summarize, it was argued in this section that there are three reasons for distinguishing between
part-whole, quotient and intensive quantity situations. First, the meaning of classes of equivalent
fractions differs across these situations. In part-whole and quotient situations, the classes of
equivalence are defined when there are equivalent wholes whereas in intensive quantities situations the
wholes can be different but the fractions remain equivalent. Second, the connection between two
forms of representing these situations, by means of fractions and by means of ratios, differs across
situations. In part-whole and intensive quantities situations, the two representations diverge
numerically whereas in quotient situations they converge. Finally, the meaning of the numbers in these
situations is also different: in part-whole situations, the fraction represents a relation between two
quantities of the same type whereas in quotient and intensive quantities situations the numbers
represent two different quantities. Because the numbers refer to different quantities in quotient and
intensive quantity situations, these situations afford different types of strategies than part-whole
situations, and are more amenable to the use of correspondence strategies and scalar reasoning.
A Summary of Results from a Program of Investigation
These analyses led to a program of investigation that can be described only in part here for reasons
of space. The problem analyzed here is children’s understanding of classes of equivalent fractions in
two of the situations discussed earlier on, part-whole and quotient. We will first present some
quantitative results relative to children’s understanding of equivalence and then conversations between
children exploring the idea of equivalence between fractions in experimental teaching sessions.
Method
Participants
We gave 130 children a fractions assessment, adapted from the CSMS Fractions 1 Paper (Hart,
Brown, Kerslake, Kücherman, Ruddock, 1985) for use with primary school children. The pupils in our
study were attending three different schools in the Oxford area and were in the age range 7y9m to
10y2m. They were either in their fourth or fifth year in school. In the classroom they had been taught
about fractions in the context of part-whole but not in the context of quotient situations.
Procedure
We presented the items using pictures projected on a screen and also printed on the pupils’
response booklets. Instructions were given orally. Figure 2 shows the different levels of
correct response on different items by level of schooling, Year 4 (mean age 8y6m) and Year 5
(mean age 9y6m). Because the test was not designed with the aim of comparing performance
359
5
Children’s concepts of fractions
across type of situation, there are other differences between the items, so the results have to be
interpreted with caution. The test contains four equivalence items in part-whole situations and
two in quotient situations. (figure 2)
Results
On the part-whole items, Year 5 children’s performance was at ceiling for painting 2/3 of a figure
with 3 parts (91% correct). This shows that they understand the expression ‘two thirds’. However,
their performance drops significantly when the items involve equivalence of fractions: only about half
of them correctly painted 2/3 of figures that had 6 or 9 parts. Year 4 children showed a slightly lower
success rate on the item where the figure was divided into 3 parts (78% correct) and a lower success
rate when the figures had 6 or 9 parts. The difference in proportion of correct responses between the
first and each of the other three items was statistically significant according to a t-test for correlated
means (subjected to an arc-sine transformation, as recommended by Ferguson, 1971) at the .001 level
for all three comparisons.
On the items about quotient situations, Year 5 children’s performance varied between 70% and
91% correct on the equivalence questions and Year 4 children’s performance varied between 64% and
78% correct answers across questions.
The overall proportion of correct responses for part-whole equivalence problems was .31 (SD=.39)
and for quotient situations was .73 (SD=.37). The difference between these proportions (using an arc-
sine transformation, the t-test for correlated means = 10.76; p<.001) was statistically significant.
The children were also asked to write the fractions on the quotient item that involved 1/4 and 2/8.
All the children who could correctly write fractions to represent both divisions (one cake shared
among 4 children and two cakes shared among 8 children) also provided correct answers about their
equivalence. All the children who could correctly provide a fraction number to represent the situation
where 8 children shared one cake could provide a correct label for the other situation, where 4 children
shared one cake. Some children did not use the correct fraction for the latter situation – i.e., did not use
1/4 correctly. Of these children who did not use the correct fraction, about half (63%) knew that the
sharing in the two situations would result in equal portions across the two groups. These results
contrast strongly with those observed for part-whole relations, where knowing 2/3 was no guarantee of
understanding what 2/3 of a figure with 6 or 9 parts was.
In short, the quantitative results from our survey data justify a distinction between part-whole and
quotient situations. Performance at both age levels was better in quotient than in part-whole situations,
in spite of the fact that the children had been taught about fractions in part-whole but not in quotient
situations.
These results suggested the importance of interviewing children about fractions and using part-
whole and quotient cues in order to investigate how they would solve problems.
Method
Participants
A total of 62 children participated in the small groups sessions run by one of three different
researchers. The groups contained between 4 and 6 children, depending of the class size, because the
children were randomly assigned to one of four groups in each class. The children had been taught
360
6
Children’s concepts of fractions
about half and quarters in the classroom and could use these words well but they had not yet been
taught about other fractions. Half of the children in each class participated in the sessions about
fractions; the other children participated in a different set of problem solving sessions.
Procedure
The researcher gave each child a booklet containing the problems, one problem (which often had
more than one question) per page. The children solved the problems first individually and then were
invited to discuss their answers. During this process, the researcher discussed with the children the
written fractional representation of situations and gave the children cues to help them analyze the
questions.
A total of five sessions, one per week lasting approximately 50 minutes each, took place with each
group. Some of the problems we used were taken from Streefland (1997). They involve asking the
children to consider different quotient situations (sharing 3 chocolates among 4 children and later 2
pizzas among 6 children). Further problems were introduced to explore this situation (sharing 4
chocolates among 6 children) and, at a later point, other situations were also presented. A complete
description of the sessions is beyond the scope of this paper. The extracts presented here were taken
from the first two sessions. A list of the problems used in these sessions is presented in Appendix 1.
Results
In view of our aim for this analysis, the sample of interactions presented here was chosen to
provide comparisons between the pupils’ behavior following a cue to draw on a part-whole or on a
quotient approach to solution. They were obtained from sessions run by different researchers in order
to illustrate that similar findings can occur with different pupils working in groups run by different
researchers. The samples are taken from three different problems. Comments are also presented on the
interactions observed. The children’s words are in italics. Clarifications and abbreviations of
instructions are inserted between square brackets. Three periods between brackets (…) are used to
indicate that some conversation took place between the utterances, which is not included in the
transcript; without brackets, they indicate that an utterance may have been interrupted.
361
7
Children’s concepts of fractions
362
8
Children’s concepts of fractions
To most of the children in these sessions, there was no doubt that the children would eat the
same amount of pizza if they had 2/6 or 1/3. The equivalence of these fractions just seemed so
obvious to all the children in this group that they saw no reason to discuss it.
Most children in the different groups used no drawings to work out solutions in this situation.
Some justifications did appear when the children were prompted to explain their reasoning
better.
C (in R1’s group): Because it wouldn’t really matter when they shared it, because when they shared it
in three, those three get it and that pizza is gone, and those three share this, and that pizza is gone.
When they shared it at the same time, they share it fairly and the pizzas are gone.
This argument seems to be based on the idea of exhaustive and fair division of the same whole; the
child indicates the correspondences throughout without making drawings.
H (in R1’s group) said: Because one third is a third of three and two sixths is a third of six.
This justification seems to be based on numerical relations without reference to the situation itself.
P (in R1’s group, produced the writing presented in Figure 5): There’s two sixths [pointing to the first
2/6 on the page], add two sixths three times to make six sixths. With one third, you need to add one
third three times to make three thirds.
This is a logical argument based on the composition of parts: if you add two parts – 1/3 or 2/6 – three
times to make the same whole, then they are the same irrespective of what you name them.
Insert Figure 5 about here
C (in R3’s group): I put it [the pizza] into thirds and I put the girls in half [her gestures seemed to
indicate that she took half of the pizzas for half of the children, approaching the use of scalar
reasoning].
Some of the children decided to concentrate on a part-whole approach to the problem, and
attempted to cut the pizzas in equal parts, forgetting about the number of recipients. Two of the
children in R3’s group, for example, drew the two pizzas and cut them in quarters, using two
perpendicular cuts. They attempted to share the quarters among the six children but could not
complete the sharing. This difficulty in completing a solution when they focus only on how to cut the
pizza in equal parts suggests that the children who worked with correspondences made some
anticipation about the sharing. It did not work out if the children cut the pizzas or chocolates without
any concern for the number of recipients. In all the instances, if the researcher provided a cue by
asking how many children could share the first pizza, the children who had problems initially were
able to come up with the idea of three children and proceeded to find the solution.
363
9
Children’s concepts of fractions
Some children seemed to work at a different level, and often sought simpler solutions from the
outset, where the smallest number of cuts would be used. They then proceeded to try to find other
equivalent solutions.
Two children in R2’s group explored the idea of equivalence well beyond the expectation we had
for the problem. G and St independently proposed that each chocolate could be divided into thirds and
each recipient would receive two thirds. This solution was represented only on two chocolates,
because they realized that the six children would get one third from the two chocolates on the left and
another third from the two chocolates on the right. Their first answer was 2/3. Figure 6 presents one of
the children’s booklet.
They then worked together in finding other solutions. They divided each third in the middle and
extended their reasoning by thinking that each chocolate was now divided in sixths, so there would be
one piece for each child. So they wrote 4/6 as their second answer. At this point, each chocolate
provided one part for each child. Next they thought of dividing the chocolates, so that each chocolate
would have 2 pieces for each child – so they said that each chocolate should be cut into 12th and each
child would get 2/12 from each of the chocolates, so they wrote 8/12. They drew 12 pieces on one
chocolate. Note that the lack of precision in the drawing would not allow for a perceptual solution to
the equivalence question.
This seems to have created for them a pattern: if you cut each piece in half, you have twice as many
pieces altogether and each recipient gets twice as many pieces. They decided to break the chocolates
so that each chocolate would have 4 pieces for each recipient, so they wrote the fraction 16/24. Note
that the drawing does not actually show all the 24 parts in one chocolate. The drawing was not used in
the search for a perceptual solution but as a support for reasoning. They continued with this
exploration without drawing any further and produced the fractions 32/48, 64/96 and 128/192. At the
end of the session they remarked on how much fun they had working out these fractions.
For reasons of space, it is not possible to dwell on further examples. They illustrate that the
children use correspondences in the quotient situations whereas they attempt to use perceptual
comparisons when they approach the problem as a part-whole question. They also show that
correspondence is not the only argument that emerges for equivalences: the exhaustive and fair
division of the same whole is often used also as an argument that can support the equivalence between
different fractions.
It should be noted that the children had been taught to use perceptual strategies when working with
fractions in part-whole situations. Thus it is not possible to discard the idea that the same logical
arguments might have been used by the children in part-whole situations with similar levels of
success, if they had a different learning history.
364
10
Children’s concepts of fractions
the basis for understanding rational numbers, a global structure for proportional evaluation and a
numerical structure for doubling and splitting. Our qualitative analysis confirms that children use
scalar strategies involving doubling when exploring equivalent fractions. But our results also show a
wider basis for children’s thinking about fractions than they suggested. The only situation considered
by Moss and Case was rational numbers as measures, where percentages and decimals were used to
express fractions of units. Thus it was unlikely that they could observe reasoning that explored
correspondences, and fair and exhaustive sharing as arguments for equivalence.
Our results also converge with those described by Mack (1990; 1995), who observed better
performance in pupils’ ability to order fractions in quotient than in other situations. The ease with
which the children reasoned about classes of equivalent fractions ate the end of two problem-solving
sessions using quotient situations supports the idea that children do have some intuitive knowledge of
the logic of fractions, developed in everyday life and without systematic instruction, and that this
knowledge could be an important resource in the classroom.
Because the distinction between part-whole and quotient situations has been overlooked in some of
the previous analyses, the correspondence strategies and the arguments of fair and exhaustive division
documented here have not been considered in the previous literature. However, the children’s ability
to articulate these arguments during our teaching sessions show that they can provide a support for
children’s understanding of the logic of fractions.
Finally, we would like to emphasize that our analysis provides a path for asking similar questions
about how children construct the idea of classes of equivalent fractions in other situations. In
particular, it seems urgent to investigate how this takes place in intensive quantities situations, where
the whole does not have to be the same for the fractions to be equivalent. How might the
understanding of fractions to represent intensive quantities change children’s concepts of fractions?
How useful are concepts of fraction constructed in the context of extensive quantities for analyzing
intensive quantities situations?
Figure 1
Kim Ben
365
11
Children’s concepts of fractions
Figure 2
Part-whole situations
Question: Paint 2/3 of each figure
Year 4: .78
Year 5: .91
Year 4: .35
Year 5: .56
Year 4: .25
Year 5: .48
Year 4: .23
Year 5: .44
366
12
Children’s concepts of fractions
Figure 2 (continued)
Quotient situations
Question: The children on the left share fairly one cake. The children on the right share fairly
two cakes. Will each child from the group on the left get the same, more or less than each child from
the group on the right?
Proportion correct for this item: Proportion correct for 1/4 and 2/8:
Year 4: .64 Year 4: .78
Year 5: .96 Year 5: .70
________________________________________________________________
Figure 3
367
13
Children’s concepts of fractions
Figure 4
Figure 5
368
14
Children’s concepts of fractions
Figure 6
Figure 1. Kim and Ben had chocolate bars that were exactly the same size. Kim cut hers in
two parts of exactly the same size, the way you see in the picture, and ate one, which is shaded in the
picture. Ben cut his in two parts exactly the same size, the way you see in the picture, and ate one,
which is shaded in the picture. Did Kim and Ben eat the same amount of chocolate?
Figure 2. Proportion of correct responses by children in Years 4 and 5 in different situations
Figure 3. One example of a child’s booklet for the problem 3 chocolates shared among 4
children
Figure 4. H’s drawing of the division of 3 chocolates in thirds and attempt to share the thirds
out among the 4 children. She does not write above the first chocolate but from the second chocolate
on, she indicates that each child is getting a second third and then there is one more third that would be
given to one child.
Figure 5. One child’s argument for the equivalence between 1/3 and 2/6. He did not master the
conventions required to represent his reasoning but his explanation clarifies his argument.
Figure 6. Finding equivalent fractions: how can one share 4 chocolates among 6 children?
References
Behr, M., Lesh, R., Post, T., & Silver, E. A. (1983). Rational number concepts. In R. Lesh &
M. Landau (Eds.), Acquisition of Mathematical Concepts and Processes (pp. 91-126). New York:
Academic Press.
369
15
Children’s concepts of fractions
Carpenter, T. P., & Moser, J. M. (1982). The development of addition and subtraction problem
solving. In T. P. Carpenter & J. M. Moser & R. T. A (Eds.), Addition and subtraction: A cognitive
perspective (pp. 10-24). Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ferguson, G. A. (1971). Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education (3rd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Gréco, P. (1962). Quantité et quotité: nouvelles recherches sur la correspondance terme-a-
terme et la conservation des ensembles. In P. Gréco & A. Morf (Eds.), Structures numeriques
elementaires: Etudes d'Epistemologie Genetique Vol 13 (pp. 35-52). Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Hart, K., Brown, M., Kerslake, D., Küchermann, D., & Ruddock, G. (1985). Chelsea
Diagnostic Mathematics Tests. Teacher’s Guide. Windsor (UK): NFER-Nelson.
Kieren, T. (1988). Personal knowledge of rational numbers: Its intuitive and formal
development. In J. Hiebert & M. Behr (Eds.), Number concepts and operations in the middle-grades
(pp. 53-92). Reston (VA): National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Kieren, T. (1994). Reflections and interactions on rational number thinking, learning and
teaching. In D. Kishner (Ed.), Proceedings of the sixteenth annual meeting of the North American
chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 1, pp. 53-56).
Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University.
Mack, N. K. (1990). Learning fractions with understanding: Building on informal knowledge.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21, 16-32.
Mack, N. K. (1995). Confounding whole number and fraction concepts when building on
informal knowledge. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26, 422-441.
Mack, N. K. (2001). Building on informal knowledge through instruction in a complex content
domain: Partitioning, units, and understanding multiplication of fractions. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education, 32, 267-295.
Moss, J., & Case, R. (1999). Developing children's understanding of rational numbers: A new
model and an experimental curriculum. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30, 122-147.
Ohlsson, S. (1988). Mathematical meaning and applicational meaning in the semantics of
fractions and related concepts. In J. Hiebert & M. Behr (Eds.), Number Concepts and Operations in the
Middle Grades (pp. 53-92). Reston (VA): National Council of Mathematics Teachers.
Piaget, J. (1952). The Child's Conception of Number. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., & Szeminska, A. (1960). The Child's Conception of Geometry. New
York: Harper & Row.
Riley, M., Greeno, J. G., & Heller, J. I. (1983). Development of children's problem solving
ability in arithmetic. In H. Ginsburg (Ed.), The development of mathematical thinking (pp. 153-196).
New York: Academic Press.
Streefland, L. (1993). Fractions: A Realistic Approach. In T. P. Carpenter & E. Fennema & T.
A. Romberg (Eds.), Rational Numbers: An Integration of Research (pp. 289-326). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Streefland, L. (1997). Charming fractions or fractions being charmed? In T. Nunes & P.
Bryant (Eds.), Learning and Teaching Mathematics. An International Perspective (pp. 347-372). Hove
(UK): Psychology Press.
Vergnaud, G. (1982). A classification of cognitive tasks and operations of thought involved in
addition and subtraction problems. In T. P. Carpenter & J. M. Moser & R. T. A (Eds.), Addition and
subtraction: A cognitive perspective (pp. 60-67). Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum.
Vergnaud, G. (1983). Multiplicative structures. In R. Lesh & M. Landau (Eds.), Acquisition of
mathematics concepts and processes (pp. 128-175). London: Academic Press.
Vergnaud, G. (1997). The nature of mathematical concepts. In T. Nunes & P. Bryant
(Eds.), Learning and Teaching Mathematics. An International Perspective (pp. 1-28). Hove (UK):
Psychology Press.
370
16
Children’s concepts of fractions
Appendix 1
1. A drawing of six girls and one closed packet of biscuits. (a) If each girl received
exactly one biscuits and there were no biscuits left in the packet, how many biscuits
were in the packet to begin with? (b) If each girl received a half biscuit and there
were no biscuits left in the packet, how many biscuits were in the packet to begin
with? (c) If some more girls joined the group and they all shared the biscuits fairly,
would each girl now receive more, less, or the same amount to eat? (From
Streefland, 1997)
2. A drawing of 3 chocolates and 4 children. (a) Can each child get a whole chocolate?
(b) Can each child receive at least a half chocolate? (c) What fraction of a chocolate
will each one receive? From Streefland, 1997)
3. After these two problems, the researcher discussed with the children the notation of
fractions. The children were asked to write a half and indicate what the numbers
meant. The researcher would summarize the children’s discussion, ensuring that
they realized that 1/2 means ‘you cut something in two equal parts and take one’
and also ‘one chocolate shared by two children’. The children were then asked how
they would represent a situation where three children shared a chocolate: what
fraction would each one get? This discussion of the writing and reading of fractions
was extended to cover 1/5 and two or three further examples of unitary fractions.
4. Drawing of six children and two pizzas. Six children go to a pizzeria and order two
pizzas. The waiter first brings one, and then the other pizza. (a) What fraction of the
first pizza will each child get? (b) What fraction of the second pizza will each child
get? (c) How many sixths would each one get? (d) Could they share it differently if
the waiter brought the two pizzas at the same time? (e) What fraction would each
child have? (f) Do they eat the same amount if they share in these different ways?
5. Drawing of 9 children and 6 chocolates. (a) Find two different ways of sharing the
chocolates among the 9 children. (b) If you shared in these different ways, would
they be getting the same amount of chocolate both times or not? (c) Why?
6. Drawing of 6 children and 4 chocolates. (a) Find two different ways of sharing the
chocolates among the 6 children. (b) If you shared in these different ways, would
they be getting the same amount of chocolate both times or not? (c) Why?
371
17
(#C% %# #$%%)'( (" ",#- " $&%#(' %#(
, +( ( 0$0#(( ( )0!0&', 0$'#( $&%C%(
!
3. %
6
,
$0&'-
%
* %
,
%
&
&%
/, *
. 4 9
%
. $
&%
%
%
* %
.
%
&
&%
% 9
%
%
&
&
. $ « »
&
&
,
% %
.
’ ’
/
%
* %
&
%
* %
.
0'()!)
%
%
.
&
9
%
0
* 1
(Jones, 1998).
%
% 0
, %
1
9
%
,
9
.
*
/ (Fiori & Zuccheri, 2005).
%
&
/
9,
&1
1
9
%
. Q
&
&1
*
: -4
9%
% (behaviorism)
1
-
9
. +
*
,
,
&
*%
. -4 %
% (repair theory)
&
%
/.
-
& %
Brousseau (1997)
/
%
% . $
%
&
%
.
+ &
9
.
!$ .
/
%
1
**
%
. 6
&
%
.
$,
% /1
9*
%
9
%
(Margolinas, 2003). "
9
%
&
* %
%
&
&
.
$
* &
&
*
} &
1
. 4
&
1
9
, 1
&
. 9
% &%
*
&
,
. +
&
%
%
/
%0
372 1
9. 6
&
9 &
. *
«» (& &
& %
)
%
&
*
&%
(Papadopoulos & Dagdilelis, 2005).
8*
&
9
%
% 9
. H
&
%,
,
%
9
&
/
.
&
,
%
0
9
&
9
% (Balacheff & Kaput, 1997). $
Balacheff & Kaput
*
%
&1
%
9
* .
$
,
&%
%
%
* %
.
1. *
*
’ 3 (
)
$#3
(/)
2. 3 *
*
$’ 3
4
*
* %
&
*
&
*%
%. $
%
1
* %
(* .
1, 2).
1
* %
,
* %
&
9
0
9
%
.
$
&
4
(2 # 3
2 $#)
& L
. +
&
%
&
*
*
&
/ (
,
,
, ,
1 ).
* %
&
%
9 9
. Cabri
3
%
2
373
"
,
MSPaint
1
9% Windows. $
&%
GeoComputer
&%
&1 &%
,
9,
9,
*9 %
*%
1
*
&%
.
+
&
/
9
,
&
*
&.
* %
&
9
&
% 9
% &
.
+
&
45
*
. 3 0
&
.
*
&%
%
. 8*
%
91
&
% *
*
. +
%
*
%&
& &
%
9
%
9
.
\%
9
Camtasia Studio
0
9% *
, %
,
,
,
%
*
%. &%
% %0 *
9
%
9
&
9
/ %
.
1.
9
1.
2. 1
%
3. 1
%
4. &1
9%
5. '
%
%
*
1
*
. 4
&
, 9 &
%
%
.
’
&
%
/ (visualization)
9
, &
9
%
&.
&%
%
% &
9*%.
%
% 0
&
0 1 Van Hiele (1986)
&
* ,
&
,
&
%
374 3
3. +
%
9
%
. 4 % %
%,
%
9
%
&
&1
&%
,
% %
«
»
9
*
.
&
*
%. 4
9
,
/
9
,
%
/
.
9
&
: 6
%
*
*
«
»
(* .
4) &
&
&%
(2
1).
*
1
ABDF &
. + & « »
& &%
(&
«
%»),
BED
*
& . 8
& & %
.
%
%
«
%» 8, . %
F.
0
.
/
. D (
% 9) 0
(
%)
8,
*.
%
.
* &
1
&
Cabri
%,
9
. $
*%
%
4
375
9
*%
,
1
9
%
.
4. 1
%
*
*
* %
. Q
&
(
&
&%
,
Cabri
GeoComputer)
*
&. 9
9 9
, 9
&
.
/1
9
%
*
&%
*
$’ /,
«»
*
*
(* .
5).
&1 &%
, %
*
%
&%
. 4
%
/
% (
*
)
*
&%
. $
&
,
9
Cabri,
%
9%
%
&
&
.
%
%
*%
*%
, &
0
. Q
9
9
%.
376 5
?
36 .
.
5 = *
6. '
9%
4
%
9
,
9%
(Papadopoulos & Dagdilelis, 2006).
$
%
, /
,
&1
). Q,
/% *
:
1
/
«= »,
%
%
(* .
8). $
%
&
%
%
/ 9
.
6
377
7. '
*
&
$0&'$!( V: $% /#"' (!(( 0,'(( %#
4
%
9
%,
*
1
,
%. $ *
# /
&
*
&%
,
% %
&
&%
9% *.
8.
%
9
1
&
0%
1
/
(
%
),
*%
( )
&
/
&
,
/
&
%
. $ 9
%
&
&%,
%
*
9
&%
%
9
0,
%
*
(* .
8). $
6\6. H
%
9
%/
. Q&
2
*%
34
36
(#$0&(
%
*
. 4 &%
%
*
%.
378 7
9
&%
%
%
* %
9
%
0
. Q
9
:
x '
/
%
x '
%
x '
%
x '
&1
9%,
x '
0
%
.
Q
0
,
%
. *
%, 1
%
& .
C'C'%)&+',0( "+%&0(
Arcavi, A. (2003). The role of visual representations in the learning of mathematics. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 52, 215-241.
Balacheff, N., & Kaput, J. (1997). Computer-Based Learning Environments in Mathematics. In A.
Bishop et al. (Eds.), International Handbook in Mathematics Education (pp. 469-501). Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publisher
Brousseau, G. (1997). Theory of didactical situations in Mathematics. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Fiori, C. & Zuccheri, L. (2005). An experimental research on error patterns in written subtractions.
Educational Studies in Mathematics (60), 323-331.
Jones, K. (1998). Student Interpretations of a Dynamic Geometry environment. In I. Schwank (Ed.)
Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the European Society fro Research in Mathematics
Education, v.I, pp. 245-258, Osnabrueck, Germany.
Margolinas, C. (2003). A
$! ( $
.. .
$
**
, %
.
Papadopoulos, I. & Dagdilelis, V. (2005). Computer as a tool of verification in a geometry problem-
solving context. In Novotna J. (Ed), SEMT’ 05, International Symposium Elementary Maths
Teaching Proceedings, (pp.260-268). Charles University, Faculty of Education. Prague. The
Czech Republic.
Papadopoulos, I. & Dagdilelis, V.: (2006). The Theory of Transactional Distance as a
Framework for the Analysis of Computer Aided Teaching of Geometry, The International
Journal for Technology in Mathematics Education (IJTME), 13(4), 175-182.
Van Hiele, P. (1986). Structure and insight. Orlando, Academic Press.
8
379
5
, 5
" .
M.Edu. % #
$ %
.
/ 1 +&' %
A.. Plataros@sch.gr
$5 :
,
&
% . +
%. 3
%,
*
& &0
&
9,
G(&0)
0
%. &0
5
« x : P ( x) ».
'.&.
: «F
! . t» ,
«
!».
j
5<
5
5: + 3 '
,
1
3
,
9: «…Pl£twnoj Ðrisamšnou,
”AnqrwpÒj ™sti zùon d…poun ¥pteron, kaˆ eÙdokimoàntoj, t…laj
¢lektruÒna e„s»negken aÙtÕn e„j t¾n scol¾n ka… fhsin, « oátÒj
™stin Ð Pl£twnoj ¥nqrwpoj» Óqen tù ÓrJ prosetšqh tÕ
platuènucon…»
+
&
/
% 9
9
.
9
,
*,
%
%
%
1: / >*
' 0
'
(
0 (
'
)
,
&%
: +
&
,
% /
9
,
0,
,
&
,
9
&! (
91
2: /
' 0
'
3 '
!)
4
3, & %
'
%
0, ,
&
. +
,
9
%
.
$ ,
%
0
,
&
0 9 «,
,
0» (
%
).
?
5
:
%
&1
9
:
• $
(examples)
• $
(counterexamples % non examples)
.
380 1
3
, &%
9
%
&.
5
5 : 6
% &%,
. '
&:
: «
&
»
,:
,
8
,
&
1
8 ……6
,
!....
(<: ,
: "
,
,:
,
1 1 11 2 1
, /
,
2 2 22 4 2
1 1
3: /
' 9
1 .
!
2 2
D D 2D D
(<:
E E 2E E
8*
/
&
,
# , 9
,
*
%. =&
1
,
%
9 (
),
, 1
,
/
&
,
&%
%
,
&
** .
55 <5
5
: 9
,
/
9
%
/
6
:
$
,
: «+
}
,
,
&
,
1 1 11 2 1
2 2 22 4 2
1 1
/
, 1
4: = -
'
2 2
.
%
%
&
%
’
%.
%
% –'%,
&
. "
: «
;» $ & «
»
%
9
9
&
.
5: -
'
«
» 88"
=
8
55 5
:
«!
#$
, !
,
#$
,
.»
%
%
(
)
,
9
8"
83,
,
,
%.
2
381
)
=5
5
:
=&
(
&
) % : «Kaˆ tÕ Ólon, toà mšrouj me‹zon []. (4
%
«$&
»
). Q&
: =&
: (½) & > &, ( : « %
1
%
»). 4
% & %
,
%
%
,
5
=5! (+
1
.&. -2>-4 ,
.)
<
: .&.
: «*
.
(
! ! '#
$ : (½) >
!, !
,
5
:
,
&
,
0
.
, 0.01
,
*
. Q
&
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
«
&%
%»
9
-0.01
&%
. H
,
-0.02
9
,
,
[
,*] &
.
6: :
* **
« %»
% :
,
.
(a, f(a))
Q&
:
1
(«% ») %
%
. $ %
, (a,f(a))
.
%
%. H
1 ½
f :[0, 1 ] o , PH f x °®x x , x ! 0°¾
% &
%
2
S ° °
¯0, x 0¿
,
9
#
«
/
%»
«%
(0,0)»
,
(0,0)
&
. +
%
%
%.
8
5
8
382 3
,
&
o D
«
1
%
, &
9
». 6
% /% #
%
1
,
&% &%
3 o3 %
Q
1
3 o 3 , 1
3
/ %
&, &
Q
(1)Q
9
%
3 o 3 ,
Q
«
»
3,
&
9
.
1 ½
°3 Q DQ Q 3N °
° °
= ®3 DQ Q 3N 1 ¾ o 3
1
/
° 1 °
°3 DQ Q 3N 2 °
¯ Q ¿
3
1
. 3 -
**
,
*
%
.
$
%,
1 ½
° x sin x DQ x z 0 °
2
f : o PH f ( x ) ® x ¾
°¯0 DQ x 0 ¿°
&
y=x . H 9
&%
:
f &
% &%
%
. 6
6
. 3
&, 9
4
&
9
%
2
%
9
%
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
.
**
,
-2
0
,
«
,
-4
*
,
%, /
-6
»
% 5
«
» <8
5 5
:
L,
%
%
,
. $
,
%,
?5 558
5
. $&
«
»
(%
)
.
.
,
&
,
9 9
1
.
,
,
9 /
,
&
,
/
*
. $ 9
%,
«asymptote» ,
,
,
*
’
(
)
%
5 Dirichlet :
1
x ½
f ( x) ® ¾
%
:
¯1
x ¿
4
383
x !,
%
,
& (1837)
( .
«
» %
&
), 9 &
Hausdorff 1914 &%
1
.
x
1 &
% 9
.
x
&
.
**
«
/
/
.
9
,
, &
/ /
,
«
8<
5»: $
/ «
8<» (
)
9
( .
«
»).
Q:
«
&
%»,
6
,
9
&
', *
, 1
%
%
8: 4
%
.
,
%
%
&
&
:
$
1 : «+
&
% &1
».
5
1: 4 9 : RÆR 9(&)= &2 & %
&1
«
» 4
y
= : $
_2: «
&% 3
0 x
5
$
2 : Q: -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
1
f :[ 1, 0) (0,1] o Å PH f ( x ) -2
x -3
([-1,+1])=2
f
&%
-4
384 5
«
&1
»
«
&
-
9
»:
1
1 ½ 0.8
°sin DQ x z 0 °
&
f :[0,1] o R PH f ( x) ® x ¾ 0.6
°¯0 DQ x 0 °¿
0.4
9%
,
% -0.4
9
1
9
-0.6
%, '%
D 9
,
. -0.8
N
/
&
&
& 6
. -1
+
9
% «
10: $
9
,
%»
%
,
&% 0
/
#
%.
%,
,
&%
&
,
%
%
,
% %/.
/
, &
9
&.
$
&
0
, & :
«» = «
0». 3 . % &
9
& % . "
/
, O& .
,
%
/
.
,
5
8<
8
…….
6
385
)"!(0'( ,' $%-0'( !" ,)!" ( /0#0&%C'( 0,$/((
)' !" !" 0 0'/',0( (',0( /#(,%'0( ( -
',
3% :
% 6
(8.., 6..)
$
&
:
%
%
%
/
1
(Janet Lerner 1997, . 497).
9
/
,
%
%
& * &%
. &
,
/ (Henderson,
2002). 6
-
%
&
9
&
,
,
*
. +
,
/
/
-
(
&
1993, 2004. Henderson 2002). +
&
-
%
9
%
-
.
%
-
(
%
%
%
/, 3=
)
%
&
*
. N ,
*
%. 4 % **
-
9
&
/
*
*
,
*
& (Reid and Kirk, 2001).
%
%
, « »
« »
. + Thomas
West (1991) 9
9
’
1
9
%
,
’
9 . ,
,
9
*
%
*
. «H
1
,
9
. &1
1
&
9*
* %
. 9-
*
%
%.
%
,
*
%
-
%
&
». (H
9
Henderson 2002, . 2).
9
&
/ %
9
%/
. $ &
,
/
%
/,
-
& *
% %/
%
3= ( -
,
/
%/), %
%/
&
&
%
/. 4 09
/
&
, -
*
. Q,
*
*
’
-
% /
.
0
*
;
4
%
*
. -
,
&
%
*
%
,
&
&
%
%
.
x
*
.6.3;
x
9
;
x
;
x
* %
9 &
(
&
)
.6.3;
x
1
;
x
.6.3.
1%
;.
x
;
2
387
x
1
/
&
.6.3;.
x
1
/
&
-
& ;
4
/%& 6
2007 "
'
%
1 "
-
9 # %
,
4 "
9 8# %
%
&
0
. 4 -
. +
%
220
100. 9
7%
.
55%
%
45%
, &
&
-
%
,
9
% %
70%
30%
. "
% &
26 %.
* % 9
9 &
-
%
9 9 ,
, &
&
, & -
9 ..
*
%
0
, ,
-
%,
9
&
. H %
-
.
&%
6
-
&1
%
(
-
%,
% ).
,
&%
& -
.
x 30%
&
1976 & 1980.
x 17%
1981 & 1985
11% 1985.
(< : *5
<
&
8#*
%,
-
&
&
,
&
&
9
9
%0
/.
.6.3 &
-
,
/
% ’
.
3
388
(< C: 0
85
5
0../
H 9
&%
8,
*
.6.3
&
.$
, 33%,
%
, &
-
63, 50% &
. 83%
%
%
/% 0 9
9
%
,
9
% &
:
x
& 1975 ( 84%)
x
&
1976 1980 ( 76%)
x
&
1981 1985 ( 94%)
x
& 1985 ( 82%).
9 &
&
% ()
%
80%.
-$'6- &
15%
/ 5%.
%
,
%:
x 36% 1
,
x 10%
9
* %
.
%
1
,
/
,
%
.
x 25% 1
1%
%
.
4
389
x 5%
9
x 24%
&.
*
% %
*
: (* . &%
3).
(< /:
x 3
%
66%.
x
0 %
58%.
x
* 57%.
x 3
* 40%.
x 3
34%.
x 3
/ 34%.
x 3
9%
32%
x 3
30%.
* %
,
1
%
4
%
. (Mercer &
Pullen 2005, Bley & Thorton 1994, Bryant 2005).
9
%. %
’
* %
&%
,
&%
&
,
%&
%
% *%
.
$
.6.3.
1
* %
%
&
80%!
%
%
*
’
, &
&
’
,
1%
%
.
5
390
(< 0: $5 565 8 0/
9
$
&
* %
9
.6.3.
, ,
,
%
*
/%:
x
30%.
x ' 38%.
x 18%
x 12%.
x
2%.
6 *
,
63
1
*
* %
/9 *
%
9.
$
&
/1
9
.
75%
9
,
& %
/ %
9
**
9
. (R. Gurney 1983).
78%
9
*
%
%/
*
. 3
%
’
1
*
,
*%
( 0 &
,
%
).
$
9
%
, 46%
,
%
&
, &
.
44%
9
.
$
9
% "
55%,
&
0
%
. +
40%,
,
,
& *
%
"
%
'.
,
% &
*
%,
** . 4
&
/
.
+ %
.6.3.
/
/ (* . &%
$).
.
6
391
(< (: 5
0/ =
*%
,
* %
,
&
,
&
*%
.
$
81%
.6.3.
*%
*
1
.6.3.
$
1%
%
43%.
1
%
,
%
. 55%
1
%
.6.3.
/
,
. ,
%
1%
%
%
&
.
$
&
83%
1
.6.3.
*%
%
9%
-
,
9
&
1%
,
&
-
.
7
392
+ % /1
1
/
&
.6.3..
$
*
%
&
%
53%,
45%
%
%
&
%
*-
%
.
$
&1
, 75% &
0
-
%
.
67%
&
&
-
%
%
%.
+ %
/
&
&
-
%
%,
&
.6.3.
&
%
%
.
$
%
57%
&
9
-
% &
0
1
.
$
&1
&
– 73%
-
.
9
0 9, &%
– & –
1
.
$
%
&1
-
(0
&
,
, ) 75%
.
9
9
%, 80%
&
-
0
.6.3.
1
* %
.
$
1
«%
/», 52%
1
.
-
&
*
*
9 0 9.
%
-
/
*
&
2000
&
&
&%
9.
, (
’
1
1
,
&
%
&%
-
). Q&
0 =
&
%
-
/ 9
&
,
-
0
9
,
%-
&
9
.6.3.
%/,
*
*
&
1%
,
1
-
&
9
& .
60%
’
1
%
/
%
&
, 40%
&
-
&
.
$
9
%
%
%
%
.6.3.
,
% 1
29%,
9 43%. H
&
/
28%
%
9
%
%.
& 9
93%
%
, *
%
,
/
.6.3.
$ %
1
/
&
.
$ «
/
*
% %
»
50%,
38%.
$ «
/
&
%
-
»
35%, 37%
.
H,
*
, 50%
,
60%
%
/.
,
* %
9
1
.6.3.,
& 1%
/
/.
8
393
$
/1
9
«
» 86%
& 11%! (
«&»
/
‘9
-
’).
74%
& *
.
&
/-
1
,
& *
&
1
.
, 87% &
/ 9 ‘9
’
% %
-
/.
&
*
&
,
%,
«
9
1
&»
-
.
5. (5-5
$
,
%
9
% 09
*
&
% 9 -
,
&
& -
63,
%
1% 80%. +
&
&
%
* %
, 1
%
/.
,
1
,
1
%
( .
),
,
%
%/
*
,
% .
0
, 80%
63
1
9
&
%
80%,
%
%
.
9
1
*
*
* %
/9 *
%
9,
,
%
9.
$9
,
1
63
/
/
*
&
&
&
. ,
1%
,
&
&
* %
. , 9
0
,
/
&
63
9
,
,
,
9
-
.
$
-
/
&
,
%
/
&
-
&
.
93%
-
%
, *
%
,
/
.6.3.
, 9
,
*
&
/ 9 ‘9
’
% %
-
/. 4
12 &
.6.3.
&
12 &
%
/ 9,
/ %
%
,
,
%
/
9
/
,
&, .
9
%
&1
&
-
6
3
.
=
, &
,
* *
%
9
.6.3.
-
9
394
1
& /%
%/
*
-
(
)
(*) %
%. ,
! 9
/
8/
-
& & % /. H
-
9
. +
/
.6.3.
,
.
**
%,
, &
.6.3. +
* %
%,
%
,
-
**
, 9
%
%
.
,
%
9
. "
%
%
-
%
&%
1
, -
!
(Chasty 1991).
*
* %
:
x 9
& .6.3.
0.
x
/,
&1
,
-
.
x + % %
,
/&
&
.
x
&
*
0
-
.
x
/
& *
,
-
& -
1%
.
x §
/ 0
&
%/
-
,
.
x 6
%
.6.3.
*
&
& .
x '
&
.6.3.
/
.
C'C'%)&+'
A. E %
, ! (2000). 6
3
6
. %
: "-
.
"1
,
(2004). (6.-). 3
%
DSM-IV. %
: !
-
'
.
, $
1
6
, ". (2007). 6
. 8
&
. 8 .
, K
. (1998). 3
/
. %
:
.
&
, $
. (1985). 3
/
:
. @
, . 36, 51-63
. 37, 83-91.
&
, $
(1989). +
/ 9*
*
. -
%
: +38.
&
, $
(2003).
9*
.
#. %
:
.
$
*
, "
$
*
, 6
. (2007). 6
. %
:
.
$
, 3%, (2003). 6
9%*
. %
:
GUTENBERG.
10
395
, 6., (1994). $&
%
. %
: GUTENBERG.
9
,
9
. (2005). (6.-.). Van de Walle, J. 6
-
. 6
/ % 3
. %
:
%, " 3
.
=L-.!. (2003). 3
%
. 8*
. %
:
. +38.
=L-.!. (2003). }
- 3
%
. 8* -
%. (: % %.
% %,
% %,
,
% 0). %
: +38.
=L-.!. (2003). M
&
- 3
%
. 8* -
% (:
&,
). %
: +38.
8. %
Edwards, E,. L., (1990). Algebra for everyone. Reston Virginia: National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics.
Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and Learning disabilities Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(1),
4 - 15.
Henderson, Anne (2002). Maths for the dyslexic. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Johnson, D. & Myclebust, H. (1967). Learning Disabilities. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Kavale, K. A. & Forness, S. R. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don’t say: A
critical analysis, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(3), 239 – 256.
Lerner, Janet (1997). Learning disabilities. (7th ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Mercer, Cecil (1997). Students with learning disabilities. Toronto: Merrill Publishing Company.
Mercer, C. D. & Pullen, P. C. (2005). Students with learning disabilities, Pearson: Merrill Prentice
Hall.
Miller, S. P., & Mercer, C. D. (1997). Educational aspects of mathematics disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 30(1), 47- 56.
Reid, Gavin and Kirk, Jane (2001). Dyslexia in adults. New York: John Willey and Sons, LTD.
Thornton, C. A. & Bleyn, S., (1994). Windows of opportunity: Mathematics for students with spe-
cial needs. Reston VA: NCT.
11
396
PISA –TIMSS: /'0" $&%)& 1'%%)(( ( 0$'/%(( (
',
GL} G!}D=''!3+=
$59
+
/
/ 9
&
/ %
&%
%
. PISA
TIMSS
/ %,
:
9 &,
/
&
/
9%
0
&
.
9 %
9 .
9 %
/
/ .
9
1
,
*
% (TIMSS 1995, PISA 2003).
$9
% **
9
,
&
/
/
%
%
&
.
$ &
/
TIMSS
PISA,
Kassel Project,
IAEP I
II
Australasian Schools Competitions.
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
1 Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA),
&
/
/
&
.
$9
Hegarty1 (2004),
0
&
9
. N 1
,
&
,
&
9
*
9
%
.
*
&%
/ %
. $9
IEA,
&
&
% /
%
9
:
) 4
,
*) +
/ &
&%
&
&
9
9
.
)
/
.
) 8
&
(Improving Mathematics and Science
Education in Countries Around the World, 2004).
$9
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (!)
&
TIMSS
«*
9
/
9
/, &
9
,
&
*
» (IEA, 2004).
1
O Dr. Seamus F. Hegarty
IEA.
1 397
PISA
/ ,
%
&-
+
+% $
/ (++$)
&,
&
/ %
15 &,
1
&%
%
,
/
% 1%
/&
’
.
91
%
&
.
9
/ 9
1
/
&
&
/
.
&%
%
/
/
,
*
0
9
. /1
(TIMSS
PISA)
«
»
& «»,
&
%
%
.
O
/ %
/
, TIMSS
PISA
1
:
9
9%
.
9 \
9%
(.&. 9
*
).
9 4 %
*
1
.
9 *
&
/ .
9
*
.
9 /
/
%
&
*
/,
&
&
.
. PISA
/
/
/
&
% 1%
,
* %
*
9
TIMSS
, &
%
&
* %
&
.
9 ,
9
. 4
TIMSS *
1
/
/
&
/ ,
PISA
%,
&
9
&
,
/ %. 6
&
*
&1
*
/
, &
% .
TIMSS & *
,
9
%
9
, PISA 1
*
/
*
1 %
(TIMSS
Versus PISA: the Case of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 2006).
TIMSS.
2
$ &
++$
&%
15 % 16 &
. $ 4...
17 &
8 , "
\
18 &
(OECD, 2001).
398 2
$'
*
/
,
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003
+
,
9 15&
/
PISA 2003
/ 8 /
TIMSS 2003, 20
&3
&
/ %4 (
1).
9
:
9 + &
1
0
,
. + &
*
9%
/
: \ ,
, 8 (9
), !
\ (3
1).
9 4
&
*
/
.
: }*
, !
, $*
, !
.
9 +
9
9 & $
, }
,
*, $
}*
, 8
*
D
,
0
/
PISA. 4...
*
&
%
,
% $ *
, '
, +
G% +
,
TIMSS.
$
1: ,?
< 5
8
PISA 2003 TIMSS 2003 (8
?)
PISA 2003 TIMSS 2003
*!&0( 0( 0( *!&0( 0( 0(
C/)' ,/1( C/)' ,/1(
8 (D
) 553 1
589 1
\- (SAR) 550 2 \- (SAR) 586 2
542 3 !
570 3
\ 538 4 8 (D
) 537 4
!
534 5 \ 536 5
$
524 6 +
529 6
524 6 $ *
508 7
}.
523 8 '
508 7
$
509 9 G% +
508 7
!
(8
%) 502 10
505 10
$ *
498 11 4.. 504 11
++$ 500 $
499 12
}*
495 12 $
498 13
+
490 13 }.
494 14
4.. 483 14 !
(8
%) 487 15
'
483 14 !
484 16
G% +
468 16 $*
477 17
!
466 17 3% 467
$*
437 18 }*
461 18
!
360 19 !
411 19
359 20
410 20
+
#
(NCES, 2004) (OECD, 2004).
9 + &
%
–
!
-
0
,
0
%
TIMSS.
3
+ &
$
, }
, }*
, !
(8
%), 8 (D
),
, $
, \, \-, !
,
, !
, $*
,
,
!
, 4..., $ *
, '
, +
G% +
.
4
"
TIMSS 2003,
/
9
/
&
,
1
/
PISA.
3 399
9 4
9 &
%
/ %,
9
0 PISA,
*
«9
»
,
0
TIMSS,
9
«
»
,
% *
.
3
1
#
TIMSS 2003 OECD PISA 2003 database.
H
&!*
H
B
>
#.%.8
!
E!*
&*
"IB/&
PISA 2003
T IMSS 2003
H
(K )
&
E. L
8!
&
H
"'!
!
$'
*
/
*
, PISA
2003
TIMSS 2003
4
9
/
&. $9
Grønmo & Olsen TIMSS Versus PISA: the
Case of Pure and Applied Mathematics (2006), Table 1:
9 +
`. ;
, &1
&%
+ $
TIMSS.
9 @
PISA,
&%
! TIMSS.
9 +
PISA, &1
&%
$ TIMSS.
$
/
&
&
, 18 &5
%
, &
,
9%
%
:
)
5
"
$
8
% !
&
%
,
%&
&
Learning for Tomorrow’s World – First Results from PISA 2003, 2004.
400 4
&
%
6, *)
9 &7, )
* &8, ) &
%
9,
) &
%
10 (
2).
6
!
,
, \ -
, !
.
7
, 4..., }.
.
8
}*
, $
.
9
8 (D
), \, !
.
10
'
, +
, G% +
, $*
, $ *
.
5 401
402
$
2: % 8
< 5
5<8 5<8
?
=
85
6
$9
&
2:
9 + &
%
– !
-
1
0
&% # $
TIMSS,
&%
.
PISA, &: !
(553),
(552)
\ (558).
.
9 +
9
* &
1
9
, %
(
, /
4...
0 PISA),
&
&
# $
TIMSS
.
PISA. Q
&,
1
.
$9
2, 18 &
&
, &
&
1
9
(TIMSS Versus PISA: the Case of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 2006,
Table 4, 16):
"
18 &, /
% &%
0
,
%
&
. /
& %,
}#
% ;.
+ &
&
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003,
:
$
3
$0&'%*0( %# $0&'%*0( %#
*!&0( $0&'0*%0"%# 0 " $0&'0*%0"%# 0
#-%0& 0$'/%( *%0& 0$'/%(
**
- 3
-
4... **
- 3
\
&%
– "
}.
**
- 3
-
}*
**
- 3
-
$
**
- 3
\
&%
– "
!
\
&%
– "
-
\
&%
– "
**
- 3
\ -
\
&%
– "
-
'
\
&%
– "
**
- 3
+
– \
&%
– "
G% +
- **
- 3
$*
– -
$ *
– **
- 3
+
#
@
3
TIMSS 2003 OECD
PISA 2003 database
3,
&
0 ,
7 403
.
*
&
.
PISA
# $
TIMSS.
H 9
/5 2, 3 4, &
&
/ % - &
&
-
TIMSS 2003
0
PISA 2003. $ &% # $
10
&
0 *
, .
7. $
9
,
14 & &
,
4. ,
&
0 *
15,
% &% 2,
&
.
9
1
PISA
1
*
,
0
. Q
,
%
%
1 PISA.
404 8
/5 2
H
&!*
H
B
>
#.%.8.
!
&
E L
8!
H
"'!
!
K
#
TIMSS 2003 OECD PISA 2003
9 405
/5 3
/'+%&0( 0$'/%(( !" ,%'"!" *!&!" $%# (#00'*" (H 0', $0&'%*
( 8=$=/:/+$ (% PISA 2003 KAI %# +JH=C (% TIMSS 2003
H
&!*
H
B
>
#.%.8.
!
%
E!* 8!$
&*
&
E L
8!
H
"'!
!
K
#
TIMSS 2003 OECD PISA 2003 database
406 10
/5 4
/'+%& ( 0$'/%(( !" ,%'"!" *!&!" $%# (#00'*" ( 0',
$0&'%* ( +BB+H=/:/+$ (% PISA 2003 ,' !" 00=## (% TIMSS 2003
?
;
)
;
> (
#.:..
(
' 8**
J
)
)
;
I H
I!
+!
&:;$()&;)
11 407
$'
*
/
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003 *
$ TIMSS 2003,
9
&
&
/ . H
%/
9%,
&
&
. $9
Mullis & Martin (2004),
%
8 / *
%
*
.
&
&
/1
, $*
,
8 /
0
.
,
/
8 (D
), +
, !
4... (
4).
PISA 2003, /
0
,
%
9 %
% .
1
9% &
%
/ , $*
PISA 2003
/
, TIMSS 2003
*
.
$ ,58, PISA 2003,
/
%
9
( 23 *
), TIMSS 2003
9 %
(6 *
),
*
%
(
4).
4
9
9
TIMSS 2003
PISA 2003,
0
TIMSS,
’
PISA.
&
&
TIMSS,
PISA,
&%
, %
%
9. 4
9
}.
,
TIMSS
% /
, PISA
*
9,
/
% 14 (
5,
3
5).
4
9
PISA
TIMSS,
TIMSS
/
/. $9
Kungah & Haesook (2005),
9
9
/
:
)
9 9%
&
/
&
&
,
*) /
9
. Q&
9
& 9*
. , 9
Penner (2003),
&
&
*
9
,
9
%. 4
&%
%
/
%
.
$'
*
/
*
!
'
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003 *
$9
TIMSS 2003,
/
/ /,
/
%
9 &% # ,
&
&%
. $
&
%
9.
1
&
&% # $
, 9
20 &: $*
,
'
, $
, }.
, }*
, G% +
, $
,
!
!
(8
%),
&
&
9
408 12
**
9
* %
&
.
$9
PISA 2003,
/
%
9 &
.
,
/
!
!
,
/
9 8
5 *
&
(3
4).
$
4
/'+%& 0$'/%(( (% TIMSS 2003 /'+%& 0$'/%(( (% PISA 2003
"0( (0 )%&' ,' ,%&'(' "0( (0 )%&' ,' ,%&'('
*!&0( &'%( )0!0&' /0/%0" $%(% *!&%(- C0C'%
(*
5 17 12 9 1 12 7
C8 15 11 11 1 18 7
(+
)
.$. 8 6 1 4 15 3
'
6 -3 5 3 9 15
'
-6 11 3 2 16 -5
'
(C) 1 -3 -2 - - -
' 6 6 12 13 18 -8
, *5 10 2 7 -4 8 22
,58 7 8 10 22 27 24
-2 -6 -13 3 14 0
".
3 -4 -8 12 18 4
"5 -2 -4 -3 0 7 9
%5 9 11 5 2 15 8
& -2 -4 2 6 21 8
%
(5 -5 -8 2 -3 3 5
( -4 -5 -4 - - -
( 0 8 14 13 35 17
(
2 -4 -1 3 10 9
24 18 29 16 16 7
*
-,
- -2 2 -4 -3 4 12
SAR
* @
4
#
TIMSS 2003 OECD PISA 2003 database
$ #. $ .,
$
. ( ,
,
$ "
#, .
, # (
.
13 409
/5 5
?
)
)
)
> (
(
I!
I H
;
;
;
#.:.
&
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
H=>&)
$
9
&
&
,
TIMSS 2003
PISA 2003
9 ,
:
9 &%
!
$ &%
!
&
6 & – $ *
1
9
- &% 3
& (3
6).
410 14
9 &%
$
/
&%
$ 5 &,
&% 2 & (3
8).
$
*
9
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003, 9 ,
/
TIMSS 9
’
PISA. ,
&
/ %
%
*
(Fennema, 2000).
/
%
-
/
/
- 9
1
9
1
,
9 , %
PISA.
%
%
%, & &
&
/ ,
’
.
$'
*
/
(
*) '
!
', PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003
&
++$,
*&
, &
&
/, /
/
/
&
%
&
9
. 4
%
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003, / :
$
5. /65
/5
=
(
) ?,
8 <5 <
PISA 2003
TIMSS 2003
*!&0( PISA 2003 TIMSS 2003
8 8/5 8 8/5
=
/65
/65
<5
<5 =
?
?
524 516 8 505 534 -29
4.. 483 444 39 504 464 40
\ 538 468 70 536 491 45
'
483 463 20 508 486 22
}.
523 510 13 494 508 -14
}*
495 455 40 461 427 34
G% +
468 425 43 508 492 16
$
509 452 57 499 457 42
\- 550 488 62 586 541 45
+
#
@
5
IEA 2004, Exhibit 4.3, 132
Learning for Tomorrow’s World-First Results from PISA 2003, 2004, Table, 4.2g, 395
15 411
1
. "
9
, & &
%
,
*
/
&
9
*
.
9
9%
/
/
/
, , & *
’
%
%/
&
. +
&
/
PISA 2003
1
9% %
-
&
/ -
TIMSS 2003.
\, \ -
$
, & ,
&
1
0 %
/ % ( $
&
*
TIMSS 2003).
/5 10
/65
/5
=
?
8 <5
<
PISA 2003 TIMSS 2003
600
500
400
PISA 2003
300
TIMSS 2003
200
100
H=>&)
#
TIMSS 2003 OECD PISA 2003 database
Validation Study of the PISA 2000, PISA 2003 and TIMSS-2003 International Studies of
Pupil Attainment, (2006)
/%&
National Foundation for Educational
Research,
9
/
PISA
TIMSS,
%
PISA.
/
/
&
9 *
.
4
PISA 2003,11
* 27
/ 30 &-
++$,
32 41 &
&
. 4
&-
++$ 9
,
&
. 6 0.6%
/
9 ,
*
&
,
/
%
39%
/
.
11
4 &
& TIMSS 1995.
412 16
4 &
&
++$ – *
9
9
(19 *
),
. 4
9
& , 9
29 *
. 4
9 *
%
/
%
,
.
PISA 2003 &
&
–
-
1
%
,
*
%
9
1
.
,
/ &
1
20% 15&
/
&
«
9*»,
%
%
(Learning for Tomorrow’s World - First Results from PISA 2003,
2004, Table 6.4, 446).
4 &
*
,
/ &
++$,
9
9
/ 12. H
/
&
%
’
&
,
%
&
(9%
) 5.3 *
4.1 *
(Learning for Tomorrow’s World - First
Results from PISA 2003, 2004, Table 5.14, 431).
9 PISA 2006,
&
:
9 4
& 39 57 &
%
28 30 &
++$,
459 *
(
%
498 *
).
9 4 &
, *
/
14 *
. /1
/ 9
*
/
*
*
%
%,
*
.
=
*
0
0
(
%
Q D , % 6
%
, Q %
D
Q % \),
/
&
« & % %
/,
, &
, &
9%
9
1
. Q
&
&1
6
D
,
1
(
&
,
&
) &,
*
*
,
/
»
(http://www.ypepth.gr). =&
,
%
–
\ ,
, !
-
9
/ &,
0
.
+
$ , 9
%
PISA 2003,
/%
%
BBC,
9 &
% %
/
9
. «4
,
9*
&
». 4
%
%
: «
&
& &
/
,
%
,
12
6
/ !
+
.
17 413
. }
9
& %
%,
1%» ($ , 2003).
+
%
%
,
*
& %
&,
/
/,
& 1
,
-
/ *
/%
.
& %
& %
&
9
1
&
&. 8
«9
»
/ ,
&
. /
*
/,
/
,
& %
.
"
/
% «
»
,
/.
&
9 9
, 9
/
PISA 2003,
,
&
0 ,
9
*/
9
/, -
1
*
9
-
9
/
%
0,
*%
%
&
%
%
,
,
&
%
/ /,
/
.
C'C'%)&+'
BBC GREEK.com, ; &
" & @
. BBC GREEK.com,
%
, (2003)
=...L., ;
*#
!/%., %
, (2006)
http://www.ypepth.gr/el_ec_page2079.htm
9
, .,. PISA 2000-2003:
%
- .
.6.$.-..L., L
, (2007)
American Institute for Research, Reassessing U.S. International Mathematics Performance-
New Findings from the 2003 TIMSS and PISSA, Washington: U.S. Department of Education
Policy and Program Studies Service, (2005)
IEA, Third International Mathematics and Science Study, TIMSS International Studey
Center Chestnut Hill, M.A: Boston College, (2003).
IEA, Improving Mathematics and Science Education in Countries Around the World-
International Press Conference – Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS 2003), TIMSS International Study Center Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, (2004)
Grønmo & Olsen TIMSS Versus PISA: the Case of Pure and Applied Mathematics
(2006)
Kungah, J. & Haesook, C., The Study of Middle School Students’ Gender Difference in Math
and its Resolution, (2005).
Mullis I., Martin M., Gonzalez E., Chrostowski S., TIMSS 2003 International Mathematics
Report, Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, (2004).
Ruddock G., Glansen-May T., Purple C., Ager R., Validation Study of the PISA 2000, PISA
2003 and TIMSS-2003 International Studies of Pupil Attainment, (2006)
OECD, First Results from PISA 2003-Executive Summary, Paris: OECD, (2004)
OECD, Learning for Tomorrow’s World - First Results from PISA 2003, Paris: OECD,
(2004)
OECD, PISA 2006: Science Competencies for Tomorrow’s World, Vol. 1, (2007).
414 18
To «»
415
416
« 6 586
5~ ;»,
C8
0.
,
% 8
4-,
}
13,. 106 80 %
. kathanas@ecd.uoa.gr
%
&
«
»
& 8 ,
/
&
&%
8
& ,
& ,
&1
&
, .
*
:
&
& 91
/ D
8 %. L
&
% 9
:
•
%
&
9
,
•
% %
*
9
% & 9
,
•
&1
*
9
% & 9
%
•
% & .
%
**
• %
,
•
&
•
%
.
•
, ,
8
,
, &
0
,
/
,
&
,
&.
2.
5
, 65=
8
~
<5
:
"#
%
: ) =&
1
,
8)
&
& 1
%
,
%
%
!
(
5
%
«$
3
*
»:
=&
9
«$55 /»
9
«
0?8?». 4
/ /
*
%
9
% %
%. H
% %
%, 9
%
. 9
9
"
$
:
&
2
&
,
%
*
9
417
,
,
,
.
%
14
.
&
9
% 3
(
%)
3
*.
4
3
* %
.
&
%
3
*
. + &
%
%
&
&
9 9 (Desmond and Moore,
1991).
/&
9
9.
,
,
9
1
*
,
9,
.
..
%
John Gould o
%
&
%
&
9 3
*
"
12
$ (Gould, 1837).
% ,
/
&
1%
/ &
:
&
3
*
% L
,
1
&
8
%
. Q
,
&
&
% /
. Q,
0
#
%
%
1%
/
&
& %
,
/ % L
%
%
&
&, %.
418
1. H
&
/ &
&
,
0
O%/
3
*:
0 &
Lamarck, Q
3
* (
), .
..
2. + 3
*,
%
&
/ /
9
,
D
% %.
3. + 3
*
L
/ / D
%
%,
&
&
G. Wallace &
%/
. 3
O%&
.
%/ % ,
&
#
3
*
Wallace
* %
. 6
,
%
&
O/
*
&,
,
/%
&
/ /.
%
:
x Malthus
*
.
x
Q
3
*
,
&
* % / /,
&
%
/ %
( ' ).
x +
O
/
&
(
, **
, &
,). (J. Howard, 2006).
+ 3
*,
1 Wallace,
9
O
&
9
%
&
/ /,
D
% %.
&
&
%0
. %0,
&
•
%
&
9
,
• 6
% %
*
9
% & 9
, %
• 6
&1
*
9
% & 9
.
• '
% & .
8
9
, 5
8<5 16 8,
9 6 586
'( &'0(.
1. $5
56
6
.
$& 9%,
Barker (1985), «... %
9
9%... N
9% ()
,
Driver ** $ . 75, «+-
D» . 75
9 : 9%
9
«... #
!
! #
$ #
# #
!...».
N %,
& "
9%
. }
/
9
&1
&
,
9
9.
,
,
%,
1
9%
9
,
,
1.
/
& (
)
Mintzes et al (2001)
& 8
9
*1
9
.
&
/,
,
John
9, .&. 9& , & /
%
9
,
,
.
&% /,
/
&
419
/, 9
* %
John
% *
9 %
1
*
-
% &
%
9
1
. 6
9
* %
&
*
1
9.
$5
4
9%
9
1,
9%
9
«
1
»,
& 9
8
.
+
0 %
9 (Aristotle, De
Plantis, in Page et al., 1936): «…
! !
# . ...».
, «...
$ .
#
$ .$, .
! # ...».
3 .
0%
9
1
9
. &
, 9
,
& &,
9 -&
9
.
1
«
», Q
}*,
3
*
( %
%/
/ /
).
8
,
0
,
1
,
*
%
/ 9
*
9
.
4
/
0 8
9
* 9
*
< /
6 6
,
% & #
%
9%
D
.
0
0
/
/%
9
.
%
*
*
9
3
«3. " ». 6 &%
/
%
%
0
9
1
9
9
,
%
*
.
9 %
:
1. +
(
#
)
, ,
D
% (
\
) 9
*
1
. (&% 9
, ,
&%-
9
, .).
2. Q
1%
9,
/, &1
%
. .&. /
.
D
%
&%
,
8
&%
&1
65
5
.
:
%
420
<
«
» (5
)
«»
. ,
,
«
9»
.
3. $
&
* %
=
<
.
4. $
9
&
1,
*
0:
%
65=.
5
.
5. +
9
/
/ % (- /
).
,
9
%
%.
4
%
*
, *
,
9%
Strasburger,
%
: «.../ 1893, Strasburger
(
: " !
75 .. ; , !
,
22
Strasburger;
3.
Mintzes
. (2001)
9
*1
9
*
.
/ John: ($
&
). 4 $
/
%, /, ,
%
9, .&. 9& , &
/
%
9
, ,
.
&% /,
/
&
* %
%
% *
9 %
1
*
-
% &
% 9
1
. 6
9
* %
&
*
1
9.
J: «*
!
$! .
$: « C
.
& [ 9
]
»;
J: «`
$ (
…».
$: «
9 9
60%
40%
&
…
»;
421
J: «60% 40% …
#…70-75% ».
;»
J: « %,
…#
9 #.
!
…».
"%
.
+
%
9
• &
%,
• %
9
9
&
(
.
&
, .).
•
%
&
%,
%
("
)
.
$
%
/
,
9
"%
, 9,
, , ,
&
,
*
.
D .,
, ,
/
9
&
"%,
&
1
1%
. Q&
0
% 0
"%
&
, &
%
*
.
4 /%
/
%
,
9
& %
0
"
. $
%,
&
,
"
, %
1%
6
% 8
.
&
8
%
*
%,/
/
DNA, RNA, t-RNA, %
, ,
9% .
,
%,
,
,
/
, %
,
&
9
1%,
%
9
"%
"
. ("
.
.
, (2004)).
422
*')#): "
.M .
.
*!: *! ! !
!
.
: /:
;
G: «
DNA».
/:
! ;
G: «
!!
! ». $!
. %!
!!
!
+.
!
. +'
!
! .
:N
!X *! !
,
! !
/:
!X ;
G: «
DNA»
/:
;
G: «
$"».
=&
**
9
%
0
D
%, \
8
.
:
x +
.
x +
*
1
.
x +
*
. 6
%
.
9’
1
%
,
9
:
1. }
%
(
0)
.
2. }
*%
/
,
3. }
*%
.
"
8:
-
( .&.
9
%
:
).
,
%
*-
*
#
.
, ,
&, .
4
%
%
/
&
9
O&
. (Modell, et al.(2006).
*
,
&,
. '
:
x
1
.
x }
&
* %
%, %
x
&
(
)
&
O&
.
423
4
9
#
% 9
%
.
%
&
9
. 4
«
»
%
.
",
$ $
.
. %
/
.
,
%/
/
9
%. +
%
, 1
,
&
%
9
1 %
.
&
/
;
6% /
*
%
& * ;
4
&. 4
0
,
&0
*%
, *
%
9%
9
%
%
*% &
%
*%
%
%
9
%
.
C'C'%)&+'
Modell, H., J. Michael and M. P. Wenderoth (2006). The role of Uncovering Misconceptions. The
Amer. Biology Teacher, 67, 20-26).
Mintzes, J.J., Wandersee, J.H. and J.D. Novak (2001). Assessing understanding in biology. Journal
of Biological Education, 35 (3): 118-124.
Desmond, A. and Moore, J. (1991). Darwin. London, UK. Michael Joseph.
Rees A. P. (2007). The evolution of textbook misconceptions about Darwin. JBE, 41, 53-55.
Gould, J. (1837). Mr. Darwin’s collection of birds, a series of Ground Finches, Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London, 5: 4-7.
Howard, J., (2006).
, #$
. /* >A%/& #
.
"
.
. (2004). 0
"# "
# '
*
. «4 @ ; # $ 6.
&
. / #
&
».
.
424
05 $8 /8
$565
: 0
8
/
? <
/
08
$& % *
04
D
25, 11471, %
Email: eleni.danili@gmail.com
$59
4
%
/
*
1
&
9
/
. 4
*%
-*%
,
% %
. 4
9
, **
, &
.
+ %
9
%
%,
1
/ %
&
.
%
&
&
3
% D
"
*
9%
%. $
%
1
:
) 9 9
%
9
*) 9
%
/
/
"
*
&
%
& %.
0
&
-
&
/
%
%
&
%
. 4 /’
, /
/ -
%
% %
/
. + %
% %
&
%
,
/
&%
. H %
% %
/
0
/. C
,
%
/
,
/
/
&
%
%
% %
&
%0
;
/ *
1
9
&
1
%. $9
’
%
&
,
[]
&
/
%
&
1
(Biggs, 1996). 4 %
/ ,
&
%
1
&
(- ). H (Ramsden, 1987) 1
&
%
*
&
%. $
Danili
Reid (2005) /
\
9%
&
/
/ . 3
9 9
/ /1
1
425
9 /-
. "
%
% %
/
1
1
,
,
. $
/1
.
; "
&
%
9
/ #. . 4
*%
-*%
,
% % .
9
&
. + 6
9 &
: A
. !
!. H
&
%
&
/
.
9
: «6% 9%
/
/ ; (Entwistle and Entwistle, 1992)». «
/ %
0
;
&
; 6
%
9 9
, &
9 %
*
; (Kyoko 1997)»
Q
**
&
*
0
u. +
Unger (1993)
‘ #
’ *%
&
*
‘
’ & ‘
’.
&% 9
/
Bloom (1956),
&%
1
%
/ &
&
%
,
*1
9
%
(Johnstone, 2003). Q Bloom (1956)
/
&. + Biggs (1996)
&
1
* &
%
/
Bloom
/ SOLO.
4
/
SOLO &
&
‘Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes’
‘
$ @!
$
$ %’
9
/
&
. + Biggs (
1) 9
/
%
&
&
. $
1 9
9
.
1 2 3 4 5
$ $
6 6
426 2
$
I
/
SOLO
1 : 5-
(Prestructural): \
,
%
&
*
(
% &
%
).
2 :
-
(Unistructural)
%
1,
%
&
%
&
% (
D
%).
3 : =-
(Multistructural)
, 9,
9,
1,
/. 6
&
&
(
%
*
)
4 : < (Relational): $
,
* ,
/
(1
),
,
&1,
9
1.
9
, %
9
% %
(
&).
D 5 : 8
5 (Extended abstract):
L, ,
,
1
. 4
&
O&
0
9 ,
.
+ %
9
9
0
&
%
,
/
9
/
%
0
/. !
%
9
/
SOLO
%
9
.
*
/ ; $
9
9
%
,
&
&
9
3
% D
"
*.
5
+ %
3 9 &
0
&
9 9
%
0. + Egan
‘
$!$ #. $’. + Egan (1972)
1 3 9
(Centre for Structural Communication)
Kingston-upon Thames
/
**
%.
3
427
+ %
9
%
/
1
/ %
%
% ,
&
/
, &
#
$ #. (Johnstone, 2003). $
9
/ 9
1
9%
1
%
9
% &
9
%
. $
(
9
&
) &
.
&
, /, , &,
, ,
,
&.
%
1
9
.
&1
%
%-
%
(Johnstone, 2003).
%
%
9
/ %
% %
% /
%
%
%
. + %
*
&
9
% & %. 4
% %
%. +
%
% & & &
* %
,
&
1
% % %
&
1
&
&
%
9
%
%
.
H
&
.
% %
%
&
. =&
/
(Johnstone, 2003):
I.+
%
* & 9
&,
%
*
( % ).
II.+
%
*
& & 9
& 9,
*
.
III.+
%
* % & 9
1 &
9,
*
.
IV.+
%
& 9
*
& 9
*
%
%
3
%
%
3
*
(3/3)- (0/6) =
1
428 4
%
%
2
*
(2/3)- (0/6) =
0,7 (
*
% )
%
%
*
(2/3) - (1/6) = 0,5.
+
%
/
*
(3/3) - (6/6) = 0
$9
, *
+1, 0 -1. $
&
*
. "
1
& *
5. $
% *
/ 10
0.
*
%
&
/
*
*%
%
.
&1
. "
/
"
(
12 )
& 12
(4
x 3 % 3 x 4) &
&
&. "
'
(
16 &)
16
.
& &
20
9
. + %
9
&
&
& &
9
&
% % %
/
(Danili and Reid, 2005; Chen, 2004).
$
1
3,
%
Chen (2004)
%
*% ,
% "
*,
3
% D
. 3
3
*
*
"% % (General Science course)
/
"
(Junior High School)
*
D
%.
"
%
% / &%
.
&
%. \% 9 .
5
429
1. / %
%
9*
%
1.
2. / %
%
&
.
3. / %
&
%.
$
2
9
%
,
%.
$
2
5 $
%("=262)
05 1 ( 8
: 5. 4, 5, 6, 9
H
% 26
% 15
3
% 14
4
3
16
N 22
05 2 ( 8
: 5. 2, 7 %("=262)
H
% 40
6
% 15
H 18
3
5
6
%
7
15
05 3 ( 8
: 5. 8 %("=262)
$%
18
$%
24
% 32
%
26
430 6
$5
2: 5 55
$
&
9 . $
&
& (
8). +
&
9
: (Fe), &
(Cu), (H2O), (sand)
G, R, X
Y. H
&
,
%
%
9
&. $
9
&%
%
.
"
%
% / &%
.
&
%. \%
9 . \
/
.
1. $ %
8 &
8
1;
2. $ %
&
%
;
3. $ %
&
1
;
4. $
*
;
$
3
9
%
,
%. $
9
&
%
% 1
4.
$ 1
&%
Q = m .3.c,
/
&
%.
2
6,
/
8
9.
*
45%
. H
(38%) /
% 8
9. 4 4 1
/
&
&
. + %
&
*
Q = m.3.c. 4 %
%
(
1 9).
%
%
,
. 6 29%
, 6%
, 0,4%
0
64,6%
0
.
7
431
$
3
5 %("=262)
05 1( 8
: 5. 2, 6
H
% 45
6
% 9
% 38
N 8
05 2 ( 8
: 5. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 %
H
16
0
34
0
% 26
0
%
4
0
%
14
N 6
05 3 ( 8
: 5. 3, 9 %
H
% 32
6
% 6
% 29
3
10
6
%
7
N 16
05 4 ( 8
: 5
%
H
29
0
0,4
6
0
64,6
0
4 &
9%
%
9
. 4 9
& &
/
%,
**
*
,
%
- %
%,
%
% &
9/
%
&
&
9
‘
% ’.
&
/
%
% %
9
%
0
&
%
9
9
(
-),
&
/
,
/
.
4
/
-
*
9
. \
6 (2000)
9
*
*
&
,
’
.
**
&
%
1%,
*
%
, &
/
%
0 (Greer, 2001). $
/
&
,
,
*
. $
/
9 Perry,
(1970)
0
%
/
:
,
/ 9
,
%
. Q
%
9
/
&
&
432 8
%
%
.
9
/
9
%
/ .
:
/ %
% ,
1
& .
4 &
% 1
1
9
&%
-
9
/
%
9
% * . + %
9 *
%
*
&
%.
C568
658
1. 6 . (2000) + 9
. (9
) %
9
433
« 5 5=, 8
»
H
1
3
%
*
/
&
*
.
+ &
0 3
% D
%
-
6
3
– $
', 9
&
9
9 &
9
*
9
9
. +
&
1
%
&
1-
&%
/
&%
%
9%
+
%
&%
. +
%
%
/
9
*
.
91
/
9
. $
&
/
9
%
-
&
&%
*
*
-
100 0C
.
% &1 /
-
/
9
0
%
(
&
&). $
1
-
0
/
9
*
.
&%
%
& 9
%
9
%
1%
9
*
1
* 0
*. H
& . 4
9
(
), *
0 /. +
% 1
&
/
1-
. $
&
-
9
,
1
/
& * 0
9
.
%
% .
434
L
%
&
%
.
&%
%
%
%
& 9
% 9
&
-
9
%
. 6
«
»
%
%
% &
/ -
.
*
%. $
&
-
&
%
*1
9
9
&
9
*
.
H
9
«
»
-
& &
-
%
9 / (
&
,
&
),
(
, &
/
)
% ( %
0
*
/ % ).
/%
-
. 4 *
%
(
,
/….)
9
*%
%
&
%
%
&
&
0
%
. H
-
%
9
%
«
»
«
» %
%
9
9
.
+
%
*%
,
%
-
/&%
. 3
«»
5=
<
5-
&%
%
&%
9
.
& 9
9
. H
0
%
, *
-
%
9
9
.
-
%
,
,
&
-
0
0
&
9
/1
.
435
+
&
&% 1
/
9
. +
%
%
9
%
% -
.
*
&
/,
%
100 C
:
&
\1
%
' ……..
H
/
% %
1%
0
/ 9
. + /%
*
*
’
%
%.
+
%
6
*
:
9 %
9
9
&
9 3
9 3
/
9 &
%
.
9 4
%
%
6
%
!
9 \%
&
*
*
.
&%
9
-
.
436
437
438
% %( ),'
!
<
8
5
%
.
%
%
&
0
Laplace
9
%
,
«
»
$ ’ -
9 %- % (
%)
*
% 3
.
&
%
,
%
.
&
Michael Faraday
0
9
‘’
%
%’’, impetus
Buridan, %
18
«
& *»,
Benjamin Franklin 4
& & 6
,
/
&
0 %
1930
%
.
,
8
"
;
,
&,
%.
%
, &,
% 9
%.
9
%
&1
9
%
. "
-
-
% , , %,
1,
,
9
. 4 /, /0
, 9%,
&
9
%
.
9
&
/ 9
,
9
$
-
&
1%
%
1 «(
#"
».
:
&1
« +G=\!+=»
0. $9
%
«
»
&
&
& !!
'
'
'
.
}
, ,
&
«
9%
».
%
%
«
#"
»
-
% *
*
& %
,
%
9
. +
&
5 +,
9
9
%
9
, &
%
,
%
,
&%
, 9
%
.
&
; L
,
&,
*%
%
; 3
. "
**
$
.
“!
”. ( |$ ?, / % ?,
2004).
**
*
8'
$ ;
&
&
&
1
.
&
&
&
.
1
439
3
/
0
1
-% % 0,
,
,
&
%
&
.
&
9 / /
& . «A |
&
&
9
1
.
$
,
*
& % 0
.
0
9
.
%
.
&
. &% 9
%
.
.
Q
& %
& 9
1
D=$!+ (Wolpert, 1992)
}!!L6}+ $+} +!}+ }+=
( Cromer, 1993).
: &1
%
''
.
\1
,
%,
- -
1%
&. +9
-
-
&
O
' *
'.
$ «
*» ,
*
,
)
«
9
»
-
-
*) % -
-
1
%.
C8 5<8
}
, ,
&
«
9%
».
%
. .
1. 4
% 0 . 4 9
*
&
1.
2. $ *
$0 O&
. +
: &
«
»
«
(
3.
1
%
%
, &
**
&
/
&%
%
.
0 '*& 8:
A
( $
$
,
$
!.
440 2
!" #$%-+'!" ('( $"0"'0( 010(0'( (#"+0' (
($&%C',() $&%(0))'(( ( +#(',( (% #,0'%
(8 5 )
$0&'-
$
% /
1
&
, &
,
9 '
(
&).
()& %
,
09
9
&
% (
)
*
&
, 9%,
, ( ) &
% .,
%
&
%
/
&
%.
4
1% %
9
.
1% * ,
&
«D
%»,
%
&
%.
6
1
%
-
09
1
% / D
%
2004.
4
1%
%
%
D
% ' (
*
) &
&1
** ,
,
&%
%.
4
0 &
/
&
(
)
&
*
', *%
D
%.
0
$
% /
1
&
, &
,
9 '
(
&).
5
96
& ,
5 8
1
*
/
*
, ,
9
&
. 4 %
*
%:
&
*
*
,
&%
%
9
%
&
,
%
/
/
*
%
/.
()& %
, , &,
09
9
&
% (
)
*
-
&
, 9%
9
-
%
training % «
» doping, ( )
&
% . 4
*
%
%
&
%
/
&
%. 4
&
-
&
,
% % /
«&
%
», *
%
&
9
9
*
.
=
5
%, &
%
,
&
.
85
%
9
1%
9
%
* ,
&
«D
%». 4
1%
%
&
%.
5
% (% ") / D
%
09
&
(
9 **
9
):
6 5 ( 9% %) &
.
6
=5 ( 9% %) &
, %
/
/
%.
6 5
( 9% 9
%) &
, , ,
&.
6 85
( 9% * %
% ) &
/
%
* .
/
%
1383
.
/
300
(
22%
).
&
L%
& %
2004.
+
&
9
.
5 (
% / 2004)
4 (:
')
$
%
% 9
1
M=10 kg
R=0,1 m
&
,
&
%
9 μ μ9=0,56.
&% % t=0 1
9
&
&
μ
=8 m/s.
}
9
:
4 (=
*
)
4 (
' *)
3
:
%
9
/
&
:
2
I= M .R 2 2
5
442
&
*
: g = 10 m/s .
85 5
.K 1 (*! 4 - I )
70
60
50
4
: %
40
4*
4
30
4
20
10
0
0 (1-2) (3-4) (5-6 7)
:!
05 4-:
%
&
9% &% % t=0.
60
58,24
50
cm (0)
cm (0) =*0 R *0
: %
80 rad / s 40
35,1
R
30
10
3,55
%
3,11
&, : 0
05 4-:
&
1
.
3
443
1 5:
0 HWDMRULN : M g KPM T M acm (1) ½
°
6WURMLN : R I cm D JZQ (2) °
2 °
I cm M R (3)
2
°
5 °
¾ acm 4m / s 2
D JZQ
acm
(4) °
R °
°
°
°¿
2 5:
0 HWDMRULN : T M g KPM M acm (1) ½
°
6WURMLN : - R I cm D JZQ (2) °
2 °
I cm M R (3)
2
°
5 °
¾ acm 4 m / s 2
D JZQ
acm
(4) °
R °
°
°
°¿
3 5:
6WURMLN .QKVK J UZ DS WR VKPH R (SDM 9 P ½
(GHQ XS UFHL MRU 9 SHULVWURM 9 ) : °
°
6W P I P D JZQ W W x ( P ) W W y ( P ) W T ( P ) W N ( P ) I P D JZQ (1) °
°
X PZ9 W W y ( P ) 0, W T ( P ) =0, W N ( P ) =0 (2) °
°°
(1)
: M g KPM R I P D JZQ (1c ) ¾ acm 4m / s 2
2 7 °
I P I cm M R 2
MR MR2 2
M R (3)
2
°
5 5 °
acm °
D JZQ (4) °
R °
°¿
5 4- :
.K 3 (4 - I )
60
54,2
50
40
: %
30
20
18,7
15,1
12
10
0
0 (1-2) (3-4) (5-6 7)
:!
4
444
9
«%
»
0
9%
9% , &
9
&%
&
.
: =&
&
&% /;
05 4-:
* % 9%
% .
5
445
! 5 8
5 ~:
dL ½
( °
dt °
( Wx Wy N T °
°
° dL kg m 2
X* Wx =0, Wy 0, ¾ 1,6
° dt s2
N 0 T T R °
°
°
°¿
dL ½
( °
! 5 6: dt °
( Wx Wy N T °
°
° dL kg m 2
X* T =0, Wy 0, ¾ 5,6
° dt s2
N 0 Wx W x R °
°
°
°¿
5 4- :
.K 4 (4 - I )
60
50,3
50
40
: %
30,2
30
20
11,5
10 8
0
0 (1-2) (3-4) (5-6 7)
:!
05 4-
:
&
1
*
, %
&
0 (30/)
9.
6
446
05 4-
( ):
1 5:
Z Z 0 D JZQ t (1) ½
°
1 °
'T Z0 t D JZQ t 2 (2)
2 °
30 °°
'T N 2S 2S 60rad (3)¾ (2) t1 1s t 2 =3s
S °
acm °
D JZQ 40rad / s 2 (4) °
R
°
X cm Z R (5) °¿
* 5
5?
, 8
55
=
=
<8
(1) NDL (5) , ~
cm 4m / s.
2 5:
½
X cm X cm ,0 acm t (1) °
°
1 °
s X cm ,0 t acm t (2)
2
¾ (2) t1 1s t 2 =3s
2 °
30 °
s N 2S R 2S R 6m (3)°
S ¿
* 5
5?
, 8
55
=
=
<8 (1) , ~
cm 4m / s .
3 5:
9
1
&% 3
% 6&
%
:
.
. .
.
U .
.
.
.
.
.
U
.
.
½°
. ¾
U . 0 °¿
1 1 1 1
m2
I
2
m I
mgh
2 2
2 cm,0 2 cm 0 2 cm 2 cm
h s 6 0, 56 3,36m
= cm ,
R
cm 4m / s.
5 4-
:
.K 5 (4 - I )
60
53,8
50
40
:%
30
20,9
20
14,2
11,1
10
0
0 (1-2) (3-4) (5-6 7)
:!
7
447
(< ( 5 4-
):
\
/
%.
\
«
»,
«
».
9
1
&% &
(3 – }).
$
%
(
&
).
(=
9: 0
…
6 &%
9% ($
9).
6 &% % 9 9% .
6&
%
% /
–
.
' (
% )
9%
* %
(4-).
&
, &% & /.
\% 9
% (s
3x).
(3 = } 2).
& % /.
/.
5!
4
9
<55
1%
<55~ 8 = (
%
),
=
/;
= ( 5
):
.K 6 (+
J
.& ))
70
60 61
50
: %
40
30
20 22
10 10,4
6,6
0
(0-10) (10-15) (15-18) (18-20)
:!
(=5
:
70
: %
60
50
40
30
20 :!
10
0
(0-10) (10-15) (15-18) (18-20)
8
448
+
9
9
,
9
/
2%, 9
% , &
9
0
%
/
&
/.
"
9
9
%
,
Q
,
*
9
,
%
1
& *
%
,
9
1
.
%
&
.
4
%,
&%
9,
% %
% , &
%
/
&,
%
%
9
,
. L
, ,
9
% %
*
0
&%
9
%
%
&.
H
,
9
,
& %.
$&%( $&%(0))'((
&%
(#$0&(:
%
9
:
+
% 9
5
+5-(<-
(=.
5<
6
/ 5 58
$
.
9
5 685
%
.
D
, &
**
PISA.
9
449
0
6
8 :
: %
%
* «
» *
,
«
» *
. '
'.
10
450
/'/,', 1'%$%'( !" '/0!" !" !"
(% $'('% 0+&%)( /'/,',( $&%(( 0 '%:
«$
< 5 85;»
D
, \ 6&
,
0%9
3
% D
,
%
\
/
,
%
, %
\
%
**
%
0,
%
9 & «
1»
/
,
. ,
%
/
%,
9.
4
912
12-16 ,
9
6
D
% \
2004-2007.
1. 4
%
: «
%
&
;»
-‘}(
!: 4 *
%
9
%
: «
%
&
;»
9
9
&1
/
9
% ,
9
9
, &
. C /
&
%
&
% . &
%
1
,
9 % .
#
: $
%
9%
«
%
-
».
,
,
*%
9%, * % o
,
1%
(
, 2004).
@
#: 4
%
9
9
, 6
D
% \
}* 2004-6 2008.
$
&
%
1000 ,
,
. 4
9
9%
9
%
.
@
: 4
%
*%
9
:
i) , ii) (L
&
& %
- ), iii)
1
; iv) 8
*
(3
%&
) v) & 9
(
% 9
), vi)
/
(4 %
%
), vii) 1
1; (N
-$
%-3
%), viii)4 /
9
(8
% ) ix) Q
(6
9
% ), x) &
(
–
2. 4
&
&
%
6 &
*
,
%
& %. +
%
: 1)
%&
,
9
/; 2)
%&
,
%
; 3)
%&
,
%&
%&; 4)
%&
,
%& 9
; 5)
%&
, &
&
*
; 6)
%&
,
*
; 7)
,
%; 8)
451
,
*
; 9) +
& *; 10) +
1; , %
; 11) =&
&;
+ &
%
10-15 . 1
%
,
% *
,
,
«
»
%
.
% &
&
%
&
.
3.
912
&
&
\
(82%), '*
(16%)
'%
(2%)
9
6
}* 2004- +* 2007. +
&
’ 3 4%, $’ 3 5%,
’ "
7%, 8’ "
25%, "’ "
44%,
/
/' 7%
/
'
9%.
4. Q
&
%
/
%
4.1.
4.1.1.
9
«
9
;»
%
: «
%&
,
9
/;».
16%
912
11-18 &
«
/
9». 9
1
/ 20%
’"
25%
’ 3. C, 9
17% / 8’
"’ "
, 16% /
'
11% /
'
.
9
9
" " ! (
2004, .17,
Phillips, W.C. 1991). 4 0
0 *
0
9
«
/
9
%
»,
2%
.
4.1.2. /
9
)
*%
%
}
.
%
,
9
&
9
.
&
%
&1
«
/
9
%
,
%&
». "
9%
: « ,
&
, 9 9
%
9;»
*) *
*,
9
9, 1971,
%
11.
, ,
%
,
,
9
9,
&
,
,
9
1.
)(9
):$
8’
"’ "
,
/
'
'
,
1%: (i) =*
: « 9
«
»
%
9 ;» +
%
&1
, *
« 9 *
», « 9
% ,
/
% »,
,
,
: « 9
,
&
» (ii)3
*1
%
}
/
$ % 9%
*
9
" (Segrè, 2001) (iii) 9
9
$ % «
9 9 », %
&
. "
1
4 * %
%, ,
&
0
*
,
9
,
9
&
&
%
}
". ,
9
%
}
%
9
&%
1%.
452
, 9
* «
1 9
»,
&
0
&
.
4.2.
4.2.1. «=&
&;»-
31%
912
&
&, 37%
. 15%
&
, &
2%
/
%
& %
9
.
% «&» (
&
)
31%, 32% & 28%
&
8’, "’ "
/
'
.
&
46% ’ "
44% /
'.
«
» (
&
)
38% / 8’
"’ "
47%
/
'
44% /
'.
% «
/ & » (
&
,
& ),
&
18%
17%
&
"’ "
/
'
, 9
1
5%
2%
&
8’ "
/
'.
% «
%
/
9
» (
&,
%
& /
/,
9
)
&
3%, 4%,
2%
0%
&
8’, "’ "
, /
'
/
'
.
4
%
,
&1
,
% &
/
.
4.2.2. 3
%
/
0 & 9
%
+ &
& % &
,
&
9 %:
- 4
1%
,
. "
/
1
9 9
, "
% &%
,
.
- 6
/
9 &
9
.
- 17
1%
1
.
- + %
9 & &
9
0
. Q,
3
&
(Kirk , 1998, .411-415). +
0
% 9
9
(
D
, 213a-218a). + "
9* /
9
9
, &
&%
&1
/%
(IMSS, 1999). + Torricelli
/,
%
17
von Guericke
Boyle
0,
9
(Holton&Brush 2002, . 384-5). &%
& 9
%
1
0
. +
9*
/
(Balibar 1977, .144-148).
» &
, 4%
9 &
«
9
/
*
»
«
/
» 3%. 11%
9 «
. 6
91
%,
%& *
»,
1
/
0
0 *
.
«» «»
$: Q
,
5%
,
«
%
,
».
&
11% ’ "
, 4
453
&
**
9
9
9
1
(Séré 1985).
4.3.2. /
4 /
%
%
%
: «
%
&
;». Q,
%
!
/
, /
" " !
. 4
«
»
«
», !
,
9
.
4.3.3. $
« 1
1;»-
4
Torricelli
9
. /
2,
9 &
1 «
» (Torricelli 1644) . &
Torricelli
9
,
9
% .
%: «
…..
%&
….,
0
……..,
%&……….»
4.4. +
& *;
4.4.1.
6
/
’ 3 &
/
'
& *. $
40%
912
& *, 2%
& « &»
*.
,
,
«
& *»
&
50%.
«
& *»
"’
"
,
& 32%
/
'
,
& 36%. ,
& $’ 3 &
/.
&
«
& *» $’
3
"’ "
, 9
, &1
9
%
&
& / % & % & /.
4
«
& *» &
9 **
9
(Hapkiewicz
1999, Henriques 2000,
2004, .32).
4.4.2. /
«
& *»- $
%
H
«
& *» &1
«
O »
«& 1
»,
9
**
9
(Hapkiewicz 1992, Henriques 2000).
9
%0
1
%&
&
& 1
(
, D
% 3, 216b-217a,
309a, 311a).
H /
: «
& *»,
%
/
%.
/
Torricelli.
Torricelli %
1%
, &
%
,
9
* %
4.5. +
1; , %
;
4.5.1.
*
:
7%
912
«
1
».
/
',
&
15%
3
&
17%
20%
&
. 27%
«
2
, 9
&
0 760 mm
454
1 ».
«
1 %
»
50%
912
.
9
30% /
3 (29%
27% 8’
"’ "
&
). 2%
9
«
1
0». +
%
*
/
8’ "
. , 2%
9
«
1,
*
».
A !
!
:
9
% 3%
9
1
/ «» !
, 9
&1
% &% /.
Q, 2%
«
1
%
/
%
/
/
9».
$
$ #
$ &% **
9
9
% ,
(Henriques 2000).
4.5.2.3
%
/ 9
&1
*
9
%
4
«
1
»,
*%
6
*
. 3
9
%
&
,
%
,
&
,
9
%
(Glashow 1994, pp. 160-164). 6
%
9
% *
.
4.5.3. /
9
«
»
4 /
9
#
.
4.6. 4 «/
9»
*
4.6.1.
9%
%
«
%&
,
;» 27%
912
«
%&
,
%
».
30% /
3,
21% /
'
. +
% 9
9 /
9
(Séré 1985).
8%
«
»,
%&
.
, 23%
9
1
.
:
- 4%
,
%&
. 4
1
&
& *
(
2004, .17, Phillips, W.C. 1991).
- 9%
«
%&/
/
9
1
/
&
,
%&
».
- 2% «
&
&
»,
,
, &
.
- 3% «
/
1,
». 6
9
1
1
1
&%
%
.
- 5% «
/
1
/
*
1/
,
%&
»
9
%
9
% . +
%
9
«*
&
% »
, ,
.
, 22%
/ 1%
,
9
«
1
0
/
». $
&
9
0
&
/
, 2%
9
& /
.
4.6.2. 3
%
/
;!
! !: H 9
&
9
9
%
455
9
% .
9%
,
,
«
/
9
*
»
&
*
, &
. ,
*,
,
1
/
*1
1. ,
/
&,
*
&, /
*1
.
,
%
&
, ,
, &
*
, & *
9
,
%
%
% . C,
%
*
&
% 1%, *1
100°,
*1
. ,
*
&,
# $
,
%
«&
»
«
*1
%
&%»
&
.
&
!
#.: ,
*
9
%
&
. Q, 91
& 9 %,
%
&
%.
/
%&
».
- 10%
«
».
- 5%
«
/
%
/
%&
/
/ 9».
- 3%
9
«
».
- 3%
«
&
*
».
- 4%
9 «
/
/
9 *
».
, 4%
«
» &
.
, 3%
9
1
«
».
$ .
: 7%
9
9
9%
«
1
/
/
/
»
%
9
% .
%
/
.
& !/
/ $:
14%
912
«
%&
,
/
%& *
»,
1
/
0
0 *
. 1%
9
«
/
» % «
91
. 4
«
»
&1
&
&
%
% .
+
9
1
. , 1%
9
*
,
3.
3
%
&
&
%.
,
1
&
%
,
,
**
& %
%
. 3 &
, ,
456
4.7.2. /
4 /
%
,
*
&
% ,
& %
9,
«
9
».
%: «
9
, &
9
%/
’
;».
A
:
,
&
% ’
,
, «
9
,
». ,
&
«
». $
&
&
9
9
.
: «
9 9;». 6
&1
0
,
. "
«
»,
/% .
6
*
%
/
%
1
&
0
,
%
&%
&
.
;
!: 4
&
*
,
&
*
1
% ,
.
;!
:
% «
;»,
0 *
0
,
, &
/
,
.
4.8.
/
4.8.1. «
,
%;» -
A
: 912
, 29%
«
%
%&/
/
&
/
/
9
1
,
%&
.
, 6% «
%
».
A
«#/
» : 32%
%
1 & . $
, 12%
9
«
%
», 9%
%
%, 5%
«
9/
& 9/
9
/
9
1
», 6% «
%
*».
/
: 2%
9 «
%&
,
,
%
9
%
». $
*
&
9
/
. +
9
%
. 1%
«&
,
%
9
/
9
/
». $
%
9
&%
%.
#: 4%
% «
%
9%/
1/
9/
1 &
/
».
%
&
,
&
» 9
& 9 %. +
,
«%
»
%
& -
%& ,
.
,
/
,
, 9
%
1 &%
&
, 9
1
/ 9
0
* 0
.
& ’
,
%
«» * 9
457
;!
: 4
,
,
Faraday,
%
18
.
%
/ &
0
%
0. 4
,
4.9. 8
*
4.9.1. «
%&
,
%&
%&;»-
74% 912
«
&/
& %& &
».
18%
%&
%&
%
9. $
:
- 3% &
«
%&
%&,
/
9
’
/
/
».
- 2% «
%&
%&,
%
&
&
»
- 1% &
, « %&
%
%
», 9
1
9
%
, 9
*
1
.
- 1% «
%&
& %&/ %&
» % «
%&
%&/ %&».
- 14% «
%&
%&/
%&
%&/
%&
%&
&
», 1% «
%&
%&/
%&
%&».
, 1%
, «
%& %&
»,
1
9
. +
%
%
’3, ’"
/
'
,
& /: 3%, 3%
1%
&
.
4.9.2. /
%
/
+
&
%& %&,
&
&
& 9
D
%,
&
%
&
. 4 /
%&
* ,
/
&
,
%
/%
9 %.
A #$ $
.
$
Boyle…
,
,
&
,
%&
1. 6
&
4,
9
«
» . \
%
%
%&
. 3
,
&
, ,
9
, %&
’
%. 3
*
,
*
,
(Conant 1966, pp.33-38).
% # : 4
%
9
%,
& %& &
. , ,
,
%
0
; ,
9,
%
,
**
9, & %
,
*
0&,
& * %
;
4.10. D
&
;
4
3
458
4.10.1. «=& 9
&
;»-
72%
912
9
«
/ 9
&
».
,
9
« 9
&1
/
».
%
9
1
&
’ 3
’
"
,
&
43%
40%
& /,
0 "’ "
/
'
,
&
&
81%
78%.
13%
9
«
/ 9
&
». +
%
8’ 3
37%
/.
1%
«
/ 9
&
,
9
*
/
/ / 9
». , 0,3%
«
/ 9
&
,
*% 9».
%
9
,
%
.
%
(0,3%) &
9
«&,
9
»,
1
«&,
&
9
/
/
’
0».
%
,
«&,
&
» 9
&
9
9
,
/
/
. ,
/
.
4.10.2. 3
%
/
%
$
%
,
&
9
&
/
.
D
,
9
&
9
. "
/
%.
,
9
,
&1
: 6
9
&%
Boyle, &%
1660
9
9
,
&
. 4
*%
Boyle &
0 «9» ,
&
/ 9
. 6
,
0
&%,
%
1%
9
9,
/
(Boyle
1661).
4.12. &
4.12.1. «
%&
,
%
&
*
;»-
39%
9
1
& &
&
,
%&
. $
: 16%
9
1
&
&
*
,
14% 9
1
&
*
1
,
, 7% 9
1
/
5% 9
1
&
%
/.
1%
9
%&
*
/
.
6% 9
1
«
9
», «/
/
&
/
9// &». 16%
9
*
%
«& /
9
% /
% /
9
», 1% 9
1
« / /
9
% /». , 16%
9
%
.
4.12.2. 3
%
/
%
$
%,
«
/
», &
,
9
/ 9
%
,
*
9
,
*%
%
%. ,
/
,
9
%
9
.
459
*%
/
1
%
: «&
9
»
1
*
"
$ % (61 1960). 4
91 Tyndall
&%
19
(Tyndall Center).
8*
9
%
1, 3 , .411-415
61,., 1960: D
%, II, L-+%, 8* «
», Q
3
, %
D.,
, ., 6
/%, .: 2004: «
%
&
;
/
%
D
6
D
% \
».
$ 9 8.,
.,
6. (.), @ 4 @
;
#
$ 6. &
. / #
&
, ’, ,
%
2004, .243-250.
Phillips, W.C. 1991, Earth Science Misconceptions, Science Teacher Feb'91 pp 21-23.
http://homepage.mac.com/vtalsma/syllabi/2943/handouts/misconcept.html
Segrè E.,1997: !
D
%, B’, .24-39, 3
, %
.
Séré, M.G., 1985: 4
. $ Driver,R., Guesne,E., Tiberghien,A.1993: «+
9
%» Q % D
, &
, .153-179
Torricelli, E., 1644: “Letter to Michelangelo Ricci concerning the Barometer” In William Francis
Magie, A Source Book in Physics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935
Tyndall Centre, Who was John Tyndall?,
http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/general/history/john_tyndall.shtml
460
Primary-Aged Children’s Misconceptions of Industry and its Relationship with Science
What do English primary children think of industry and its relationship with science?
Joy Parvin, Gayle Pook, Chemical Industry Education Centre, University Of York
The Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC) at the University of York, UK, has been gathering
and analysing data on children’s perceptions of science-based manufacturing for over 10 years. Initial
data collection was via semi-structured interviews with 9-11 year old children and their teachers, both
before and after the project intervention (described below). Using the data analysis form the
interviews, questionnaires were designed to collect further data from children and teachers. Over the
years, these questionnaires have been continually modified and adapted to meet the evaluation needs
of the project. The project intervention is Children Challenging Industry, which consists of:
x an advisory teacher teaching enquiry-based science to one class of 9-11 year olds in each
participating school, using ‘stories’, or contexts, from industry
x in-service training session for all members of staff in each school
x a visit to a chemical or similar manufacturing company, tailored to meet the curriculum needs of
that age group
x training for each company offering site visits, to enable effective and relevant visits to take place.
In addition, a longitudinal study has been carried out, to find out what children think of both
science and industry, 5 years after their involvement in the project; and to find out whether teachers
still used the approach with classes in their schools.
This session will present a brief overview of the methodology and the findings from these various
studies, and how the project has evolved as a result of the research carried out. Statistical data will be
presented, as well as children’s drawings of industry, and pertinent quotations from children and their
teachers.
Current Practice in Terms of Changing the Rather Negative Perceptions that Young Children
Hold of Science-Based Industries
Linking primary school science with industry in the UK
Joy Parvin, Gayle Pook, Chemical Industry Education Centre, University Of York
Joy Parvin and Gayle Pook work for the Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC), based at the
University of York in the UK. The CIEC has been involved in the development of contextualised
teaching materials for the past 20 years and now employs a team of advisory science teachers that
provide stimulating science lessons for schools in the north of England. The advisory teachers also
deliver in service training directly into schools and through the National Science Learning Centre
Network.
In this workshop you will have the opportunity to try out some of the ideas that are inspiring young
scientists to continue their science education. There will be examples of enquiry based investigations
that tackle real problems based on those encountered in product research and manufacture. Combining
a context led and investigative approach to the teaching of science motivates children and helps them
to explore their understanding of the concepts involved.
461
x enhance communication skills
x exemplify the links between science and industry to facilitate understanding and change
perceptions about the role of science.
All of the activities included will be enquiry based and include elements of planning, carrying out
and evaluating their findings.
Links to literacy, numeracy and ICT are easily made through this approach and will be flagged up
throughout the workshop.
462
«» !" !" )' 0&%,&(' ,' 0&% ,'
/'/,', %#( "'0!$'(
6&
% $
, 3 (.3. 407/80) ..3..
$0&'-
9
,
9
%0
9
& % &% 9
-
% . 4
: (
)
-
%
%0
-
, (*)
% /
()
. +
% *
**
9%
9
%0
%
%
&
. 4
% /
, &
&
9
% /
&
. 4
%
. 3
9
*
&
&
&
.
0'()!)
&
9 3
% D
& *
%0
(Driver, Guesne &
Tiberghien, 1985¬ Pfundt & Duit, 1994). 4 %
&
*
(Driver & Oldham, 1986¬ Glynn, Yeany & Britton,
1991).
,
9
,
9
9
%0 (Erickson, 1979, 1980¬ Engel,
1982¬ Kesidou & Duit, 1993¬ Tiberghien, 1980,1985). +
%0
9
0 & % &% 9
-% .
,
&
&
*
*
0
%0
(Arnold & Millar, 1996¬
Harrison, Grayson & Treagust, 1999¬ Linn & Songer, 1991¬ Thomaz, Malaquias, Valente & Antunes,
1995).
*
&
,
/
%0
%. 6
%
%0,
**
9
, &
%
O&
0%
9%
(Arca & Caravita 1993¬ Bednarz & Garnier, 1989¬
Giordan & De Vecchi, 1987¬ Johsua 1989, Monteil 1989).
* %
9
/
%0 (Astolfi & Peterfalvi,
1993). 4
%
&
%0
,
*
0
0
9%
«&
9%»
%0
9
'
/
*,
. 4
0, &
&
%
’
%0. +
%0
,
,
«
%
»
463
&
9
9
3.
&
3
,
,
9
,
*
,
* %
&%
& .
4
,
% /
% &%
&
.
,
&
: (
)
% &%
, (*)
% /
()
9
% , $# /
3.
0$%/' !" ,' 0$'/'!,%0"%' (%*%' )' 0&%,&(' ,'
0&%
6 *: (
)
**
9%
9
%0
% &%
, (*)
/
&
%
%0
,
9
0
($
, 2005).
1
&
,
1
,
%0
,
%
,
/
9
.
% I: 4
%
9
.
9
/
%
. 4
%
%
. 4 %
%
. 4 %
/
&
(
, ,
).
% |I: 4
%
9
.
9
/
%
. 4
%
%
. 4 %
%
. 4 %
/
&
(
, ,
).
% ||I: 4
,
9
9
0
&
, &
9
%
. 4
& %
0
&
1
%
%
%
&.
9
/
. 4
%
%
,
. 4 %
&
1
/
.
6 *
0
%
,
.
9
%0
,
464
1.
&
.
&
1: 4
$& 1: 4
,
*
&
*
&
* , /
* /
&
.
*
2: 4
%
$& 2: 4
0
& /
. 4
.
&
9% «
»
9
1
.
3: 4
( $& 3: 4
) /
/
&
.
1
.
4: 0&
9
$& 4: 0&
0
.
5: 4
$& 5: 4
.
9
.
&
&
%
(Astolfi & Peterfalvi, 1997¬ Peterfalvi, 1997):
(
) +
/
%
*
%
.
(*) +
%
9
,
%
,
%,
%
, ,
%
.
() +
&
%
,
9%
0
9
/
&
%
&%
9
.
&
% /
&
/
.
() 4
,
&
&
% /
*
.
465
() 4 /
&
&
&
%
%
&1
* %
& . C,
&%
«»
9
%
, %
/
& 9
&% &
% /
.
()
&
%
%
/
:
&
%0
%0 (
% )
%
/
,
&, «
»
&
%0
.
(1) +
& /
/
%
* %
&
.
$ ,
9
% /
,
%
*
9 (Astolfi & Peterfalvi, 1997):
(
) «
»:
%0
,
,
9
&
/
,
(*) « %
»:
,
,
/
0
. +
1%
/. 4 9
%
1%
/
&1
.
#
. +
&
%
%
&
. 9
/
,
, /%
& * 0
.
, /
* %
9 &
&
&
.
%
1%
%
,
.
$
&
,
% /
*
#.
.
1%
0
%
, %
&
/
*
&
&
/
. +
%
&
% &
%
. $
1%
%
9%
/
%
. , 1%
%
(
&1
&
), 1
9
9
%
. %
0
9
&%
0
.
1%
%
%
.
,
%
,
91
&
9
&
&
. +
%
466
«
»
. +
%
&
1%
*
.
1%
%
.
, /
* %
, &
9% . ,
&
&
«
»
,
«/
»
/.
1
&
%
&
1%
&
,
%: (
) %
9
(
1%
)
(
%
% 9
)
,
(*) %
%
(-)
(
- I),
%
(
- II). $
1
%
.
$
%
*
0
&
.
&
*
%.
. 6
%,
%
,
&
%
&
. +
%
. $
%
,
%
&
.
*
/
(-
).
%/
(- I),
%
(- II).
9
% & % /
,
&
& % &%
. ,
%
&%
%
*
&
%/
&
%
.
$ 1
* 0
9%
(/
)
&
*
%
1.
%
467
9
*
&
*
%
, 1
(
*
)
1
&
’
,
%
(%
%: «
(! #
»). $
%
& 1.
%
%
*
&
*
1
*
(%
%: « !
#
"#
"#
»).
2.
%
%
1.
%0
- 6
- I 6
- II
N N% N N% N N%
%0
16 94.1 1 5.9 4 23.5
1
%0
1 5.9 16 94.1 13 76.5
& 1
2 % & 2. $
%
2.
%
&
1
. Q ’
,
9
%
9
9
(%
%: «
! ’ (!, #
»). $
%
& 2.
%
%
%
0
&
&
(%
%
) (%
%: « !
,
$
! ’ (! #
##
#
(
»).
3.
%
%
2.
%0
- 6
- I 6
- II
N N% N N% N N%
%0
15 88,2 2 11,8 5 29,4
2
%0
2 11,8 15 88,2 12 70,6
& 2
3 % & 3. $
%
3.
%
. 6
«
» (%
468
%: « !
#
»). $
%
& 3.
%
%
%
1
%
(%
%: «
#
#!
»).
4.
%
%
3.
%0
- 6
- I 6
- II
N N% N N% N N%
%0
14 82,3 1 5,9 4 23,5
3
%0
3 17,7 16 94,1 13 76,5
& 3
$
1
0
9&
&
*
9% %
(
%
0
% 1
).
, 1
/%
*
.
+
%
(* .
5),
4 % & 4. $
%
4.
%
9
/
*%
9 %,
0&
(%
%: « . ##
$
#
!…
##
$
#
#
#
»). $
%
& 4.
%
%
9
/
% &%
,
(%
%: « ##
$
. #
, . ##
$
#
#
»).
5.
%
%
4.
%0
- 6
- I 6
- II
N N% N N% N N%
%0
16 94,1 1 5,9 3 17,7
4
%0
1 5,9 16 94,1 14 82,3
& 4
6.
%
%
5.
%0
- 6
- I 6
- II
N N% N N% N N%
%0
17 100 1 5,9 5 29,4
5
%0
0 0 16 94,1 12 70,6
& 5
469
+
%
(* .
6),
5 % & 5. $
%
5.
%
,
%
(%
%: «
"$
!»
«
! #
,
"$
»). $
%
& 5.
%
%
/1
«
-* »
&
*
(%
%: «
"$
#
!»
«
"$
"$
. /
$
! "$
»).
2, 3, 4, 5
6,
/%
%
:
x 3
% %
%
*
&
- I
-.
$
, -
%
&
%
& (
0% 17.7%),
&
- I %
0 (
88.2%
94.1%).
x +
&
%
%
,
&
% /
, 9
&
«
»,
9
%
%
9
&
%
. $
,
- II
%
&
0 (
70.6%
82.3%).
(#$0&(
4
&
% /
,
$# /
&
.
**
9%
9
%0
% &%
%
%
&
, 0
’
% % &%.
$
%
9
9
9 $# /
&
, *
&
9
% /
.
"
9
%
,
%
,
%
. 4
,
%
-
&
,
9 &
%
-. ,
&
%
9
&
,
9
%
%
9
&
%
.
L
%
9
%
%
%
/
&%
. \
&
1
: (
) /
0
&
%0, (*)
%
% /
(
,
,
), () 9
,
470
() *
()
/
&%
9
*
.
C'C'%)&+'
Arca, M. & Caravita, S. (1993). Le constructivisme ne résoud pas tous les problèmes. Aster, 16, 77-101.
Arnold, M. & Millar, R. (1996). Learning the scientific “story”: a case study in the teaching and learning of
elementary thermodynamics. Science Education, 80 (3), 249-281.
Astolfi, J. P. & Peterfalvi, B. (1993). Obstacles et construction de situations didactiques en sciences
expérimentales. Aster, 16, 103-141.
Astolfi, J. P. & Peterfalvi, B. (1997). Stratégies de travail des obstacles: Dispositifs et ressorts. Aster, 25, 193-
216.
Bednarz, N. & Garnier, C. (Eds), (1989). Construction des savoirs, obstacles et conflits. Ottawa: Girade /
Agence d’ Arc Inc.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., Tiberghien, A. (l985). Children’s ideas in science. Milton Keynes. Open University
Press.
Driver, R. & Oldham, V. (1986). A constructivist approach to curriculum development in science, Studies in
Science Education, 18, 105-122.
Doise, W. & Mugny, G. (1984). The Social Development of the Intellect. New York: Pergamon.
Dumas-Carré, A. & Weil-Barais A. (1998). Tutelle et médiation dans l'éducation scientifique. Bern: Peter Lang.
Engel, E. (1982). The development of understanding of selected aspects of pressure, heat and evolution in pupils
aged between 12-16 years. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leeds. Leeds, UK.
Erickson, G. (1979). Children’s conceptions of heat and temperature. Science Education, 63(2), 221-230.
Erickson, G. (1980). Children’s viewpoints of heat: A second look. Science Education, 64(3), 323-336.
Giordan, A. & de Vecchi, G. (1987). Les origines du savoir, des conceptions des apprenants aux concepts
scientifiques. Neuchâtel - Paris: Delachaux & Niestlé S. A.
Glynn, S. M., Yeany, R. H. & Britton, B. K. (1991). A constructive view of learning science. In S. M. Glynn, R.
H. Yeany, & B. K. Britton (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning Science (pp. 3-19). Hilldale, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Harrison, A., Grayson, D. & Treagust, D. (1999). Investigating a grade 11 students evolving conceptions of heat
and temperature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(1), 55-87.
Johsua, S. (1989). Les conditions d'évolution de conceptions d'élèves. In N. Bednarz & C. Garnier (Eds),
Construction des savoirs, obstacles et conflicts (pp. 306-314). Ottawa: Girade / Agence d’ Arc Inc.
Kesidou, S. & Duit, R. (1993). Students conceptions of law of thermodynamics-An interpretative study. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 30(1), 85-106.
Linn, M.C. & Songer, N.B. (1991). Teaching thermodynamics to middle school students: What are appropriate
cognitive demands?. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(10), 885-918.
Monteil, J. M. (1989). Eduquer et former, perspectives psycho-sociales, Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de
Grenoble.
Peterfalvi, B. (1997). L’identification d’obstacles par les élèves, Aster, 24, 171-202.
Peterfalvi, B. (2001). Obstacles et situations didactiques en sciences: processus intellectuels et constatations.
L’exemple des transformations de la matière. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of Rouen, Department
of Psychology, Sociology and Education, Rouen, France.
Pfund, H. & Duit, R. (1994). Students alternative frameworks and science education (4th end), Kiel, Institute for
Science Education.
Plé, E. (1997). Transformation de la matière à l'école élémentaire: des dispositifs flexibles pour franchir des
obstacles. Aster, 24, 203-229.
$
, 6. (2005), ( #
$ # #
,
3
% 3
*%, $& % $
,
%,
.
$
, 6. & \
1%
, 8. (2002).
%0
. $ .
, !. 8 &, . %
& .
(.), @ 1 @
;
471
/'/,', /'*0'&'( «!"» !" ('( +#(',0( 0$'(0(:
$0&'$!( !" /'/',('!" ,%'"!"',%-)"!(',( (#),&%#(( ,'
(#(*0'( %#( 0 ,'"& !" !"
6&
% $
, 3 (.3. 407/80) ..3..
$
M
&,
%
% $!
$0&'-
4
1
&
%
% D
%, &%
-
%
.
%
%
8# /
"
. 3
9
9
& %
/
% /
%0
&
* *
-%
. 4
%
%
9
. 4
%
/
-%
-
9
%
%0
-
%
D
%.
,
&
. $
,
&
% /
%0
-%
,
&
/
%
&
%0.
0'()!)
&
,
%
3
%
D
&
9%
%0
9
D
(Driver, Guesne & Tiberghien, 1985¬
Pfundt & Duit, 2001).
0
&
&
%0
9
0 %
& % &%.
,
%0
,
9
*
3
% D
&1
&
* &
%
%0
(Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982).
%, %
& &
%
%
%
%0
9
D
. $
%
%,
%0
%
0
%
9*
-
%
9
-
%
&% %
%0
%
(Hewson & Hewson, 1984). +
&% %
%
% &
&
(Druyan, 1997¬ Hewson & Hewson, 1984¬ Kwon, 1997¬
Lee, 1998¬ Niaz, 1995¬ Stavy & Berkovitz, 1980¬ Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982¬ Thorley
& Treagust, 1989). H,
1
9
%
%
% (Chan,
Burtis & Bereiter, 1997¬ Chinn & Brewer, 1998¬ Dreyfus et al., 1990¬ Kang, Scharmann & Noh,
2004¬ Limón, 2001¬ Mason, 2001¬ Tirosh, Stavy & Cohen, 1998).
* %
,
&%
-%
,
%
&
%,
9
*
%0
%,
9
1
/%
(Ames & Murray,
1982¬ Doise & Mugny, 1984¬ Doise, Mugny & Perez, 1998).
, -
%
&
:
9
&
% *
&
9
%, % 9,
*
%
9
%
,
9*% %
. 4 %
% (Foulin & Mouchon, 1998). 4 9
472
& %
%
%
& &
%
%. $ ,
9
-%
&
%
%
/, Doise
Mugny (1984)
9
& . + &1
%
9
.
%
&
%
%. +
9/
*
0. Q
9
-%
/
%,
%
%
.
H,
%
1 -%
,
9
%
%0
3
% D
(Johsua & Dupin, 1988¬ Ravanis,
Papamichael & Koulaidis, 2002¬ Skoumios & Hatzinikita, 2005¬ Trumper, 1997).
, % **
9
& 0
% /
* % *
%
% (Pintrich, 1999¬ Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1993). +
&
1
&
0
0
(Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1993). 6
9
%
9
1
(6
& D
, 2003). Q&
%:
/.
,
*
(μ 9 )
& μ
(6
& D
, 2003).
/
,
*
/
9,
& μ
,
9
%
0
*
%
%
%
%0
. $
, &
%
* *
.
C % &%
1%
, &
* /
%
0
& %
%0
,
%
(Biddulph & Osborne, 1984¬ Gibson, 1997¬ Hardy, Jonen, Moller & Stern, 2006¬
Smith, Carey & Wiser, 1985¬ Smith, Snir & Grosslight, 1997).
4
&
%
%
-%
.
0%/%(
/
/
(14 ).
+
&
. +
&
&
-
- 1
,
, &
&
/
1%
/* .
473
/
$ ,
9
%
%,
&
%
%
D
% -
/,
&
/
% //
. $
&
,
% &
-
*
- *
-%
. 9
%
& % /. ,
%
9
%0
%
.
(
8
"
%
D
%, &% -
/. + %
%
* %
&
9
Dawson
McInerney (2003)
D
%.
+
/
%
. 4
/
% *
. $ % &
%
%
&
. "
/ &
%
D
% %
&;»). $ , %
/
%0
– *%
*
()
-
9 9
.
&
%0
&
&
* . $
,
**
9%
%0
&
* (Biddulph & Osborne,
1984¬ Gibson, 1997¬ Hardy, Jonen, Moller & Stern, 2006¬ Smith, Carey & Wiser, 1985¬ Smith, Snir &
Grosslight, 1997)
%
,
0
* 0
%
/%
/*
, 1
/
1
%
(.&.
1
,
,
)
1
/*
. Q,
,
& 1
, 9
,
*
1
. +
%0
/*
, 9
1
,
(Driver, Guesne & Tiberghien, 1985).
$9
& % , % *
/
&
%
.
,
*
1
,
. $9
&, /*
1
,
.
474
&
Perkins
Grotzer (2000)
9
&
. $9
,
1
,
&
/
.
/*
, &
%
1
% *
1
.
$
1.
% / /
%0
/*
*%
/ /
%0
*%
4 *
0
*
1
0
& &
&
,
O
* «*
». $
1
1
*
.
+
%
: (
)
/
%
&
%0
, (*) « »
%0
()
%
%0
&
. $
%
. $
2
1
1%
%
.
$
2.
1%
%
/*
6
% %
1
1%
1
/*
2 G 1
/*
3 G
/*
4 G
/*
5 G
/*
6 G
/*
7 G
/*
8 G
/*
$ ,
9
,
*
*%,
%,
%
&%
.
,
/
475
%0
&
. +
%
/
/
&
%0
9
&
9
,
9
&
%0
%
%
%
/1
.
%
%/ 9
&
9%
/
%
%0
(Hardy, Jonen, Moller & Stern, 2006).
+ *
+
, *
%
%
/
%
D
%,
/%
: (
) &
/
, (*) &
%
/
, ()
%
&
/
()
%
/
. $
&
,
%
.
"
,
&
% /
&
%
: «1
.
9
*
’
», « 9
/
*
. }
*
, %
», «6
,
9
&
%
&
», «
1
, ’
9
%
».
$
%
&
/
&
%
: «L
0 *
/
, ’
1
», «G
%
&
*
*
», « 9
9*
*
», «
&
*
»,
«6
/
&
», «L
\
», «
9
9
/ 9
».
6 *
%
%
/,
%
%
4
&
&
%
% / %
.
4
%0
&%
,
% %
9
* .
$
,
-%
9
%
%0
%
%
*
%
%0 %
9 &
320 &
(160 &
9
%0
&%
160
).
,
%,
x2,
&
-%
. +
& *
x2
(Blalock,
1987¬ Erickson & Nosanchuk, 1985).
$%00(
4
/: (
)
D
%, (*)
-%
,
9
%
%
%0
&%
, ()
&
476
-%
.
,
5
+
%
% -
/
9
,
(* .
3).
3.
%
% 6
(%)
!&
7 35
/
!&
6 30
% /
%
4 20
&
/
%
3 15
/
3
&
1
&
/
(35%) %
&
% /
(30%).
&
%
&
/
(20%) %
%
/
(15%).
8
-
=5
$
4
1
&
9
-%
9
%
%
%0
&%
,
9
.
4 (57,5%)
-%
%0
&
&%
. H,
(42,5%)
%
-%
9
%0
&
&
&%
.
(<8
5
8
-
=5
9
9
,
0
%
%0
&%
%
(70,8%). $
,
&
&
% /
%0
9 &
%0
&
&%
.
,
%
&
%0
%
%0
&%
%
.
,
%
*
&
%0.
477
4.
-%
%:
& (} & }%)
!&
!&
% %
- } }%
%
&
% / / / /
} }% } }% } }% } }%
$
92 57,5 36 64,3 14 29,2 27 84,4 15 62,5
%0
% 68 42,5 20 35,7 34 70,8 5 15,6 9 37,5
%0
;! 160 100 56 100 48 100 32 100 24 100
,
/
%
&
-
%
[x2 = 26,53, df = 3, p<0,0001]. 4
&
% 9
(* .
5).
x +
&
&
% /
*
%0
&%
,
&
&
%0.
x
,
&
%
&
/
%0
&%
&
*
%0
.
%
%
&
&
% /
5. +
& 9
-%
%
&
1.
!&
!&
% %
- /
% &
/
%
/ /
$
36 14 27 15
%0 [0,67] [2,59] [2,00] [0,32]
+ - + +
% 20 34 5 9
%0 [0,78] [3,01] [2,33] [0,38]
- + - -
%0
. $
,
&
1
%
1
$
6
1
: (
)
, (*)
(
)
()
(+, -)
(+) % (-)
.
478
&
/
,
-%
,
1
&%
0
/
%0
9
.
,
%
%, *
%
%.
%,
9
(Palmer, 2005): (
) %
1
, (*) %
%
&
9
%0
,
, () &%
()
9
& % /
9
%
,
%
%
1%, 9
,
9
%. C
* %
%
%.
,
&%
* %
,
%
/
, %
% &
(Pintrich,
1999),
%
&
%0
-
%
.
C'C'%)&+'
Ames, G. J., & Murray, F. B. (1982). When two wrongs make a right: Promoting cognitive change by
social conflict, Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 894-897.
Biddulph, F., & Osborne, R. (1984) Making sense of our world : An interactive teaching approach,
Hamilton: Education Research Unit, University of Waikato.
Blalock, H. M. (1987). Social statistics, Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Chan, C., Burtis, J., & Bereiter, C. (1997). Knowledge building as a mediator of conÉict in conceptual
change, Cognition and Instruction, 15(1), 1–40.
Chinn, C. A., & Brewer, W. F. (1998). An empirical test of a taxonomy of responses to anomalous
data in science, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(6), 623–654.
Doise, W., & Mugny, G. (1984). The social development of the intellect. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Doise, W., Mugny, G., & Perez, J. A. (1998). The social construction of knowledge: Social marking
and socio-cognitive conflict. In U. Flick (Ed.), The psychology of the social (pp. 77-90).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dowson, M., & McInerney, D.M. (2003). What do students say about their motivational goals?:
Towards a more complex and dynamic perspective on student motivation. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 28, 91-113
Dreyfus, A., Jungwirth, E., & Eliovitch, R. (1990). Applying the “cognitive conÉict” strategy for
conceptual change – some implications, difÊculties, and problems, Science Education, 74(5),
555–569.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (l985). Children’s ideas in science. Milton Keynes. Open
University Press.
Druyan, S. (1997). Effect of the Kinesthetic Conflict on Promoting Scientific Reasoning, Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 34, 1083-1099.
Erickson, B. & Nosanchuk, T. (1985). Understanding data. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Foulin, J.N., & Mouchon, S. (1998). Psychologie de l'éducation. Paris: Nathan.
Gibson, J. (1997). Floating and Sinking again, Primary Science Review, 46, 10-11.
Gorsky, P., & Finegold, M. (1994). The role of anomaly and of cognitive dissonance in restructuring
students’ concepts of force. Instructional Science, 22, 75–90.
479
Hardy, I., Jonen, A., Möller, K., & Stern, E. (2006). Effects of Instructional Support Within
Constructivist Learning Environments for Elementary School Students’ Understanding of
“Floating and Sinking, Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(2), 307-326
Hewson, P. W., & Hewson, M. G. (1984). The Role of Conceptual Conflict in Conceptual Change and
the Design on Science Instruction, Instructional Science, 13(1), 1–13.
Johsua, S., & Dupin, J.–J. (1988). Processus de modélisation en électricité, Technologies, Ideologies,
Pratiques, VII(2), 155-169.
Kang, S., Scharmann, L., & Noh, T. (2004). Reexamining the role of cognitive conflict in science
learning, Research in Science Education, 34, 71-96.
Kwon, J. (1997). The necessity of cognitive conflict strategy in science teaching, Paper presented at
the International Conference on Science Education: Globalization of Science Education, Seoul,
Korea.
Lee, Y. J. (1998). The effect of cognitive conflict on students' conceptual change in Physics, Doctoral
dissertation, Korea National University of Education.
Limón, M. (2001). On the cognitive conÉict as an instructional strategy for conceptual change: A
critical appraisal, Learning and Instruction, 11(4–5), 357–380.
Mason, L. (2001). Responses to anomalous data on controversial topics and theory change, Learning
and Instruction, 11(6), 453–483.
6
, ., & D
, ". }. (2003). % %
1
* %
.
2 $
6
3
*
: «
"
». %
,
% –
%
.
Niaz, M. (1995). Cognitive Conflict as a Teaching Strategy in Solving Chemistry Problems: A
Dialectic-Constructivist Perspective, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32, 959-970.
Palmer, D. (2005). A motivational view of constructivist-informed teaching. International Journal of
Science Education, 27, 1853 – 1881.
Perkins, D. N., & Grotzer, T. A. (2005). Dimensions of causal understanding: the role of complex
causal models in students‘ understanding of science. Studies in Science Education, 41, 117-166.
Pfundt, H., & Duit, R. (1994). Bibliography: Students’ alternative frameworks and science education
(4th edition). Kiel, Germany: Institute of Science Education, University of Kiel.
Pintrich, P. R. (1999). Motivational beliefs as resources for and constraints on conceptual change. In
W. Schnotz, S. Vosniadou & M. Carretero (Eds), New perspectives on conceptual change
(pp.33 - 50). Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Pintrich, P.R., Marx, R., & Boyle, R. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of
motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change,
Review of Educational Research, 63, 167-199.
Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientiÊc
conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change, Science Education, 66(2), 211–227.
Ravanis, K. Papamichaël, Y., & Koulaidis, V. (2002). Social marking and conceptual change: the
conception of light for ten-year old children, Journal of Science Education, 3(1), 15-18.
Skoumios, M., & Hatzinikita, V. (2005). The role of cognitive conflict in science concept learning,
International Journal of Learning, 12(7), 185-194.
Smith, C., Carey, S., & Wiser, M. (1985). On differentiation: A case study of the development of the
concepts of size, weight, and density, Cognition, 21, 177-237.
Smith, C., Snir, J., & Grosslight, L. (1992). Using conceptual models to facilitate conceptual change:
The case of weight-density differentiation, Cognition and Instruction, 9, 221-283.
Stavy, R., & Berkovitz, B. (1980). Cognitive conÉict as a basis for teaching quantitative aspects of the
concept of temperature, Science Education, 64, 679–692.
Thorley, N. R., & Treagust, D. F. (1987). Conflict within dyadic interactions as a stimulant for
conceptual change in Physics, International Journal of Science Education, 9(2), 203-216.
Tirosh, D., Stavy, R., & Cohen, S. (1998). Cognitive conÉict and intuitive rules, International Journal
of Science Education, 20(10), 1257–1269.
Trumper, R. (1997). Applying conceptual conflict strategies for in the learning of the energy concept,
Research in Science and Technology Education, 15, 5-18.
D
, ". }., & \
, . (2001). ;
#
$ %
..
%
: G+$.
480
0"0&)0' 0'"' /#(,%% " %',%/%0' %)! ( +#(( (:
0"%$%'',%( $&)%"( %!" !" +'"%0"!";
! ;
+ $#
6
0'()!)
4
9%
D
,
,
&
%
%
3
% D
(Driver and al., 1993; 1999), !
D 9
D
&
/ / %.
&
*
,
9
(Gilbert,
Osborn & Fensham, 1982)
.
,
/
&
.
% %
& *
0
D
. (
%, 1994, G
*
.,
1994,
1997). Q,
%
(
*
0
)
1
*
9
(Lemeignan & Weil-Barais, 1993). ,
9
&
, (
,
, &-
,
*
%) (G
*, 1999)
%
%,
&
(G
* &
, 1998).
% *
& &,
1
«
)
-
»1 ,8
5 0
j5
(,00),
9
%
*
« »
&%
&
&
* (
*
0
%
9 9
9
). "
1
/
&
, \
,
&%,
&
%,
, 9,
*
9
9
.
4
, ,
%
3
% D
9
%
*
%
9 (
, 2000; Koliopoulos & Ravanis, 2000). $
1
«
» "’ $, !!).
481
,
&1
"
%
6&
%.
’
&
/
&
&
%
,
0 %
/% &
9
(
& G
* 1998). 8*
,
&
&
&
%
&
% L
%,
& 6&
%,
9
%
&
9
#
# .. # ».
$
&
,
-
«
# ;»
9
«
$
( # !
(
… ( # .
..».
1/ «
$
! …»
2/ «
(
$
…». 4
%
«# ,
,
,
#
.
#
».
+
,
, &
*
0 %
0
(Driver, 1993). +
&
% &%
. \
, %
, ,
,
%
9. 9 «
/» % «1
% &
»
9
%
%
. $
/%& 12-16
(Engel, 1982) 9
0
,
/
%
%
0
% %. Q,
&
&
%,
&
%
. H
,
/
1
%
, ,
&
&
. ,
&
(Driver and al., 1999).
+
,
&% %
/%&
,
9
(D=$!4 8# "
, +38, . 33-78, 2003).
$
, 9
&
9
:
«
», «
:
# », «$
;», «
,
», «
», «#
», « (
!$», «$ #
», «
!
», «
».
0%/%%)' j&0#"(
$&
«
»
*
. $ &
9: 1)
%
**
9
« »
-
%
,
*,
, 2)
%
« »
, 3) $&
*
«
»
*
&.
H
9 D
% 8’ "
, * &
*
0
, & &,
%
9 9
9
-
9
482
%0,
%,
,
9
9
-
/
1
%
% /
.
$
, *
* 35
*
* %
9 %
8’ "
(
14-15 )
&
% "
,
&
9 ’
% *
.
$%00(
#
4
&%
%
&
/
/
&
. $
&
,
&
,
%
:
"
,
% « #
.
(
.
» %
«
#
# # $
!
». Q
% / «
#
# .
, #
.
. A
#
!# #
». ,
/ «
$
#
.
#
!
$ !
$».
&
%
9:
&%
%
, 9
,
,
,
&
.
%
9
&%
%
6,2%
. $
%&
& %,
22,4%
/. $
,
/
%
9
&%
%
, 60,5%
% %
.
$
, 46,7%
&1
&%
%
, 20%
1
9
, 13,3%
20%
&
,
%, & .
-
$ &
/
1%
%
9
%
9
% /
. 6 &
,
%
:
"
,
% «
" .
» %
/ «
#!
90 qC,
.
(
) " ( ). #
#
#!
#! # . F ! ! ##
#!
!,
#-# #$ $ . #! $ (
) !
#! # ».
&
9:
9%
,
,
9
«1»
483
,
%
,
%
,
, &
-
, &
- ,
9
%
, &
9
1
,
9
1,
9
«», &
-
, /% %
, /%
*
/%.
%
9
65,9%
. $
%&
&
%, 45,3%
/. $
,
/
%
9
, 63,8%
% %
.
%, 23.1%
&
-
,
16.4%
&
/%
14.3%
%
.
9
&% (46,7%), 9
(20%)
(13,3%).
« »
9
&
-
(23.1%),
/%
(16.4%)
%
(14.3%).
&
&
«
»
*
. "
,
,
, 1, %
. 6
&
–
$# /
&
. H, &
,
&
&
/%
9
9
.
4
&%
%
. +
1
/
, ,
9
%
%
. + Lemeignan & Weil-
Barais (1993)
(
, &
&
-
%
, )
&%
%. 8*
,
%
% 1
%
«
»
«
%». +
&
&
9
,
9
,
*%
%
%,
&
, . 8
/
&
1
. +
(2000)
%
"
, 1
&
.
-
9
-
%
. $1
%
,
*
-
.
%
, ,
*%
%
&%
%
9 &
%
.
484
4
, , 9%
. 6
%
&
(Lemeignan & Weil-Barais,
1993).
9
,
9 9
9
, 9 % 9
%
, 9, ,
&
%
% %,
&
% %. 3
%,
&
9
&
%,
, 9,
*
0 *
% :
/
,
*
,
&
-
,
*-
%
&
.
C'C'%)&+'
Driver, R., Guesne, E., Tibergien, A. (1993), * $ .
, 69
L, $
-
8, $
., . Q % D
&
, %
.
Driver R., Squires A., Rushworth P., Wood-Robinson V. (1999): *
. $
6. &
.- % @#
!" $ . $
. (
.
,
9
6. \
1%), .
%-". 3
, %
.
Gilbert, J.K., R.J. Osborne and P.J. Fensham. 1982. Children's science and its consequences for
teaching. Science Education, 66, 4, 623-633.
Harman, P. (1990), Energy, force and matter: the conceptual development of nineteenth century
physics, cambridge university press.
, . (1997), ;!# ##
$ 6. &
., %
.
, 3. & G
*, . (1998), +
* %
&
.
1
"
, & . 6, 4, 26, 36-46.
Koliopoulos, D. Ravanis, K. 2000, 'Réflexions méthodologiques sur la formation d’une culture
concernant le concept d’énergie à travers l’éducation formelle', Revue de Recherches en Éducation:
Spirale, vol. -, no. 26, pp. 73-86.
, 3. (2000), $&1
/
:
6
% , $
, . (.) @ ##
6
&
6., .
%-". 3
, %
.
, 3. (2004),
6. &
., . 6
&, %
.
% 8. (.) (1994), !
, . Gutenberg, %
.
Leimegnan, G & Weil-Barais, A. (1997), A
$ . (
-
9
}. 3
, . 3
) .
%-". 3
, %
.
G
* . (1999): + 9
% & %
(3
% ), .
%-". 3
, %
.
G
*, . 2003, &#$# $ 6. &
., } & ,
%
.
485
01)!"( (#(', !" !" ( +#(',
\
$
1 & $
8
2
1
D
, 3
,
3
2
%
%
6.!.L.
%0
*
. +
%0
&
%
& % /.
9
% &1
%
9
%.
H
% 0
&
,
9
/ /
%
,
9
9
*
%
% 9
. 6
%
%,
&
&
,
9
%
%
9
-
* . 4
%
9
,
&
,
9
*
’
.
4
9 % 9
% ,
0
9
& % 9
%.
%
9
9
/
0
&
%
9
%
% **
9
(
9
: McCloskey, 1983;
Clement, 1982; McDermott, 1984, 1998; Minstrell, 1982; Driver & Easley, 1978; Driver & Erickson,
1983; Driver, Guesne & Tibergien, 1985; Driver, 1989; Osborne & Freyberg, 1985; diSessa, 1988, 1993,
Hestenes, Wells, & Swackhamer, 1992; Hynd, 1998; Vosniadou, 1994)
H
1%
9
9 9
%,
% %
,
/
*%
9
%. +
9
0
&
&
&
0
,
: ,
%0,
0,
, ,
& .
1
, %
/
9. + Posner, Strike, Hewson
Gertzog (1982)
1
%
Kuhn
(1970) #
#
(%
Lakatos (1970) # ! #
)
486
,
O /
%
&
*
%
. +
%
0
(dissatisfaction)
&
,
,
(intelligibility),
9
(plausibility)
(fruitfulness)
.
9
% % %
%
,
9%
1%
% (&
Piaget:
$)
O&
%
9 (&
Piaget
9). 4
% Posner, Strike,
Hewson
Gertzog (1982) %
% 9
%
/
*
9
% &
*
/ %
%,
&%
0
(.&. Guzzetti, Snyder, Glass, & Gamas, 1993;
Hynd, 2003; Diakidoy, Kendeou, & Ioannides, 2003; Mason, 2001, Mason & Gava, 2007). "
,
Hynd (2003)
1
0
1
/
%
%,
/
O&
&
%
% ,
9 ,
,
,
%
%
/% &.
$
01
,
%
9 9
%
%,
/ / 0 ‘
%’
9
%
, 9
O,
&
&
.
4
9% O&
‘
%’
%
0
&
%
9
%
*
9 9
9 9
%
9 9
% (.&., Smith, diSessa & Rochelle, 1993;
Hammer, 1996). 4
9 % 9
% 1
,
&
,
% (phenomenological primitives %,
, p-prims)
9% /
&
.
,
, &
1
*
&
%
(diSessa, 1988,1993). $9
% ,
9 % 9
% &
,
.
, 9
% % 9
9 9
%,
‘
%’
% ,
%,
1
%
(Smith, diSessa, & Rochelle, 1993).
,
diSessa (1988, 1993), O&
/
& &
%
-
‘9
&’ (p-prims)
&
9
9
/
9.
&
%
/
#
.
6 9
%
diSessa
% 9
&
, ‘
-/’ (self-explanatory) %
%
( 9
%)
1
/%
(diSessa, 1993, . 114).
H
9,
9 % 9
% & 1
9
*9%
9
9
-
*
9
. "
,
*9
,
9
,
%,
&,
&-&
& &,
9
9% (Spelke, 1990).
$9
%
,
9
9
487
9
%, *
*9%
%
,
9
-
&,
% % (Vosniadou, 1994, 2003, 2008). "
, ,
9
&
1
*
,
9
,
1
,
. $ ,
%
9
&
/
9
%
&1
.
, &1
*
,
. + 9
&
%
9
- *
9
&
&
%
9
/
9
9
,
&
.
$9
% % ,
9 % 9
%
/
9
&
%
, %, O
,
&
,
,
% % &
. "’
9
%
1
9 &
-
&
9 9
%. 6
1% %
%,
%
,
,
& %
9
%
&
% %
%
(Vosniadou, 1994, 2003,
2008; Carey, 1985, 2000).
4
9 9
% *
1%
/% 9
% ‘
%# & % 9
%. +
‘
%’
/ -
%
**
9
*
/
,
&
/
/
9
9
. 6
‘
%’
/
%
O&
*
,
1
(Vosniadou, 2003, 2008).
$
%
*
, /% Chi (1992)
(Chi, De Leeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher, 1994; Reiner, Slotta, Chi, & Resnick, 2000), 9
‘
%’ 9
%
/
& 9 9
%,
/
9
9
9
* . "
, 9
%
9
(&.
)
/
. $’
%
%
%
*
*
. 4
%
,
%
%
9
%,
1
,
9 % 9
%
* ,
. 4 %
%
9
%
, 9
%
,
%
%
1
&
/ *
&
%
-
O
%
9
9
%. 4
%
9
%
& 1%
-
&
/
9
,
&
488
C'C'%)&+'
Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Carey, S. (2000). Science education as conceptual change. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,
21(1), 13-19.
Chi, M.T.H. (1992). Conceptual change within and across ontological categories: Implications for learning
and discovery in sciences. In R. Giere (Ed.) Cognitive models of science. Minnesota Studies in the
Philosophy of Science 15, Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press.
Chi, M.T.H., De Leeuw, N., Chiu, M.H., & LaVancher, C. (1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves
understanding. Cognitive science, 18, 439-477.
Clement, J. (1982). Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics,
50(1), 66-71.
Diakidoy, I. N., Kendeou, P., & Ioannides, C. (2003). Reading about energy: The effects of text structure
in science learning and conceptual change. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 335-356.
diSessa, A.A. (1988). Knowledge in pieces. In G. Forman & P.B. Pufall (Eds.), Constructivism in the
computer age (pp. 49-70). Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
diSessa, A. (1993). Toward an epistemology of physics. Cognition and Instruction, 10, 105-225.
Driver, R. and Easley, J. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to concept development
in adolescent science students. Studies in Science Education, 5, 61-84.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (Eds.) (1985). Children's Ideas in Science. Milton Keynes: Open
University Press.
Driver, R., & Erickson, G. (1983). Theories in action: Some Theoretical and Empirical Issues in the Study
of Students' Conceptual Frameworks in Science. Studies in Science Education, 10, 37-60.
Gunstone, R., & Watts, M. (1985). Force and Motion. In R., Driver, E., Guesne & A., Tibergien (Eds.),
Children’s Ideas in Science. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Guzzetti, B. J., Snyder, T. E., Glass, G. V., & Gamas, W. S. (1993). Promoting conceptual change in
science: A comparative metaanalysis of instructional interventions from reading education and
science education. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 117-159.
Hammer, D. (1996). More than misconceptions: Multiple perspectives on student knowledge and
reasoning, and an appropriate role for education research. American Journal of Physics, 64 (10),
1316-1325.
Hestenes, D., Wells, M., & Swackhamer, G. (1992). Force Concept Inventory. The Physics Teacher, 30
(3), 141-151.
Hynd, S. (1998). Conceptual change in a high school physics class. In B. Guzzetti & S. Hynd (Eds.)
Perspectives on conceptual change, pp. 27-36. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hynd, C. (2003). Conceptual change in response to persuasive messages. In G. M. Sinatra & P. R. Pintrich
(Eds.), Intentional conceptual change (pp. 291-315). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kuhn, T. (1970). The Structure of scientific revolutions. (Second edition, enlarged). Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In I. Lakatos &
A. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge (pp. 91-195). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Mason, L. (2001). Responses to anomalous data on controversial topics and theory change. Learning and
Instruction, 11, 453-483.
Mason, L., & Gava, M. (2007). Effects of epistemological beliefs and learning text structure on conceptual
change. In S. Vosniadou, A. Baltas & X. Vamvakoussi (Eds.) Reframing the conceptual change
research in learning and instruction. Oxford: Elsevier.
McCloskey, M. (1983). Naive theories of motion. In D. Gentner & A.L. Stevens (Eds.), Mental models.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
McDermott, L. C. (1998). Students’ conceptions and problem solving in mechanics. In A., Tiberghien, E.
L., Jossem & J., Barojas (ds.) Connecting Research in Physics Education with Teacher Education
(I.C.P.E).
489
Millar, R. (Ed.) (1989). Doing science: Images of science in science education. London, The Falmer
Press.
Minstrel, J. (1982). Explaining the “at rest” condition of an object. The Physics Teacher, January, 10-14.
Posner, G.J., Strike, K.A., Hewson, P.W., & Gertzog, W.A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific
conception. Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66 (2), 211-227.
Reiner, M., Slotta, J.D., Chi, M.T.H., Resnick, L.B. (2000). Naive physics reasoning: A commitment to
substance-based conceptions. Cognition and Instruction, 18(1), 1-34.
Smith, J.P., diSessa, A.A., & Rochelle, J. (1993). Misconceptions Reconceived: A Constructivist analysis
of knowledge in transition. The Journal of Learning Sciences, 3(2), 115-183
Spelke, E.S. (1990). Principles of object perception. Cognitive Science, 14, 29-56.
Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and modeling the process of conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou (Guest
Editor) Conceptual Change. Special Issue of Learning and Instruction, 4, 45-69.
Vosniadou, S. (2003). Is Intentional learning necessary for conceptual change? In G. Sinatra and P.
Pintrich (Eds.), Intentional conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Vosniadou, S. (2008). The conceptual change approach and its reframing. In S. Vosniadou, A. Baltas, &
X. Vamvakoussi (Eds), Reframing the conceptual change approach in learning and instruction.
Oxford: Elsevier.
490
A «» !" !" (" #$%*&0!', 0,$'/0#( )' " 0""%'
%# *%#
$59
1
0 /
%/
&
& «tabula rasa»,
&
%0
9
& (8
1998,
% 1994,
1998). +
& .
%
%&
,
&
%
%&
/ % %&
, «
» /
'
.
'( :
,
%, ,
0, %&.
0
+
0
&
&
& : « »,
«&%
»
Rumelhart (1980), «
9»
Schank
Abelson (1977)
«
»
Gentner
Steven (1983)
Johnson-Laird (1983)
Vosniadou & Brewer (1992).
4
,
9
9
%
%
%,
&
9 *
.
+
**
9
,
*
&
9
%
.
}
. +
9%
(
% &%)
'
%
9
.
}
3
%
/
(parallel distributed
processing)
9 & &%
* .
&
/
9,
%
9
,
9
9
9
(8
1998,
1
491
% 1994). $
%&
9
&
.
&
9
%-
%
%&
&
:
) "
%
%&
: + /%
%
%&
&1
9
%
%& ( Watt & Russel 1990),
/
% %&
%& (
%,
0), / /
&
,
( )
%,
0
%&
9
.
8
$
%
/1
%
%-
-
% 0
%&
.
1. 8 '
*;
@
$ 1: @
@
$ 2: ` !
@
$ 3: /
@
$ 4: ` ! !
(!
$
/
%
%&
&
, %
9
%
&% % (
-
,
&
). $9
1
1* (*
),
/
9
/
.
$
(% ) 37,3 %
(22,7 %)
(% -
% &%)
(
% &%).
%
%
% **
9
. + Watt & Russel (1990)
&
*
&
9
%&
2
492
Asoko (1991)
&
%
%&
/.
%
/
«% »
0
10-15 (
/ 32 %- 40 %).
*
Asoko (1991) 260
4
16
%
%&
&%
*
. 4 Asoko (1991)
%/
/
%
%
,
9
%
%&
.
&
,
%/
% ,
&-
1
9
&
%,
.
$
&
«
&%»
«% ».
,
6
"
(% )
40 %
(% -
% - &
) 28%. $ 4 "
8
(
% &%) 44 %
(% ) 32 %, $ 5 3 $&
(% -
% &%) 48 %
(% ) 40 %. 6
3 $&
9
1
&
/
/
%
(% ),
(% -
% &%)
(
% &%).
, 2
75
(% 2,7 % )
9
9
%&
&
.
9
Asoko
*%
0
9
% &% *
.
$9
2
2* (*
),
9
/ . $
(% ) 81,3 %
(5,3 %)
(% -
%),
(% - &
)
(% -
%&
).
%
,
,
*
% .
9
&
Asoko (1991)
1
%
%&
, 09
9
* %
% . +
%
&
9
9
&
. +
,
%&
/%
*
%
% %. $
,
%
6
"
/%
%
%&
(\
/
) (
% 10, 6
"
).
,
3 $&
4
"
8
9
1
&
&
%
%
«% ». +
6
"
9
1
&
:
(% -
%)
(% - &
).
9
% .
%
9
**
9
%
6
"
() &
% .
, 6
"
(% ) 56 %
(%
- &
) 16 %. $ 4 "
8
(% ) 96 %
(% -
%&
) 4 %. $ 5 3 $&
(% ) 92 %
(% -
%) 4 %.
3
493
$
1*
2*
9 %
/%
&
%
9
.
2. 8 >
'* ;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
$&
%
%&
. $9
3
3* (*
),
9
/ . $
(
) 41,3 %
(&
–
) 29,3 %. H
9
(
),
&
%
0
%&
,
%
(&
–
)
(
) 28
%. $
4 "
8
(
) 56 %
(&
–
)
20 %. $
5 3 $&
(
) 40 %
(
&
) 28 %.
(&
–
)
(
&
) &
&
%&
. $
9
*
%& 9
/
%
*
0
9
.& «'
*
%&
9
&
1
%
9
». 4
(&
-
)
%
1
%
% 91
0 (52 %)
6
"
/
20 %.
3. /
%
;
$
'G .
$&
%
%
0
%&
. $9
4
4* (*
),
9
/
1%
0
.
,
(&
-
- 9
) 33,3 %
(&
- /
) 22,7 %. $ 6
"
(&
-
- 9
)
32 %
(&
- /
) 20 % .$ 4
"
8
(&
-
-
9
) 48 %
(&
- /
)
20 %. $ 5 3 $&
(&
- /
)
(&
-
) 28
%
.
(&
-
- 9
) 20 %.
+
(&
-
- 9
), (&
- /
), (&
-
)
1
&,
9
&
.
9 9
1
%&
&
. 8*
9
.
&
/
0
%&
& %
.
4
(&
- /
)
9
1
/
20%
28 %
(
)
&
*
%
%& 9
. 4
«
4
494
» &
9
Watt
Russell. 18%
*
11
%1
«
»
%,
%
%&
.
4
(&
-
)
(28 %)
3 $&
12 %
8 %
6
"
4
"
8
&
.
%
&
9
Watt & Russell (1990)
9
%
/
"
. $9
, 20 %
/
"
10 %
/
"
9
9
*
. Q
57
9
. 4
%&
9
%,
10 %
/
"
20 %
/
"
.
25 %
/
"
9
%
. + %
&
%&
,
9
11%
..
4
(&
-
- 9
)
32 %
48 %
6
"
4
"
8
&
(20 %)
3 $&
.
%
& *
Watt & Russell (1990)
/
1%
&
.
&
91
«
»
&
.
(5-(~
,
%/
:
+
9
&1
%
%&
&% % (
-
-
-),
:
x
9
(% )
%
%&
(
,
&
)
x
*
%
x
*
%&
&% %
%
0 91
Driver et al (1994)
%
9
% %
,
% /%
*
9
&
(.&
*
).
%
9
/% : 37,
3 %
, 44 %
, 64 %
81 %
9 %
/%
(
-
)
%
9
. $
,
9
Asoko ..,
1
,
&
9
%
%&
5
495
,
:
)
&
% %&
9
9
%, *)
&%
9
%
&
/
%
9
%
9
,
/
.
$&
%&
9
:
x
9
9
%&
&% % &
&
x
*
«
»
9
%&
x
9
&% % (.& &
)
%&
9
%&
x
*
%&
&
4
/
«
9 &
»
/
«
%
9
9
%&
», *
,
3
"
/
&
0
%&
&
. 8*
,
,
6
"
(-experts)
9
1
&
& .
%
Asoko .. *%
,
%
,
&
%&
. ,
%
/%
,
9,
« %&
»,
&
. H
%
%&
,
, &
14 ,
%
&
.& «
%
»
%
.& «
%
». +
9
. 4
%&
/
%
%
/&
. 70%
9
.
$& %
&
%&
9
:
$& 1 « », $& 2 «&
», $& 3 «
», $& 4
«&% %» .&
1 .
%
9
Watt &
Russel (1990)
9
&
(2, 3, 4). & 1 *
Watt &
Russel (1990)
%
*
*
/
/ &% %
.
$&
0
%
%&
9
:
x
9
(
)
*
%& %
9
*
%&
*
x
9
&
9
/
x
9
&
9
x
9
&
9
9
9
%.
%
%
9 Watt & Russell (1990)
/
%
9*%
*%
%0
%&
&
,
%
%
/
/ . 6
9
&1
%. , Asoko, Leach
Scott (1992)
9
1
6
496
%0
%&
. 3
&
9
&
.
$
,
%
/
/
%& (
%--
0).
%
,
&1
9
9
,
*
0
%
,
9% &
&
%
% /.
C56
Asoko H.M., Leach J. and Scott PH. (1992) «Sounds interesting: working with teachers to find
out how children think about sound», NFER-Nelson, Topic 8:1-7.
Asoko H.M., Leach J. and Scott PH. (1991) «A study of students' understanding of sound 5-16 as
an example of action research», Paper prepared for the Symposium, «Developing Students'
Understanding in Science» at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association
at Roehampton Institute, 2 September 1990, London.
8
$., & Brewer G.(1988) L
7
497
$55
$
1.
$5 5- $5
/ «
5
»
1.%
1
&
*
2.% -
% &%
6
% &
%&
3.% -
%&
6 &
&%
% %
%&
&
4.
% \%
%&
% &%
5.% -
%- 4&.
.
1
,
1
&,
%
&
&
, %&
6. % – 4&
&
&%
&
9 «
»
@$ @$ @$ @
@$ @$
.
@
1
$ Total
.
.
.! !
;
: 10 3 1 3 7 1 25
% +
@ 40,0% 12,0% 4,0% 12,0% 28,0% 4,0% 100,0%
;
: 8 2 2 11 1 1 25
4 +
>!$ 32,0% 8,0% 8,0% 44,0% 4,0% 4,0% 100,0%
;
: 10 12 - 3 - - 25
5
;.
>!$ 40,0% 48,0% 12,0% 100,0%
;/’ /(
Total 28 17 3 17 8 2 75
Count
% within ;
37,3% 22,7% 4,0% 22,7% 10,7% 2,7% 100,0%
8
498
$
2.
$5 85- $5
/ «
5
»
1.%
* $ . #
2.% -
%
#
!
#
. #!$
3.% - 4&
9 ""
@$ @$ @$ @$ @$ % Total
@
2 (
$
.
!
;
: 14 3 4 1 3 - 25
% +
56,0% 12,0% 16,0% 4,0% 12,0% 100,0%
@
;
: 24 - - - 1 - 25
4 +
96,0% 4,0% 100,0%
>!$
;
: 23 1 - - - 1 25
5
;. 92,0% 4,0% 4,0% 100,0%
>!$
;/’ /(
Total 61 4 4 1 4 1 75
Count 81,3% 5,3% 5,3% 1,3% 5,3% 1,3% 100,0%
% within ;
$
3. 05 10: $5
/ «
5
1.6
(& &
. 3 /
%)
%
. *
$
2. 4&
–
(
0)
%$ $ .
$
. ;
!
$ .
3.
(
/ &
)
/ #!$
!$
(
$
. #$
4. 6
&
()
$ !
!
5.
9
499
10 "8 '* ;»
% A %
@
3 !
!$
!
Total
;
: 7 13 1 3 1 25
% +
28,0% 52,0% 4,0% 12,0% 4,0% 100,0%
@
;
: 14 5 3 1 2 25
4 +
56,0% 20,0% 12,0% 4,0% 8,0% 100,0%
>!$
;
: 10 4 1 7 3 25
5
;. >!$ 40,0% 16,0% 4,0% 28,0% 12,0% 100,0%
;/’ /(
Total 31 22 5 11 6 75
Count 41,3% 29,3% 6,7% 14,7% 8,0% 100,0%
% within ;
$
4
14n-
'
A.!
& A. A. `$
`$
@
4 ($
# !
!
# #
$
6
$
# Total
;
: 5 1 3 8 3 5 25
% +
20,0% 4,0% 12,0% 32,0% 12,0% 20,0% 100,0%
@
;
: 5 2 2 12 1 3 25
4 +
20,0% 8,0% 8,0% 48,0% 4,0% 12,0% 100,0%
>!$
;
: 7 - 7 5 5 1 25
5
;. >!$ 28,0% 28.0% 20,0% 20,0% 4,0% 100,0%
;/’ /(
Total Count 17 3 12 25 9 9 75
% within ;
22,7% 4.0% 16,0% 33,3% 12,0% 12,0% 100,0%
10
500
$
4
1. «:
– !* »
2. «:
- *
»
3. «:
- – '»
11
501
$
4
;
: 10 1 6 5 3 25
4 +
40,0% 4,0% 24,0% 20,0% 12,0% 100,0%
>!$
;
: 4 7 2 11 1 25
5
;. >!$ 16,0% 28,0% 8,0% 44,0% 4,0% 100,0%
/( ;/’
Total 26 11 13 16 9 75
Count 34,7% 14,7% 17,3% 21,3% 12,0% 100,0%
% within ;
12
502
1'%%)( +#(',!" 0$'(!" (% )#"('%
+. 6
?# 6,
/
&/
4 9
% **
9
/
D
%
(D..), 9
1
" /. 4
%
,
&
%
%
,
*
«%
»
%
* *
%
1.
/ !
%
D..
"
,
%
D..
,
/
&
% " /, 91
0
% &,
/ !.
200
D.. 9
9
9
&
/ %
.
,
1
/,
&
/ ,
, (..
$ !( $
$,
$
.
). +
9
/
SOS (… SOS
.
!,
)2.
$& %
/
"
D..,
9
1
9
:
"
9
,
9
&
«…
$ $ $
$»3
D
%
«%».
/
%
,
/ !
20034. 54% /
&
& 9 4/=. 4 9
«
»,
*%
.
%
,
&
**
9
D
% "
9
.
%
&
/
,
1
/5, ,. (2006), «
/ 2005 6
D
% "%
"’ / 4
'
»,
$ 6.
&
.: F @(, 16, 8-18.
$, ., (65, *.,
8, "., $5, )., (2006), «8
–
*
"
" /», A @ ; &&6, '
2006.
&
, ,. (2003), «6
9
%
/
.
%» . 3
(.)- . 8* (.).
&#$# &( # /
&
(1961-2001),
% Q
, 81-96.
2
*, ,., +, )., ,5
, )., (2000), «$
0 %
% "
% /
6
%
D
% "
». $ }. 8
(.),
@ 2 @ ;
$ 6. &
.
#. $ $
/ #. &
, /*%*; ||, . 126- 136, '
.
3
,, . (2001), «"
9
"
9%
,
,
%
*
», "
9, } 2, 2001, 15-29
4
+, )., *~5, ., (2004), «
"
9
"
,
9
%
/ : 3
%
», : @ 4 @
;
/ 6 &
,
, % & &
(/
’),
: 8. 9, .
, 6.
, &
%, %
%
& % 4
, . 473-481
1
503
0
. 48% %
9
9 %
« 1
…» (44%),
&
9%
.
%
(
, #, $!- ). 6 13,5%
*
% ( 4-7
9). 5%
&
&
9 /% (
). +
D
% "
9
1
D.. «»
,
,
% &% 1999
&
2004
% &%5.
%
«
, 1
…»
28% (1999)
31% (2004)
%
.
80% (1999)
73% (2004)
%
5% (1999)
2% (2004)
.
13% (1999)
5% (2004) &
/
%
. $
2004 *
%
– ,
3
% D.6. $
1999
%
. \
9%
%
(
,
#, $!- )
9
1999
&
5%,
2004 &
9 16%. Q&
/
2004,
&
& 9 4/= (
10% 1999 69%). 27%
2004
*
%
%. &
%
1
1999.
4 09
/
/ 1999
2004 D
%
"
9
,
9
&%
& 9%
(
#
, $
! !).
9
9*%
%
/ &
/
% «»
&
&
.
% %
/ &
,
&
/
%
.
/1
,
%
,
&
%
% %
%
%
.
, &
1
,
&
&
,
,
,
,
*
1
3
*
&
9
/
. 3
0 1
9
*%
,
« »
%,
%
3
% ,
&
&.
5
,5
, )., +, )., *, ,., (2000), «L
D
% "# "
"
/ !
"
»: 6
"&
9%"
,
: 2
3
% D
& 9
} &
,
'
.
+, )., ~, $., «L
D
% 8# "
"
/
!
"
3
%
», &#
.
6
Knight, R., (2006), «
6
%
, $
&% 3
D
%»,
&
, %
.
504 2
)!((', «» !" !" ( $&!%C'( 0,$'/0#(( %"
*&('%$%'%#" )!(( ( 0$'(( ,' )!(( (
,0&'"( !(
(#))&+0'(:
6
\
1%, =. 3
3
% D.., 3,
.
, +.
% 3
% D.., 3,
.
mxatzi@primedu.uoa.gr
kokkotas@primedu.uoa.gr
$59
$
«
»
*
& "
%
"
% 1%.
,
1
« »
/
/
&
9%
% 1%
% (.& /
).
&
1
%
,
,
9
%
(
%
*
D
)
1%.
%
&
/
&
%
*
/
9
9
. ,
«1
»
/
% %
&% /
.
8?-,
: ,
%,
% 1%.
0
6 « » 1
%
,
*
& /%:
9/9 , 9 ,
,
/ .
« » /1
,
&
,
)
«
» D
% (Literacy in science)
(Norris & Phillips, 2002, Yore & Bizanz, 2003)
D.. *)
9
D.. (Sutton, 1992, Merzyn, 1987, Bramer & Clemens, 1980, Wellington & Osborne,
2001)
1
%
*
D..
«
».
H
9 , «
» D..
9
«Literacy in Science»
% **
9
%
'
% &
*
3....$
..$
&%
9
&
9
«*
,
9
9
* (
)». $
, «
» D..
1
9
20 *
/
& '
*
(8
/ 2007). $ ,
«
»
*
%
«
9
*».
«
9
*»
«
&
D.
& %
%» (Mayer, 1997; NRC, 1996; Shortland, 1988, «
%
9
» (DeBoer, 2000; Hurd, 1998; Shortland, 1988), «
9
» (DeBoer, 2000, «
& %
* » (AAAS, 1989, 1993; NRC, 1996) ..+ «
» D..,
9
0 Norris & Phillips (2003),
9 « »
«
9
*»
9%
505
D.. 6
1
«
»
« »
(fundamental
sense)
9
*,
&
,
D..
«
»
(derived sense).
«
9
*» & « »
% &
«
»
*
.
$& ,
%
9
,
%
01
/% :
x
**
D
&
0 &
/1
* (Graf, 1989,1990: DiGisi, 1995).
x +
9
9
&
%
/
9
(Sutton, 1992).
x +
/
&
&
(Kelly and Monger, 1974).
x +
% D
%
0
&
/
(Merzyn, 1987: Bramer and Clemens, 1980).
x +
/
9
*
&
/ (Barnes, 1971).
x +
&
/
.(Gardner, 1974).
x $
,
/
*
&
. (Cassels and Johnstone,
1984,1985).
x $
9%
&
&
D
/
1
/
.(Sutton, 1980,1992).
$9
Lemke (1990)
D.. &1
&
& (thematic content)
9 (special style).
9
9
&% %
, &% /
% 1%
%,
% .&
% 9%
9
%
9 9
.& %.
$
%
«
»
*
& "
% 1%
"
%.
,
1
« »
/
/
&
9%
% 1%
% (.& /
).
/
&
% 1%
&
&
D.. (.& / &
:
&
- &
/
/
). /
% 1% &
9%
D.. ( .& / *
: 0
& *
- *
"
).
$
&
/
&
* Cassels & Johnstone (1985)
Marsall & Gilmour
(1991).
6 ,
*
%
&
. %
/
,
%
%
,
%
:
) 4
(/%,
)
/
1 /
.
*) 4 % &% /
,
.
) 4
* %
% % %
%
/.
) 4
/
9
1
.
506
) 4
/
%
,
%
.
, !.}. (1985), Block, K. (1985) , + (2002)
,
%
%
&
(Marsall S., Gilmour M.,1990
Cassels J. & Johnstone A., 1985).
%
*
D
.
34
$#/
3 (1 %
: 81
3. $& -
)
(2 %
: 14 3. $& -} %
). C
9 (16
-18
)
&
(25
9
&)
8-~
4
-
/%:
1
%
&
-
,
/ (9
, , / % /
1
, % ,
%1 % %/, *1 % *
)
*)
0
&
/
.
4
9
/
&
&
/
/
&
/,
9%
/
%
&
/.
,
&
/
/
&%
/
% 1%
%. "
/ 9
,
% 1%
%.
&%
-
:
%
% (
- 1
)-
% %
% (
- 1
6
% (% 2
)-
% 1%
)-
% 6
% (%
)- 2
% 1%
6
% ( 3
)-
% 6
% ( 3
)-
% 1%
6
% ('
4
6
% ('
& 4
&
)-
)-
% 1%
%
-
5
-
5
&
/ %
/ /
&
. +
%
/
507
%
% D
D
&
(
-
)-
%,
%.
%
9
.
%
%
%
(
-
)- D
, ,
%
9
.
1%
.
6
% D
(%
)-
% 9.
%
6
% D
(
-
)-
%.
%
1%
6
%
'
/
(
)-
%
%
.
6
%
9
6
.
(
)-
%
1%
6
% 9
.
('
&
)-
% /%.
-
+
&
/ «9
», 9
-
%,
%
*
1
.
$5
(<
$ (<
$
" % " %
%
% (
-
1 2,9 22 64,7
)-
%
6
% (%
7 20,6
)-
%
6
% (
17 50,0 4 11,8
)-
%
6
% ('
&
)-
3 8.8
%
-
13 38,2 1 2,9
&
:
508
8
%
, 50%
38,2%
«% . ($ #
)»
«
-
#
»
&
.
%
, 64,7%
20,6 % #$
#
«@$ (
- #
)» «% . ($
)»
+
% &
«
-
»
38,2% () 2,9% ().
+
&
/ «9
», 9
-
% 1%,
%
*
1
$5
(<
$ (<
$
" " %
%
%
% (
-
)-
% 8 23,5 11 32,4
1%
6
% (%
)-
1 2,9 7 20,6
% 1%
6
% (
)-
% 10 29,4 7 20,6
1%
6
% ('
&
)-
1 2,9 2 5,9
% 1%
-
14 41,2 7 20,6
&
:
8
%
, 29,4%
41,2%
«% . ($ #
)»
«
-
#
»
&
.
%
, 32,4%
20,6 % #$
#
«@$ (
- #
)» «% . ($
)»
+
% &
«
-
»
41,2% () 20,6% ().
4
%
%
%
*
/
9
/ «9
»
% (t(33)=9,657, p<0,05)
% 1% (t(33)=
2,559, p<0,05).
$
,
-
/
%
%
*
/
%
% (%
)
% 1%
%.
/
%
*
D..
*
% /
%
1%
, &
9%
%. ,
%
*
%
% 1%,
/
%
«&% /
»
«
/»
9
%
/. , 9
%
*
%
D..
509
/
/
%
1%.
$
=5 -
, / (!,
,
,
.$) /1
&%
,
9
9
1
:
(
8?-< 5
/
&
&
/ ;
(#
)
•
•
*
•
•
• 3 1
8? 6
~ 8
(non-science context)
$
&
/ ;
(#
)
• 4
9
&
3
• Q
9
1
•
%
8? 6
~ 8
(science context)
$
&
/ ; (#
)
x
&
58
&%
•
&
58
&%
•
&
58
&%
4
9
/
&
&
&%
/
/
&
,
%
%
*
&%
/
D..
,
1
/-& «».
100
76,5
80
58,8
60
35,3
40 23,5
20 5,9
0
: "
&
>$
J !+
H' 1. ;.
(-$
«% % /», &%
,
/%
35,3%
%
76,5%
,
«
% /»
58,8% 23,5%.
510
100
76,5
80
52,9
60 47,1
40 23,5
20
0
: "
&
! >$
!
H' 2. A (
(non-science context)
«% %
», &%
,
/%
47,1%
%
76,5%
,
«
%
»
52,9% 23,5%.
100 85,3
80
60
40
14,7
20
0
"
&
! >$
!
H' 3. A (
(science context)
«% %
», &%
, 9
0
/
85,3% .
$
,
-
9
%
*
& «
» D..,
/
+
2:
%,
, %,
+
3:
,
* ,
,
+
4: &
, ,
, 9
%
+
5: %/,
, /, %/
+
6:
%,
* %,
,
%
%
/
/
/ &
%
/
/.
&%
-
511
,5 ,
,5 ,
(.&
$% % / 1 1
91
9
9
)
'
% / 2 ? (.&
&
2
9
)
3 / (
& &
3
)
? (.&
4
1 )
%
-(
(.&
%,
* %,
,
%
5
)
* 5 6
658
7
9
%
/
9 9
/ &
% /
%
/
& % &
. "
, 9
%/
% %
/
%
&
% &
% * %
. ,
9
/
1
/
9
.
$5
(<
$ (<
$
" % " %
$% % / 17 50,0 31 91,2
'
% / 14 41,2 3 8,8
3 1 3 8,8
Total 34 100,0 34 100,0
8H#+(+$ 2. @ (
(&%
, , 9
, &
)
. +
2
2
9 /
$5
(<
$ (<
$
" % " %
% 4 11,8 22 64,7
/
% 3 8,8
3
% 6 17,6 3 8,8
/ % 3 8,8 2 5,9
\ % * 9 26,5 2 5,9
6 9
12 35,3 2 5,9
Total 34 100,0 34 100,0
8H#+(+$ 2%. @ (
(&%
, , 9
, &
)
512
$5
(<
$ (<
$
" % " %
E % 4 11,8 25 73,5
E/ % 30 88,2 9 26,5
Total 34 100,0 34 100,0
8H#+(+$ 2'. @ (
(&%
, , 9
, &
)
2*
0
/
. $
2 9
%
/%
(73,5%)
/
&
&%
2
2*
9
%
*
50% (*
2
)
«% % /»
&
% &
«3
%» (17,6%),
«\ % *» (26,5%)
«6 9
» (35,3%).
%
*
% &
« %»
(64,7%).
$
,
-
/
%
/
%
*
D..
*
%
/
*
C56
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1989). Science for all Americans:
A project 2061 report on literacy goals in science, mathematics, and technology.Washington, DC: Author.
Cassels, J.R.T. & Johnstone, A.H. (1984). The effect of language on student performance on multiple
choice tests in chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 61, 613-615
Cassels, J.R.T. & Johnstone, A.H. (1985). Words that matter in science (Report of a research
exercise). London: Royal Society of Chemistry
DeBoer, G.E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary meanings and
its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 582–601.
Gardner, P. L. (1974) Language difficulties of science students, Australian Science Teachers Journal,
20(1):63-76
Lemke J. (1990) Talking Science- Language, Learning and Values, Ablex Publishing Corporation,
New Jersey
Marsall S. & Gilmour M. (1990) Problematical words and concepts in Physics education: a study of
Papua New Guinean students’ comprehension of non-technical words used in science, Physics Education,
Vol 25
Mayer, V. J. (1997). Global science literacy: An earth system view. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 34, 101–105.
Merzyn, G. (1987). The language of school science, International Journal of Science Education 9 (4),
483-489.
Meyerson et al. (1991) Science vocabulary knowledge of third and fifth grade students, Science
Education, 75(4)
Norris, S., Phillips, L. (2002). How Literacy in Its Fundamental Sense Is Central to Scientific Literacy
Shortland, M. (1988). Advocating science: Literacy and public understanding. Impact of Science on
Society, 38, 305–316.
Sutton C. (1992) Words, Science and Learning, Open University Press, Buckingham- Philadelfia
Sutton, C. R. (1980). Science, language, and meaning. School Science Review, 62, 47-56.
Wellington J. & Osborne J. (2001) Language and literacy in science education, Open University
Press, Buckingham- Philadelfia
Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Yore, L., & Bisanz G.(2003) Examining the literacy component of science literacy:25 years of
language arts and science research, International Journal of Science Education, 25 (6), 689–725
513
‘
’
: 5 <55
<
8
8
\
% L
vchristi@ece.uth.gr
0
+
&
9
D
% (Dawson, 2000. Gardner, 1985. Gough, 2002. Sjøberg,
2002).
9
1
9%
(Häussler & Hoffmann, 2000. Schibeci & Riley, 1986. Siegel & Ranney, 2003).
Q
9
& D
%
*
9 %
9
%,
%. 4
&
%
%
1
%
%,
,
,
%
%
1% (Dawson, 2000, Schibeci & Lee, 2003. Song & Kim, 1999),
D.. (Boylan, Hill, Wallace & Wheeler, 1992. Finson, 2002. Fung, 2002).
,
%0
%
/
& &
%
9
*%
&
*
&
*
&
D..
(Finson, 2002).
$
% *
%
&
%
&% &
%
9%
&
%
%
. 4
%
&
&% DAST (‘Draw a Scientist’ Test, ‘9
/
%
’)
/
,
**
(Finson, 2002.
Mason, Kahle & Gardner, 1991. Newton & Newton, 1998. Rosenthal, 1993. Schibeci & Riley, 1986),
(Fung, 2002. Mays, 2001. She, 1998.
Song & Kim, 1999. Sumrall, 1995),
(Quita, 2003. Rubin, Bar & Cohen,
2003).
%
9:
,
9
%
(Rubin et
al., 2003),
9
/ 9
%
(Song & Kim,
1999)
&
*
/
,
&
(Finson, 2002. Rubin et al., 2003).
%
9
%
&
.
, 9
%
&
%
%,
&1
9
1
8
&
,
514
&
9
&
/
.
4 09
&1
%
,
% &1
&
.
&
, 9
9
%:
9
%
%,
,
9,
**
,
9
(She, 1998).
$ &
% /
&
. 6
%
&
%
%
/% %
:
• =
%
%;
• =&
% 9
%
1
,
%
9
;
•
&
%;
•
‘’;
j5
j
8 5
+
&
9
/ %
% *
(
, 2005. $
, 2009. \
, 6 &
, 2006)
*
(
1%, 2006. 1
, 2009)
. $
&%
&
DAST
(Chambers, 1983. She, 1998).
&
*
%
9
.
& %
&
%
9
1 &
9
&.
C
&
&
%
&
%
*
.
%
9
(* .
2),
,
(* .
3) . . + %
&
1
9
% ( 1, 3, 4), &
&
(
, * .
4)
&
*
9
, **
(* .
3),
9% , %
(* .
4).
&
9
1
1.
& % 0
1
%
, % & /
(8 .
4). + %
&
(.&.
4) 9
. '
& 9
1
% %
&9
(.&. 9
,
,
, 1
3)
9
(1
%
,
3).
515
0
1:
%
&9
($&
% 8’ 3)
0
2: "
%
*
($&
%
8’ '
)
,
%
&
(* .
1, 3
4),
(* .
2) %.
&
&
1 %
9
1
’
1
%
.
4
%
&
.
91
9
& 9
&
*
/
*
*
. ,
9
% 9
516
0
3: N
%
, 9
, *
, *
9
($&
%
$’ 3)
0
4: N
%
,
, *
, *
,
&
1 ($&
% ’ '
)
‘’
%
:
9
&% D
(D
,
\, 8
, "
), 9
1 4,
&
(
),
(* .
5),
,
&
. $
1
%
1 (.&. &,
).
/1
9
1
&
(
)
9
% &
, * .
5).
517
0
5: "
*
1
($&
%
"’ "
)
H
%
0
%,
&
.
& &
,
‘
’, ‘9
%’, ‘
’, ‘9
’, ‘
%’, ‘’, ‘’, %
‘
9
’ (.&. «
0
9
0 1%
»).
,
&
, ‘’, ‘
&’, ‘
%’, % ‘
’.
/
&
&
.
(5
&
/
Q
%
*
%.
&
&
(
),
9
9%
%
&
&
.
4
%
0
%,
&
–
1
&
-
. $
,
9
*
D
%
&
)
&
9 9
/
%
(.&. ,
).
&
*
%
.
6 *
&
%
&
,
/
%
%
9
.
D
1
%
%
.
518
$
,
%
%
%
.
0 /
,
0
*
(
,
%
)
/
, ‘’ %
,
9 %
. 4
9%
%
(
9
,
3
..). N
*
*
1% / &
& %
% 1%,
%
(
, 9
9 ..)
1
9
,
%
,
/
*
(Finson, 2002. Rubin et al., 2003. Song & Kim, 1999).
$
*
D
,
‘
’
%
(
%
/
,
, &% ),
%
*
,
.. (Mason et al., 1991. Thomas & Hairston, 2003).
O
&
*
. $
%,
*%
(
)
%,
&
%0
%
%
%
. *%
&
* ( 9%
,
1%
9
,
..)
%
%
%0
%
&
* /.
0
%
%
%
/
%
9
(Moseley & Norris, 1999).
**
/
%0
%
Q
,
&
%
%
% %
.
%
9
9
&
%0 (
* , & , 6
6
1% , ..),
%
9%
%
9
9
D
& ,
.
C56
, . (2005). * " $ . $
#
/
.
&
%
. 8 :
% L
.
Boylan, C. R., Hill, D. M., Wallace, A. R., & Wheeler, A. E. (1992). Beyond stereotypes. Science
Education, 76(5), 465-476.
Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The Draw-a-Scientist Test. Science
Education, 67(2), 255-265.
Dawson, C. (2000). Upper primary boys’ and girls’ interests in science: have they changed since
1980? International Journal of Science Education, 22, 557-570.
Finson, K. D. (2002). Drawing a scientist: What do we do and do not know after fifty years of
drawings. School Science and Mathematics, 102(7), 335-345.
Fung, Y. Y. H. (2002). A comparative study of Primary and Secondary School Students’ Images of
Scientists. Research in Science and Technological Education, 20(2), 199-213.
519
Gardner, P. L. (1985). Students’ interest in science and technology: An international overview. $ M.
Lehrke, L. Hoffmann & P. L. Gardner (Eds.), Interest in Science and Technology Education (Kiel:
Institute for Science Education), 15-34.
Gough, A. (2002). Mutualism: a different agenda for environmental and science education.
International Journal of Science Education, 24, 1201-1215.
Häussler, P., & Hoffmann, L. (2000). A curricular frame for Physics education: Development,
comparison with students’ interests, and impact on students’ achievement and self-concept. Science
Education, 84, 689-705.
Mason, C. L., Kahle, J. B., & Gardner, A. L. (1991). Draw-A-Scientist Test: Future implications.
School Science and Mathematics, 91(5), 193-198.
Mays, A. (2001). Student stereotypes of scientists: Can they be changed? Retrieved May 18, 2007,
from http://www.bamaed.ua.edu/~amays/actionresearch.htm.
Mead, M., & Metraux, R. (1957). Image of the scientist among high school students: A pilot study.
Science, 126, 384-390.
Moseley, C., & Norris, D. (1999). Preservice teachers' views of scientists. Science and Children, 37,
50-53.
Newton, L. D., & Newton, P. D. (1998). Primary children’s conceptions of science and the scientist: Is
the impact of a National Curriculum breaking down the stereotype? International Journal of
Science Education, 20(9), 1137-1149.
1%, '. (2006). A ‘ ’
.
. 3
%
.
:
%.
1
, . (2009). *
.
# /
/: ! $ #$
.
#$# . 3
%
.
:
%.
Quita, I. N. (2003). What is a scientist? Perspectives of Teachers of Color. Multicultural Education,
Fall 2003, 29-31.
Rosenthal, D. B. (1993). Images of scientists: A comparison of biology and liberal studies majors.
School Science and Mathematics, 93(4), 212-216.
Rubin, E., Bar, V., & Cohen, A. (2003). The images of Scientists and Science among Hebrew- and
Arabic-speaking pre-service teachers in Israel. International Journal of Science Education, 25(7),
821-846.
$
, ". (2009). *
. $
# /
/: ! $ #$
.. 3
%
. 8 :
% L
.
Schibeci, R., & Lee, L. (2003). Portrayals of Science and Scientists, and ‘Science for Citizenship’.
Research in Science and Technological Education, 21(2), 177-192.
Schibeci, R. A., & Riley, J. P. (1986). Influence of students’ background and perceptions on science
attitudes and achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(3), 177-187.
She, H. C. (1998). Gender and grade level differences in Taiwan students’ stereotypes of science and
scientists. Research in Science and Technological Education, 16(2), 125-135.
Siegel, M. A., & Ranney, M. A. (2003). Developing the Changes in Attitude about the Relevance of
Science (CARS) questionnaire and assessing two high school science classes. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 40, 757-775.
Sjøberg, S. (2002). Science and technology education in Europe: Current challenges and possible
solutions. Connect: UNESCO International Science, Technology, and Environmental Education
Newsletter, 27, 1-5.
Song, J., & Kim, K. S. (1999). How Korean students see scientists: the images of the scientist.
International Journal of Science Education, 21(9), 957-977.
Sumrall, W. J. (1995). Reasons for the perceived images of scientists by race and gender of students in
grades 1-7. School Science and Mathematics, 95(2), 83-90.
Thomas, J. A., & Hairston, R. V. (2003). Adolescent Students’ Images of an Environmental Scientist:
An Opportunity for Constructivist Teaching. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 7 (4).
\
, 8., 6, D., &
, . (2006).
1
%
; $ . $
(.), $ 6. &
.:
% #
– @ 3 @ ;
F$ #
$ 6. &
. (&|6&), (. 361-367). %
: } & .
520
To «»
521
522
$55 /# %
/
«/=»
8
3
% 6
$59
+
4.=.
*
« »
:
&
*
,
,
* %
.
, &
% 09
&
(& ) «»
&
, % «
» - " $
..
$
/
%
,
%.
8?-
:
,
4.=., &
%
.
0
4 9%,
,
%
«»
,
«
%
» 40
(
% 40
&
&
).
20 &
«
%
»
&
%
3
*
–
/. 6
% 9%,
4.=.
*
%
( &
)
%
9% –
*
&%
. C,
/
« »
:
%
,
9
% *
,
* %
,
&
&
&
/. H
4.=.
%
«
»
:
%
,
0
0,
%
4.=.,
« ».
+
(
)
&
&
%
,
: 9
1
/
/
,
, 9
,
&,
1
,
*
, "
. $
, & 3
%
9
/
"
&
. $ & 3
%
&
9
,
% /
. 4 0
%
%
0 (
&1
%
*
, ,
*
) &
&
&
. 4
«
» (
,
0, 9
,
* 0,…) *
%, ,
, &
%
% & % / –
&
.
$
&
,
/ &
%0
,
%
% «
»
,
&%
%
/
%
, -
.
9
8
9
$ 3
%
, " (
)
,
9
/
9
/
1
523
* . +
%0
&
9 :
&
,
%
,
%
& %
%. +
%0 ,
-
/. +
%0
**
%:
/
(
% %
/
)
%
,
%
&
,
*
.. 4
/
-
%
&
%,
&
%
,
,
&
*
,
/ &
%0.
%,
,
**
, &,
%
9 (&*)
,
,
%
%, &
9,
%
. T
*
, “ ” -
,.
,
%,
% %
% %
%
% (Brousseau 1982, 1986, 1986a,
1986b).
+
%0,
,
3
%
9
D
%,
6
% 8
.
0
,
6
,
«9
,
%». Q,
,
3,2
«
9
»
( 3
2).
,
1
3,2 (
%
/ 3,2x3,2)
«9,4» (
9=3x3
4=2x2). $
**
3,2x3,2=10,24,
«&1
»
3,2
/
( 3
2),
&
&
«
»
. &
,
/
,
2,17
2,3. ,
,
/
"
, «1
»
/
%
*
, ,
*
, ,
,
8,345
8,346 – %
&
1
&
.
&,
*
,
3
*
.
(
%
*
1
* ).
«& 1%»,
%
*
,
3
*
,
9
. /
«
»
(
%
*
, %
, 9
1
)
9
*
–
1
&
9
,
9
. 4 3
% 6
(
) &
%
%
,
"
9
«
»
%.
%
0
%
:
%
1
«»
. C,
* , %
&
%,
9
#.
9
1
. 4
0
%
&
(
%
/% )
,
*
. 4
%
0 9
*
% (
,
,
& ). $ ,
9
%
,
/
,
%
&
«
» 9
% «»
9
. "
,
«
»
%
«
/»
524
& .
&
0
%
&
&%
*
.
%0
D
%:
(
& ),
,
*
9
%
9
,
. /% *
:
9%
9
/,
%
* *
% (
9,
9%
, 9
&
,
),
.
9
8
, \
.
+
%0
. +
%0
-
%
9
- &
9
"
"
&
.
4
0 9
-
&
-
0
%
%. A,
,
* ,
0
% %
%
/
, **
&%
0
. $
%
0 '
% (ibid, Vergnaud G. [1981]).
6
& * ( %
)
%
% 1
. C
9
’
. 6
,
* %
&
%. +
,
/
&,
/ -
%
&
%
&
.
& *
* (9
&
,
4=, %
/
%)
9
9
&
%0
*
9
. * &
0 ,
. A
0
% (
& ) &
&% &%
/ &
,
%
%
(Fishbein [1982])
9
%
&
.
+
%0,
& &
&
,
&
' (
%0)
!
'
%
(Tall [1985])
9
1
%. H
/
% 9
,
O. O
%0
& '
'
%
**
%
9%. E/
,
*
3
%
* &
,
,
%
, 9
%0
.
$
01
,
9
%0
%,
,
. H
% &
'
&%
%0
,
&
*
% /:
%
%0
-
% 9
#. $.
,
9
%0
,
,
*
/
&
%
, %
%
.
4
%0
%
,
525
9
55
Q
0, «
»
,
&
1
9%
0. O & 9
Pea R. D. [1984]
&
&
9
9
& *
(syntax, semantics)
&
(
,
),
'
%
/
«»
H.Y. A
9
...
0
%
9
*
*
*
- &
%. A,
,
&
:
...
EMVADON:= VASIS * YPSOS
READLN (VASIS);
READLN (YPSOS);
WRITELN (EMVADON);
...
1
* 0
(
8
4
* VASIS
YPSOS
&
),
*
32 (Pea R. D. [1984], Dagdilelis V. [1986a, 1986b]). H
%
%
**
%
& %
&
H.Y.
T 9
&
:
-
&
&
9 &,
- &
&
&
9
-
&
**
9
-
& *
1
&
/
. +
*
' 0
* %
&
(
*
% *
0
)
(
**
) 9
(
% HY
)
& %
, &
*
&
' 0
% & «
» %
( Pea R. D. [1984]
* «
»
&
%
).
O
9
,
«
», 9
/
9
1
&
%
&
- & '
% .
N 9
9
9
1
&
:
&% *&
,
&
(
,
Dagdilelis V. [1986a, 1986b, 1990], Mejias B. [1986], Rogalski J. [1985], Soloway E. et als [1982,
1986, 1996]).
T
9
9
,
%
1
. T
%0
-
&% *& -
526
(Dagdilelis V. [1989])
*
%.
T
9
9
&
:
%
9
1
&
; H
9
%.
A
9
*
:
&
%
,
&
60%
*
(3
8. [2003]). H
, &
9
&
9
,
&,
&% *&.
T
/
( &
&
& 11/2 &) 1
&%
*&. E/
,
1%
/
%
&%
*&
9
%
.
E, '
,
9
*
.
$
01
,
0.
) H
0
9
,
9
%
&
9
-
%
1
-
%
: it looks at the program all at once because it is so fast
&
%
%
&%
(Pea [1984], . 4).
*) H
% 9%
9 (
%
'
HY)
* %
9
% 1%
HY (
" 9
") 9
1
/
4=
9
.
) T
&
*
0
9
%
**
9
(%, , &
),
1
* %
*
.
H
«
»
. Y&
; M
%
%.
*
, ,
&
0
/ 10-15
.
,
. O
%
1
%
$$ $
(invariances)
%
(
Papadakos Nikos
[1988]). O Lesuisse R. [1983]
%
1%
,
*
%
,
'
9
1
. O Lesuisse
527
%
0
%
-
9
&
%
%
.
?
5
& «
»
, /
%
&
« » % %
.
8
3
%,
,
:
)
(
%)
-
%
/
- &
(
*
, 4.=.,
/
%
&
9
*
). +
*
&
&
,
%
1 *
%
(
). "
,
/,
%
/
– %
&
–
1, 1 *
% .H
%
% *
%
,
* &
,
*
%
1,
&,
%-
%. H
/
,
%
0,
&
,
* . +
% **
%0
,
%0
&
.
$
,
/
%
(%
%
,
0
). $
%
9
%
0
, % * 0
%
. ,
%,
,
%
4.=.). +
& 9
&
,
, 9 1 0
–
1%
. 4
%
9
,
%,
%,
%
*
*
. 4
9
% 0
%
/ &%
. H
% **
* 0%
,
%
* 0
.
*
*
9
9,
*
,
1%
,
1% * 0%
:
528
%
& 0%
(
%
1 *
,
) ,
. "
,
,
% * 0,
1% * 0
:
10
5,
;
4
8; 4
* 0
,
%
.
4 %
%
*%
4.=. 4
9
,
9
%
%0
. +
/%
(5
$
9
%
/
1
%0
,
,
9
,
6
, D
%
9% –
.
$
&
,
,
%
9
,
*
/
&,
&
%0
. +
* %
,
&
– /
*
%0
&
, *%
4.=. &
* 0
9
. $
&
*
%
9 % 1 ,
.
8*
,
9
%
%
&
&.
4
%
%,
&
%0
.
&
%0
,
%0
.
C, 9
%
,
%,
%
%
&
&
%
«
»,
,
.
C56
1. Brousseau G. [1982] Les objets de la didactique des Mathmatiques: Ingnierie didactique, Actes
de la II cole d't, Orlans.
2. Brousseau G. [1986a] Fondements et mthodes de la didactique des mathmatiques, Recherches en
didactique des mathmatiques, vol. 7.2, . 33-115.
3. Brousseau G. [1986b] Etude locale des processus d'acquissition en situations scolaires,
Enseignement lmentaire des mathmatiques, n° 18, ed, IREM de Bordeaux.
4. Brousseau G. [1986] L'observation des activits didactiques, Revue Francaise de Pdagogie, no 45,
. 10-140.
529
5. 3
8. [2003] +
%0
91
* , 6
% $
3
% 6
9%
, 8 , 2003, . 327-336.
6. Dagdilelis V. [1986a] Les variables didactiques, Equipe de Didactique des Mathématiques et de
l'Informatique, UniversiteJoseph FOURIER, Grenoble, France.
7. Dagdilelis V. [1986b] Conceptions des élèves à propos des notions fontamentales de la
programmation informatique en classe de Troisième, Mémoire D.E.A., Universite Joseph
FOURIER, Grenoble, France.
8. Dagdilelis V., Balacheff N., Capponi B. [1990] L' apprentissage de l'itération dans deux
environnements informatiques, ASTER, 1990.
9. Dijkstra E. W. [1969] Notes on structured programming, EWD 249, Technical U. Eindhoven, The
Netherlands.
10. Dijkstra E. W. [1989] On the Cruelty of really teaching Computing Science, Communications of
the ACM, vol. 32, n° 12, December 1989, pp. 1397-1414.
11. Fishbein. E. [1982] Intuition and Proof, For the learning of Mathematics, 3, 2, 9-18 and 24.
12. Lesuisse R. [1983] Some Lessons Drawn from the History of the Binary Search Algorithm, The
Computer Journal, Vol. 26, n° 2, 1983, pp. 154-163.
13. Lesuisse R. [1984] Analyse formelle d'algorithmes, Raisonnements et erreurs dans les
algorithmes, Masson.
14. Lucas M., Scholl J. P. [1975] Propositions pour une initiation à l'algrithmique, Université de
Grenoble I.
15. Lucas M., Scholl P. C., Peyrin J. P. [1984] Algorithmique et représentation des données, Vol I, II,
III, Masson.
16. Papadakos Nikos [1988] La recherche dichotomique, Mémoire de DEA, Université Joseph
Fourier, Grenoble.
17. Pea R. D. [1984] Language-Independent Conceptual "Bugs" in Novice Programming, Journal of
Educational Computing Research, special issue on "Novice Programming", E. Soloway Ed.
18. Rogalski J. [1985] Alphabétisation Informatique, Bulletin de l'APMEP nË 352, pp. 61-74.
19. Rogalski J. [1989] Problem-Solving in Mathematics and in Informatics: Differencies and
Invariants, pp. 236-247.
20. Rogalski J., Samurçay R., Hoc J.M [1988] L'apprentissage des méthodes de programmation
comme méthodes de résoluion de problème, in Psychologie Ergonomique de la programmation
Informatique, numéro spécial Le Travail Humain, vol 51, 1988, Û. 311-319.
21. Soloway E. et als [1982] What do novices know about programming in Directions in Human-
Computer Interactions, A. Badre & B. Schneiderman Eds., Ablex NY.
22. Soloway E. [1986] Learning to Program = learning to construct Mechanisms and Explanations,
Communications of the ACM, vol. 29, n° 9, pp. 850-858.
23. Soloway E. [1996] Beware, Techies bearing Gifts. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 98, No1,
January 1996, Û. 17-24.
24. Soloway E., Ehrlich K. [1984] Empirical Studies of Programming Knowledge, IEEE TSE, Vol.
SE-10, nË 5, pp. 595-609.
25. Tall David, Vinner S. [1985] Concept image and concept definitionin mathematics with particular
refence to limit and continuity, Educational Studies of mathematics, 12, 151-169.
26. Vergnaud G. [1981] Quelques orientations théoriques et méthodologiques des recherches
françaises en didactique des mathé-matiques, RDM, vol. 2.2, pp. 215-232.
530
, (=<5
$55 (
( )
:
$5 <
3.
6
mankar@sch.gr 1
8
6
mariavas@freemail.gr 2
%: 4
&
/
%
&
9*%
9%
0
&
% /.
6: 4
% &
& * %
%
"
&
. +
/
,
9
%
,
/ $
: A
. $
. .
/ #
1.)
+
&
9
*
9%
&
%
. 6
%
9
,
%
,
&
.
+ *
/
1
%
:
.
&
*
,
,
%
/
%
% .
8. 4
&%
0
tabula
rasa
.
,
%
1
%
&
1
-
-
& % /. $
%
de
facto
/
& %
.
". + &
0
O
%
&
. +
9
%
/: +
% & &
9%
1
.
1
% &
– =/% 3
*
/ $&
%
, 4 ,
%.
2
%
&
,
"
, 4 , %.
531
3. +
%
9
9
.
. 4
& *
"
* &
9*%
9
9*%
.
+
12 - 15
9
&
%
&
%.
% 9 1%
0
&
*
1
9
.
6
&
9
/
%
% 0,
9
%
&
&
&
*
,
9
/
/
%
,
9
/
9
,
9
*
9
%
*
& *
/
9
*
.
%
*
. $1
%
&
%
%
/
& % /.
% &
&
%
de facto
&
&
%
*
% & .
&
&
,
/
.
+ *
&
9
9
, ,
%
. Q, # /
&
9
, ,
, ,
, ,
&1
,
1
9, *
1
,
1
, *9
,
1
9
& %
&
9. $
&
% 9
/ . +
9
1
&
%
%
&
*
. ,
&
9
1
*
.
+
9 8# /
9
0
%
%..
9
1
&
,
,
&%
%
,
%
%
1
,
*
%
% 9.
9
/
&
% %
1
1
% % %
%
&.
$
*&
/
&
1%
%,
,
%,
,
,
&
*
/
3
=&
&
# /
'
.
532
, 8&
. 1
& /
1
,
* &
%.
/
&
* %
9
/ &
& *&
.
&
1
%
. +
%
9
%
%
/ /,
*%
% 9,
%
/
%
.
/
/
,
*%
/%
.
4.<
=<5
55
–
9 &
1
1
&
9
9 1 /
& % /.
,
&
&
*
. 4
%
%
.
&
9 %
&
9
% 9
,
%
0
/
,
$
9%
9%
9
&
%. &
%
1
%
& &
&1
&
. 6
*
9
&
*
. , &
0
8’ /. +
/
%
1
.
5. (5
4
%
&
& 9
%
%
%
. $
%
%
.
533
$5
5~ <
=
85 <
0?~
5<
5=
8
/'/10
1'%%)(0
,8
%*'
8;
"'
/8
0
8
534
' $&%(0))'( !" $&%C!" /'/(,'( (% (
0*"%%)'( #,0'%# ,' 0&"0'( !" !" !" !"
E:
%
, " M.Sc. / 3/
/ *
8
%, " M.Sc. / 3/
/
$
, " / 3/
/
(=
5
H &
«&
»
,
,
&
&
. «j5
5»
1
#
/
" '
.
"
& &
/9
& ** , %
&
/,
1
9
&
( **
# "
), 1
9
.
,
/%
(
)
,
/
% (
.
%,
9%
%
),
&
%
*
9,
(
/
, &% ,
)
1
,
*
0.
4 &
&
«»
«
»
,
,
&
,
%
3
*
.
«»
,
9
% & %
%
&
,
% 309/1976, 9
&
*
& / (#, 8#
"#) "
. 4
%
& , /
1993
"
& . 1997-98
&,
/ %
. 4
,
&%
.
C (
%
%
%
,
&
%
/ («
.
'
», D 1540 8#/99). Q,
&
*
,
,
&1
,
<
85 <
%
" ',
9
9
3
*
. '
%
9%,
&%
,
%
%
1%.
+ & / /
. +
*
1
%, %
, * ,
1%
,
. 4 &
&
7% ,
8-10 &
&
&
% %
. $9
535
%
,
/
5-6 9
1%
.
4 %
(
)
/
%
,
%
%,
0
%
&,
0,
%
.
*
9
, *
&
, ,
. ,
%,
%
,
1 *
%
,
% &
%,
%
&.
,
9
%.
,
,
&
,
9
, &%
&
*
,
,
9
.
9
, &
9
&
&
,
&%
. $
1 %
«
»,
& %
% «».
4 &
1
,
«& » 0
* .
&
-
**
,
&
-
/
%
& *
1%
/. & **
1 , &
. \1
**
#
%
*
&
&
9. "
%
&
(
, **
, , 9, internet)
. $ ,
&%
.
&
% &% & (internet),
&
9%
9
.
$
&
& ,
/
/
9
/
.
%
,
%
:
,
&
%
,
%
1% , %
/& **
,
, %
,
1%.
6
/
%
«1»
9
/
/
.
,
&
,
&
* &,
.
91
9%
',
* %
,
1%
. 6
, *
%
9
,
.
,
1
9
&
%
%
,
«
»,
%
(
%
),
& Q
. "%
/
%
,
&
536
* %
9
1
.
&% % «
*
». $
,
&
/
9
1
« »
&
/
,
%
9
.
-
%
-
,
/
&
9
&
9%
&
%
(
,
9 %, 9, %,
) .
,
,
%
%
,
*
0 %
0,
%
0
&%
. 3
9
,
% *
%
1
%
,
9
*
&
/&
%,
%
9%
,
& *%
,
/
&%
&1
/
*
. "
&
9
9
:
, 9
(
%
),
9
%
().
&
&
,
9
, 9
%.
4
%
9
&,
,
/
*
. $ 4,
**
& %
/
& %
&
, *
%
& %
& %
,
,
/
*
.
%5
4
,
«
»
&
,
/
1
&%
«
%
%
0
&
»,
% (
&
%
&
** ,
9
%
& &
)
&%
.
9
,
&
,
«
» ,
1
&% «
%
&%
%
»
«
&», /
/
/
,
&
/
*
/
&%
.
/
,
,
/
,
. 4
*
0
/
, /
* ,
+
&% & % & 9
,
%
. "
&
,
9%
,
/%
%
.
#
%
& **
«
»,
* \%
%
9
%
. 4
%
537
9 & &
%
&% 9
%. +
%,
1
&
.
Q
,
O
&
,
%!"
. 3
9,
/%
9
,
&
,
/
.
8#
%
%
%
0
=,
~
5.
%
1
,
* %
& %
, * %
.
$5 (<
4 &
%
'
0
&, /
&
,
%
%/ (
,
/ ,
/). $ &
&
%
,
&
,
& &%
.!.
=L. + & /
&
/
,
&
9
& %
, *
,
1
%
% (
538
0
&
/
%,
%
%: &
.
4
/ ** % &%
%
% 9
(internet) & %
** %,
/
/
%
. H
1
& .
*
%&
/.
/ /
9 %,
.
H
&
&
.
**
+38
*
,
&%1 *
9
,
%
&%
% **
%.
9 9
%
,
, &
%
.
$9
&
$& $*
# 3
3
*
%
,
9
&
"
'
3
,
'
,
60%,
%
/
&
.
Q
*
,
/
&
,
« »
&
&,
9
%
&
&
*
.
$
9
9
%
/,
%
%
. +
%
&
*
&
& & &
4/
%.
/ & /.
/
%
%
%
, &
*%
9
%. Q&
9
,
**
,
*
%
. 6 %
/
&
&%
/1,
9
,
*
%
9%
.
&
%
%
,
«
» &
%
.
1
&%
&
&
.
,
&
& ,
1
&%
%
,
1
.
8
1 %
,
%
,
, %
/
%
.
539
,
4
/
«
».
%
9
/
**
9%
1%,
/ «»
«
9%»
.
9%
/
«
* »
«». "
&
,
/%
%
,
&
&
,
/
%
, .
*
. +
*
/%
%
(
/, /
%
&)
9
,
&
&.
,
, «
%
%
», &
9 & ** . ,
0 & % %
/
*
,
.
&
%
/
«
9
», «
% 1
», «
%
»
**
«
/
» %
**
9
.
$&
5,
%
0
. $
%
,
%
& «
9 »,
0
&
,
. *
1
&
(
&,
* %,
%0, , &
%
/ ),
9
.
/
,
&
/
%
.
,
9
% %, * %
1
, %
-
-
&
&% ,
%%
,
9 /
&
.
/
9,
9
&1
%
,
&
.
H
, 1
?
5
,
<
.
05
'
*
0
9
1
,
%
*
.
,
&
* %
1
. 4
&
% *
,
.
* %
&1
/
. 4
9
,
, 9
1
/
%
.
(5,
&
# '
1
. "
,
/%
&
%
,
*
.
540
%' /#"%0( !" !" (% 0*"%%)'(
)#"('%#
} "
D
G
-
3
*
nglossas@otenet.gr
$59
4
/ &
& %
%
& &
"%
. Q
1993 &
&
/
"
'
. $
&%
,
9
.
9
,
%.
1. 0
+
*
&
,
& . 4
, ,
,
,
&
.
3
%
*%
1
.
%
9
/%
;
9
&
;
9
;
9
%
;
9
&
1
,
9
/ /% (
&
).
%
&
&
& %
&
. $
%
%
/
%,
%
/ &
1
&
,
&1
/
%
. Q
/
.
; $
9,
1-3 &
.
; $
9,
3-7 &
.
; $
9,
7-12 &
.
; $
/
9,
12-20.
+
% ' "
*
&
.
8
12 ,
&
& ,
, * .
1
541
9
9
*
.
$
&
*
.
; $
1
-
; "
&%
* % ,
/,
/
.
&
&
% 0
&
,
&
%
,
& &
.
!
&%
Bruner 9
&
. +
%
& %,
. $
%
/
9
,
/
1
.
6 *
&
,
&
9
. &
1%
&
/
–
–
, .
$
:
¾ 3
%
.
¾ 6
%
.
¾
.
¾ %
.
¾ 3
9
.
¾ 3
Project.
4
&
1
&
%
; H
.
; L
&
&
/
.
"
/
&
&. 4
%
.
& . Q
%
&
& *
.
6 *
&
&
* %
1
. 6
%
, &
1 .
542
$
/
1
.
4
% 1
&:
1. 8
%
&%
.
%
/
%
%
.
2. 4
% ( /). 6
&
9%
, &
,
* %
.
3. $
%
&
9 &
.
,
1%.
4. +
% 1
&%
0
&%. 6
%
9%
%.
$ %
. $
(
& ** ) 9
9
%
.
%.
1. $
% 9
%
.
2. %
.
3. $
1% & %.
4. %
%
.
5.
.
6. Q
**
9
.
7. $
%
.
8. 3
& &.
9.
%.
10. 3
%
.
11.
9%
.
$
. !
&
9
.
}
9 * %
&
9
.
1%
9 % &
&
, 0
,
.
* %
.
(
&
)
/
9
%
%
9
%
%
.
543
6 $
%
& 9
%
%
%
%
%
3
%
%
0
1: /5 85
5
8
05
544
) #. +
%
. *
&1
*%
&
*
1
,
*%
*
. +
%
O
% %
,
. $ **
& 9
&
&%
%
/
.
4. 0
85
$ %
%
.
9
% &
,
%
*%
/
.
1. ;# .
$
,
%
1
9
&
&
*. 6
% *
&
&
9%
. Q&
9%
9.
+
%
1 9.
9
¾ 3
1% 9
¾ 3
1% 9
.
¾ 3
% 9
&
.
¾ 3
1
.
¾ 3
/ 9
%
.
+
%
*%
/
* %
9 }
9%
&
*
9.
9 }
/%
1%
.
% 9%
9
%
1 9
4/=
9%.
9 }
9
% 9.
& % ** %,
%
1%
** .
9 }
1
9
(**
– – sites – 9 9).
6
&
/
9
,
&
8
.
545
9 "
/ 9
%
% %
*%
.
%
9
,
,
, . ..
2. &#
#
.
+
&
%
9 & . \
9
& . $
%
%
%
*
9
1
.
$
&
%
/
%. 6
9
%.
$
1
1
¾ 4 %
&
.
¾ =&
%.
¾ 4 %
*
9
%
+
%
/
% %
(
%
) *%
. $
9
9%. $
1%
1
& . H
9
,
1%
9
&
,
1
%
%, .&.
,
% , . ..
&
%
.
1%
&
.
¾
*
*
/ /
.
"
*%
%
*
1%
%
– &
. L
*
%
(&
& /)
%
1
1 / / &
&
4. @#
.
%
%
&
,
%
. 6
*
&
,
*
.
+
1
¾ 4
9 &
.
546
¾ 4 %
&
&
%
"
*%
%
9 }
9
/
%
&
&% % .
9 }
/ /
9
&
&
*
*
(
)
%
&
.
5.
#
.
$.
/%
%
%
(
) & &
%. $ &
&
%
. $
%
9
&
%,
%
.
*
& &
.
¾ 3
&
,
9
% &
.
"
/
* %
%
9
%
/%
& &
. $
**
%
&
**
%
&
%
/
/%
%.
. 6
&
9%
9
, *
1
9
1
9
%
.
(
9) 1
9
&%
.
* %
1
¾ 3
%
¾ 3 1
&
¾ 3 1
&
¾ 3 1
& 9
.
+
%
*%
/
* %
9 /%
%
%
9
%
,
9
&%
9 $
/%
&
* %
/»&»
9 $
&
/%
9
&
.
&
9
9
,
9 9
. 9
547
/,
&
.
9 $
%
/
&%
/% &%
.
&
,
%
.
7. ?
4
%
*
& (
&
)
.
}
5 5 . 3
12
% &
& /
*
. $
9% /. 6
%
(
9)
/.
/.
%
1
*
.
%. }
(
)
%
&
(.&.
9 %
9
*)
$
1
1
¾ 3
9
&
.
¾ 3
&
.
¾ $
& &
%
"
/
* %
%
9 "
* %
9 & &%
*
&
%,
*
(&
)
. }
*
9
/
%.
9 H
9
&
1
( *
)
%
&%
.
8.
#
# #
.
6 * 9
%
&%
,
%
&%
9%
%
%
. 4
%
& 9%
&
%
%
(
%)
. $
1
.
&
.
$
* %
¾ 3
%.
¾ 3
.
"
*%
/
%
548
9 L
/
% & ( **
%
& 9
&)
/%
&
.
9 !
&%
%
. $
%
&
(
«&
$
#
-
#
»)
%
1
%. 6
9%
%,
%
9
%
1%
(
9
%, &
, . ..)
.
9. @
$.
H
(
&
).
6
1
9
&
& . 6 %
%
& &
. 6
1%,
&
/.
$
* %
1
¾ 3
*%
(
9
).
¾ 3
&.
"
*%
%
9
/
9
%
,
.
,
*%
–
9
& (
10 ).
9 L
/
&. "
&
0,
&
%
.
L
&
«*»
,
/
&
.
5. /
$ &
$
(...$.)
%
&
1
.
&
. "
/
%
.
/%
.
,
,
* % ,.
549
+
%
. &
1%
*
6. (5
$
9
1
%
&
’ "
.
1
9
%
.
0 &
*%
. L
%
&
. 6
/
1
&
.
$
%
%
*%
1
% &
*
. $
%
%
=
%,
?5
(
)
%.
9
%
&
# "
.
7. C56
1. "
}., &
’ "
** 6
%, +38, 2005.
2. "
}., &
’ "
**
%, +38, 2005.
3. 4 N., / %
/ #
+ &
, . , 1983.
4. " ., B#
$
$
, . 8*
H
, 1989.
5.
3, ;!# @#$#, . %
, 1981
6. D
\, B#$#, .
1%, 1977.
7. D
\, A ;!#
, . Gutenberg, 1986.
8. Bigge 6., $
%, .
, 1990.
9. Hopf D.,
; &#
, .
, 1989.
10. Maley D., The Maryland Plan, New York: Bruce Inc., 1973.
11. Frey ., A
Project, .
, 1986.
550
/'/(,' ( 0*"%%)'( ("
’ #,0'%# : ' 0%/%%)', $&%(0))'(
$59
&
’ '
&
3
*
. $
&
«Q
».
$
9%
%.
9
*
&
9
9
.
!
9
1
. * %
( 0 / , . ..) %
(
%
). $
*%
& %
.
&
%,
%, .. $
9
/%
¾ 3
%
.
¾ 6
%
.
¾
.
¾ %
.
¾ 3
9
.
¾ 3
Project.
4
&
1
,
%
.
/
:
; H
.
; L
&
&
/
.
"
/
* %
1
& %
%,
%.
/.
}
. Bacon 16
,
Rousseau 18 , ..
0 &
&
&
%
%
. $
&
20
Dewey
9
(.
+
&
Dewey
&1
9 4
0
/.
9 4 *
*
%
9% 9
* .
9 +
*
&
%
9
%.
551
$
0
Dewey &
&
9
&
20
& &
%
.
$ 2
20
9
1
A% Maryland Plan,
&
&
&
*&
.
%,
&
(
)
&
.
% 0
A
!(
.
!
#
#
$
Q
9
&
#
8# "
,
’ '
.
Q /
"
&
*&
9
«%
»
«+
%
»
&
.
&%
&
&
*
1
,
2. 8
«j5
$5»
$ ’ '
%
&
9
1
«Q
». $&
9%
%
.
H
%
+
%
,
%
. 4
Project
. 4 Project &
%
.
z
/
z
%
z
& % / /
z 3 1
% &
$9
%
,
9
%
%
9
"
.
9
¾ &1
%
%
&
9
D
%, \
,
. .. $
&
.
%
Q
&
/,
%
,
/
&%
.
552
4 /
%
%
%
%
.
"
1
/ * %
,
%
9
/
&%
.
&
%
/,
3. /
– 0
85
+
@ # (L%
)
@
. $
9 %
,
%
%
.
.
%
1
&
,
*%
/
. L
%
*%
%,
/
1
*
. $
&
9
0 &
%
*%
% .
1. &
$
.
"
%
&%
(% ),
’
&%
* (/
/)
1
. 6
%
,
%
%
.
$
%
¾ $
* ,
.
¾ $
%
.
"
*%
%
9 2-3
9 L
/%
9 L
%
.
9 L
1%
*
/%
.
553
L
&
.
&
*
%
&
,
9
&
.
%.
+
1
¾ 4 %
&
&
.
¾ =&
%.
$
%
&
/
/
% %
. 6
/%
%
%
1%
&
. 6
*%
% 1%
/
%.
&
*
,
1%
%
/
*
.
% *
.
&
% &
9% 9
.
+
1
¾ &
9
¾ 3
/
"
*%
%
9 }
9%
&
*
9.
9 }
1
9
(**
– – sites). 6
&
/
9
,
&
6 .
/
&%
. L
/
%
&%
/ 9
%
%
. $
%
9 &
9%,
/
&
9
*
* %
1
.
¾ $
&
%
9.
4 % % 9 &1
% % .
%
*%
%
/
9.
554
5. ;## ! .
H
%
/ 9. L
%
,
/%
9
. $
/%
9
9
.
9
% &
. +
%
. L
/ %
/.
9
&
.
1
& %,
(.&. 0,
%,
* %
, . ..)
H
%
%
,
%
/
. 6
&
,
%
%
.
6. @
H
%
. $
%
%
&
. 6
9%
&. 6
%
9
%
&
%.
}
1
%
’ "
.
%
* %
,
¾ +
.
¾ 3
&.
¾ 3
&
%
"
*%
%
/
% & 0
. L
/ 9
*
.
9%
).
555
1. ;
(
"
9
&
%
/.
%
*
,
%
.
$
«Q
»
%
/
&
% &
*%
% &
/
*%
% .
$
/%
.
¾ 3
0
/
%0 %
¾ 3
&
%
/
4 &
%
/
*
/
%
. "
*%
%
1
% &
9 %
/
%
.
9
%
&%
%
.
9
%
%
2.
#
$.
$
/
&
/ . +
&%
/
%
.
$
1
/%
¾ 3
& &.
¾ 3
9 &
.
¾ 3
.
’ "
&
9%
, /
9
1
* %
,
&
’ "
. "
*%
%
,
/
.
3.
#
$
$
. ( $.
9 &
%
/
,
&%
% . 4
/
%
*
%
%
,
9 *%
%
%
*%
&% %
0
%
. $
/
9
%
/
¾ 4
1
9
% (*
&
’ "
).
}
%
,
Q
*
%
%
/.
%
%
%
9
%, /
%
. "
%
%
(&
).
556
4. %
9
%
/
&%
/
%
. $
’
&%
9
%
* %
9
.
%
& &%
(
/,
, . ..).
%0 %.
$
% & / /
9
.
%0 % &
%
,
. +
1
¾
¾
%0 % &
*
.
"
*%
%
&%
%
/% &%
9
&
% &
.
9 +
%
/
9 +
.
9 +
/.
5. & ( #
$ – ;
6 %0 %
&%
/
,
%
&% %
0
. $
9%
/
%. L
/
%
%
.
$
9
1
/%
¾
1
%
*
¾
/
%
¾
/
%
"
*%
%
/%
/
%. !
&%
/
/
%
.
0
&%
&%
EXCEL *%
%
9%
(
– ).
% 9%
9
%
&
%
.
4. %5
.
4
%
&
’ '
& ,
.
z $
*
. 3
9
&
.
z $
9
%
.
%
.
*
& ,
%
%
&
.
557
¾ /
. +
&
. L
/
(/
). +
1
9
9 }
%
. L
1
*
,
,
. L
%
&.
9
/
*
. 4
*
%
. L
/
%,
9
.
%
9 2-3
%
/%
1
.
9
%
&
. $ ’ "
&
9%
&
.
&
&
% %. L
,
&
. +
%
9
%
( *%
)
.
9 3
.
1
"
,
&%
9
1-2
..
¾
%
. 9
&
9
& /%
%
%
,
%
*
%
(%
)
9%
. +
,
&
2
. $
%
%
9
&
/ /
%
.
/. \%
%
.
9
%
%
/. L
%
*%
%
*
1
&
& .
¾ '
*
%,
%
%
&% %
0
%
. Q
*
*
%
*
. "
%
*
9 (
9
%
).
/ %
&
9
% (
558
&
&
%
*
9
. $
%
¾ $
9. 4
% 9
%
.
¾ 1
*
. $
%
*
*
. 6
%
*
. $
&
%
,
/
%
.
¾ /1
9
%
. +
&
9 &
,
&
/ %
. 9 %
.
¾ "9
/. !
1
9% % (.&. 0,
%,
* %
, . ..) "
9%,
&
%
%
%9
&
,
/.
¾ +
% &
. =
,
1
&
%
. 4
%
*
&
9
.
5. (5
$
«Q
»
%
&
’ '
.
1
9
%
.
0 &
%
*%
.
%
/
%
%
& % &.
6
%
* «
».
$
%
%
*%
1
% & *
.
$
%
%
=
%,
?5
(
)
%.
7. C56
1. "
}., &
’ "
** 6
%, +38, 2005.
2. 4 N., / %
/ #
+ &
, . , 1983.
3. 4 }., 8 "., &
’ '
, +38, 2001
4. Maley D., The Maryland Plan, New York: Bruce Inc., 1973.
5. Frey ., A
Project, .
, 1986.
559
560
0*"%%)' 1( )0"',%# #,0'%#
%', 0&0#"', 0&)(' C’ 0&"%# ,' 1'%%)( (
&
&
#/ " '
*
.
/1
!
%
%
%
&
/
!
.
4
%
9
.
0"%0(
1.01!+#%
- $& , 6
, /, %
,
,
%, /
%
, 4
5.$0&'-
4 0
* % %
, ,
.
6
9
.
6.0'()!)
4
%,
*
/%:
6.1.
* %
.+ (
%
*)
8.6
* (/, /
,
)
6.2. =
,
%,
-
* 9 **
9
.
6.5.
;
9
;
6.6.
1
( &
* )
1
&
*
&
.
+
1
(% &
)
.
6.7. H
1
1
/
, 9
%.
.&.
,
Q
,
561
,
*
,
%
* ,
&, ...
7.0!&',% 0&%(
$ L 6
&
9
%
**
, , ,
,
.
$
,
*:
7.1. !%
%- &
9
% / /
%
* %
7.2. +
&
9
,
&
*
**
9
. /
*
7.3.
$&
,
9
9
.
8.0&0#"',% 0&%(
6
,
*
/%:
8.1.\
*
& & (*).
8.2.
*
(&
%
,
%,
. .) % O
(
,
. .)
%
&%
%
.
8.3.
9
/
% % Q
.
8,4.
%
*
%
,
.
8.5.D
9
(6
%
)
: 1-2 9
='! ! 6$
3-4 9
'$4 +=
!G6+$
2-3 9
+'$6
=&
*
8.6.
* /
,
%
%.
9
&
9
1
%
1
9
% ,
.
.
9.(#$0&(-$&%(0'(
9.1.
,
9
. =& &
/
/
/
* %;
% &.
9.2. &% %
0
&%
"
% %
9.3. \% ,
9
.
9.4.
%
"
% &
* .
10.C'C'%)&+'
*
** % (
Internet, ),
&%
.
"
** , %
9
:
9
,
, ,
,
.
562
$'",( 1'%%)((
(%'*0' ( C%' C%' $&&(0'(
0&0#"( (#" :100 1'%%)((
1.01!+#% 2
2.'%( ( 1
0&0#"(
3.$0&'0*%0" 1
4.$&%%)%( 1
5.$0&'- 1
6.5 $5
3
85
6.6 $5
3
5~
8
6.7 5 85
2
7.1 '5
5- 10
<
7.2. %5
2
<5=
8.0&0#"',% (47)
0&%(
8.1 *5
5 2
5
563
8.2.,
2
8
8.3.08 10
5
8.4.$
10
55
8.6.
8
9.1 , 5
5
111
120
100
80
"*#?&)
60
(256)
40 21 19
19 18
14 14
5 6 8 9 9
20 3
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
+*"(;
564
8YH>9#&# 8G#IE & 8G#8
#& /"E>9H8&
$;.=';)" M?&?>"#'(B
0% 16%
43%
41%
2% 1
28%
16 17 18 19
http://users.dra.sch.gr/annpaschal
}}+=' $\'!3+=
"C+}+$ !3=!+$
=+3!=L=}G! $+ 4 "}!+ '=!+ 3G6$
565
*&( ( *&%)&+(( 0""%'!" )' 0'!( !" !" (%
( 0*"%%)'(
)
~ 5~
12
"
'
johntzortzakis@gmail.com
$0&'-
$
1
%
&
'
*
1
\
9 . 9
&%
&
,
%,
%
%
&
. 9
%
&
9
&
.
9!
(
: / #
'
, `# ., , &#
, @
!.
1. 0'()!)
$
%
&
/
" '
%
. +
,
/ ,
0
,
%
*
9
9
& &.
9
& , &
9
/
, ,
, &
. D
&
* *
*
&
(
)
*
0
/
9
.
/. 6
%
,
&
,
%
0
,
%
,
0
&
,
. $
9%,
%
,
&
%
.
9
1
TPS (think, pair, share),
(fussing with
definition),
(brainstorming)
&
9
$ ,
&
,
%
%
9
* 0
+
. )
9 %
,
8) «
»,
&1
%
&
&
,
&
9
&
") «
»
&1
%
&
,
&
&
,
* 9
,
&
9
&
. H
*
9
9
& &,
9%
%.
,
566
&
%
, 9
9%
%, % &
.
3. *&%)&+( 0""%'!"
4 \
9
. =1
%
&
0
% (
* %
,
%
)
&
%.
, &
%.
9
. 4
*
,
%
%. + &
} & (mind map).
9 % &%,
% (
)
Tony Buzan, 6 8
1970. 6
9
, *
0
& ,
%
*
9
, %
, 9
/ /,
%
*1. ,
%
9
. $ 9
, 9
,
%
,
,
. + 9 &%: % &
9 "
&
% / %
. "
% / 5 10
9 /.
/
5
10
9
/." "
&
1%
&1 .
&
9
1
2,
1
&
"
9
%
« * »
%
«
».
6
&
%
&
,
/ *
,
% 1
,
&1
/
/1
& . $
, 9
%
,
9, %
.
567
1. } &
%
2. } &
%
"
9
$#3
6
%
(
,
, 9
%
/ . +
&
&
%
&
&,
/ *
/
% .
3. } &
&
%
( 1)
9
&
&
,
%
1%
9/
& &
. 6
% %
&
*%
&
%
% /
. 4 %
&
: « 1
...;» % «
&
5 &
&%
568
4. } &
&
5. 4
( «
&
0
, &%
)
9
/
&
% . $ 9
%,
6. } &
&
7. } &
/
( «
1
9
0;)
/
* %
$
8 9
} &
&1
%
9%
*
. , 9
10 9
&
% } &
9
(
%) %
0 }% &
9,
$
569
8. } &
9
9. } &
9%
9 ,
%,
10. } &
9 }% \
9
,
*
&
/ . +
/
/
%
,
9 %
. +
9
,
1
(1
). + &
,
&,
% 9
&
%
/
9 &
&. 4
9
/ % &
9
}% &
9,
} & &
,
&
&
. "’
,
&
% ,
&
9% . +
/
& 9
/
9
,
&
,
«
*1
»
&
9. 6
&
1
9
&
%,
&
&
,
,
&1
%
&.
&
&
%
9%
,
*1
. + 9
9 , ’
,
1
570
&
. $
11 9
&
%,
9
(
%),
9
*. $
12 9
&
%
&% &
,
13
0
% &
9,
$
11. &
9 (
%)
12. &
9
%
13. &
9 % &
9
&
%
. \
&
9
9
%
&
571
&%
. $
14 9
%,
15
&
&
** &
"
.
14. "
%
15. 3
%
** "
$
&
, ',
% &
&
9%
%
, 9
16
17.
16. 3
%
9
%
9%
572
17. 3
%
9
%
%
%
%
9
9
,
*
. "
%
& %
:
3%
&: +
&
%
. 4
% ,
&
,
% %
&.
$
: 4
/ %
/
&1 . + &
&
%
&%
/ . 4
%
/ .
$&
&: 4 &% , &,
&
&,
&
/
9
1
.
4
&%
&
&.
&%
%
*
,
9
,
&
. $
&
&
, 9 /
&%
,
/ . $
18
9
9%
/
,
'
&%
&. +
*
&
&
& .
573
18.
9%
/ &%
&
. $
L
% } (Multiple Intelligence)
9
&
,
/%: " %, '%-6
%,
6
%, +%, $
%, 3
%, %, D
%, =
/
%,
%
4%.
,
,
&
,
,
&
. ¨Q
,
9
19, *
Businessballs.com
&%
9
%,
&
,
%
,
/
Lickert .
19.
%
20. $
Pearson
$
110
'
,
9
20. D
,
% &
9
,
9
&
,
&
9
,
574
&
/
. $
, 9
&
Pearson
9
&
&
Gardner,
%
&
19. D
&
&
,
%, &
&
,
,
**
%
% /.
5. (#$0&(
%
&
'
,
'. $
&% \
9
9% }
&
%. +
&
&
,
&% &
. &
&% \
9
,
/
&
.
6. C'C'%)&+'
6
4., L
/ 3
.8’, $
3
, %
2000
6
4., +
% 3
6, %
2000
6
4., L
/ 3
, : & % / &,
,
&
, , %
1999
L., 6
3
!, %
1991
Buzan Tony & Barry, To ** &
9
, %
2007
Buzan Tony, How to Mind Map, Harper Collins Publishers, USA 2002
8
6
, + &
μ. %
2001
9 6
%, 6
&, %
1996
8
&
D%, $
3
, 3
%
4 %
6,
%
2007
«
: 9
9
%», 2, 8
% Q, 6
!!.5,
%
2006
D 1, D
6., « % \
9: 6
%
*
»,
http://www.etpe.gr/files/proceedings/uploads1/b411.pdf
"
%
, .
. «/
\
3
/ 6
9% "
»,
http://hermes.di.uoa.gr/lab/CVs/papers%5Cpapanikolaou%5Cdidactics05-conceptmap-GGPG.pdf
T
&1
&, http://www.mycoted.com/ Mind_Mapping
How to mind map,
o http://www.studygs.net/mapping/
o http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~rwilliams/teaching.htm
o http://www.ssdd.uce.ac.uk/learner/studyskills/mindmaps.htm
o http://www.support4learning.org.uk/education/concept_maps_and_mind_maps.cfm
University of Minesota, Assessment & Evaluation Mind Map, http://dmc.umn.edu/
activities/mindmap/
575
*&( !" 0*"%%)'!" Web 2.0. )' 0'!( !" !" (%
( 0*"%%)'(
)
~ 5~
12
"
'
johntzortzakis@gmail.com
$0&'-
$
1
%
&
'
*
1
/ & Web 2.0
.
9
&%
(wikis),
(blog)
9 (Google documents),
%
%
&
. 9
%
%
&%
& . 4
9% ,
&
.
9!
(
: / #
'
, Web 2.0, wiki, blog, Google documents,
.
1. 0'()!)
$
%
&
/
" '
%
.
, &
. "
*
,
,
,
*%
,
%
%
.
/,
&
%
&,
&
9
.
%,
. "
&
&
& Web 2.0
&
.
9% . 4
9
& (&
)
%
9 &
(
&
),
9
%
9. 3
%
&%
,
1
&
*
&. /
%
% 9%
,
&
social software
9 %
&
*
& 9. + wikipedia
/%:
social software
,
%
1
%
&
online .
9
&
&%. $
,
&%
&
9
%
&% . $
9
%
576
0. 4
&
&
*
1%
.
,
3
,
&
&%
9
%
&
9
/
%&
.
+ Web 2.0 &
9
1
0
/
O'Reilly
MediaLive International +*
2004. + Web 2.0
9
Internet (World Wide Web)
9%
9 on-line. $
, Web 2.0
&%
9
9
. + &
&
9
&
*
World Wide Web
%
&
%
9
..
&
9
–
Web 2.0
:
wikis
Web logs
&%
9
.
2.1. TA Clog
Q
Weblog,
9
blog,
&
&%
&
%
(
%
)
1
9 & % . Q
blog ,
%,
%
(
%
9 & %
9
). $
2 9
blog &
'.
Blog
9
&
% %
&
,
9
, %, %
%
online
.
1. blog &
Q
&
blog
1 , ,
blog,
&
.
blog
1
9
9,
* % %&. =&
&
&
/
&,
blog
1
& &
. $
, blog (WebLog)
. 3
,
&%
&
,
% ,
9
&
.
2.2. TA Wikis
Wiki'
&%
,
9
, %
/
/ & %
,
9 &
9%
.
%
wiki
%
9%.
wikis
%, 9
9%
&%.
&
577
WikiWikiWeb. 4 / wiki
9%
wiki wiki (weekie, weekie),
\
*
&
%
/
%. $
wiki, 9
9
1.
,
. M
,
&% *
. ,
wiki
1%. $
wiki Wikipedia (
wiki),
9
2,
&
1% '
,
wiki,
1%
. +
9 9
wiki. "
Wikipedia
9
&
1
.
2. Wikipedia, t
wiki
Q
wiki
%
& *
&%
1% 9. Q
&
&
wiki
&%
wiki,
,
1
&.
wikis
&
& %
&%. $
, wiki
. 3
,
&%
.
&
,
9
&
9
(revisions).
/. 6
%
,
&
,
%
0
,
%
,
0
&
,
. $
9%,
%
,
&
%
. 4
578
, &
,
/
,
/
%
9
%
9 . "
&1
&
&
9
/1
%
, &
&
&
. $
& Web 2.0
&
&
. 4
%
Project
%
%
. &
%
&
,
&
%
% %
*
(
81-82 / &%),
&
1
Project, &%
&
%
,
&% 9 %
%
. +
&
(3
2 &
*
)
%
. "
%
&
% 9%
&
,
12
LAN
&
.
wiki,
9%
,
%
9 excel,
. Q&
&
9
9
&
%
/.
&
,
**
.
3. wiki
% &
579
4. +
9
blog
9
1, &
&
. 8
%
Zanneio2007.blogspot.com,
* &
%
%
. 3
, &
%
%,
, 9
5.
5. %
% blog
3
&%,
, %
% &
%
*
,
*
&% /. 3
099 9
, &.
*
*
.
wiki
6,
%
&
,
9%
%
,
&1
/1
.
580
6. $
%
%
.
"
&
/
,
%
9 Google documents. +
&
*
,
,
&
. Q
,
%
«
&
'
»,
9
&
%
,
&
&
.
& 9 & 0 &
1
9
&
9
)
&
. H
9
,
0
9 (report) &
&
9
(
)
&
*. &
,
&
9
&
,
9
&%
(applet),
1
%
1
, 9
,
9
9
.
%
,
1
9
(wikis). &
9 9
581
wiki
% & 9
9
.
\
wiki 1
.
&
blog 9
%
%
%
,
%
.$
,
1 wiki, 9
7,
&
&
0
,
,
&
.
1
9 wikis.K
0
9 (report) &
&
9
&
*,
,
&
,
&
*
9
*
9
&%
.
$
%
$
%
&
7. $
Wikis
1 wiki,
%
, 9
8. "
,
&
%
*
9 . $ , wiki,
& /&%
,
«
*1
»
. "
%
/
wikis,
% 4/=. 4
*
1
. $
*
9
9
9
,
9
,
*
9
,
0
,
, wiki
/
&
9
/
.
8: 3
WEB 2.0.
582
Q,
9 9
,
9
&
9
/% 9
.
9
% 9
9
9
/ 9
&
, 9
/ 9
,
.
$
%
,
9%
,
9
-
/
/
,
9
&
,
9%
wiki
.
%
/
&
%
%
*
. ,
%/
,
-
/
*
9
, 099
/
&%
1%
.
5. ",0+'!(
%
&
'
,
'. $
&% & Web 2.0
. +
&
&
,
&%
& .
&% & Web 2.0.
9
,
,
6. C'C'%)&+'
C:
Web 2.0: The Future of the Internet and Technology Economy and How Entrepreneurs, Investors,
Executives & Consumers Can Take Ad (Execenablers) by Dermot A. McCormack ISBN: 1587622009
Pragmatic Ajax : A Web 2.0 Primer by Justin Gehtland ISBN: 0976694085
Social Software of Accounting and Information Systems by Norman B. MacIntosh ISBN:
0471905437
Computer Networks: Webs of Communication for Language Teaching” in Pennington, M. C. (ed) The
Power of CALL, Hoffman, R. (1996) “Houston: Athelstan
Blog: %
.
6
. (2006). }9
Internet:
http://www.pi-schools.gr/download/programs/Oloimero/oloimero_03_05/eishghseis_hmer_05/
GenikoSxima.pdf
http://a.wholelottanothing.org/features/2003/12/social_software.html
http://www.plasticbag.org/archives/2003/05/my_working_definition_of_social_
software.shtml
http://Web2.wsj2.com/review_of_the_years_best_Web_20_explanations.htm
http://www.Web2con.com/
http://www.paulgraham.com/Web20.html
http://www.alevin.com/Weblog/archives/cat_social_software.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/
583
«
<
65 »
4 &
%
%
"
,
& /
* . $ # /
9
1
8# /
.
*
0-
, :
%
&%
. 6
,
%
,
&
1 9
&
*
. +
%
1
*
9
* %
& ,
9
1
% % (
,
).
&
%
.
4 &
%
%
9%
%
,
9
1
. +
%
*
%
,
/
. +
% 1
9 *%
.
,
9
%:
x $565
.
x 09<
.
x (
~
&
%
.
584
x (=
1,
.
x ,
%
/
9
%
.
+
%
#
. &'
'
#
,
"
.
,
9
%:
x
~ ? 9
.
x 08 ,
.
x 05
*
.
x 6~
%
&
%
1%
.
x $ 5
5
%
.
o %
.
o %
/ .
o &
%
%.
o
%
.
*
*%
9
:
x 4
1%
9
.
x 4
9
/ 9%
.
x 4
9% 9
%
/ %
/ ( &).
585
x 4
/
%,
%
&%
.
9
:
x 4 /
%
.
x 4
%
& ** .
x 4
/
.
%).
*%
:
x 4
%.
x 4
9
.
x 4
/ /, 9
%
&
%-
%
099
.
x 4
(1 % 2
%
) * .
x +
.
x 4
/
%,
%
&%
.
9
:
x 4
%
%.
x 4
.
x 4
%
(9
,
,
*
,
, ..)
x 4
/
.
*%
:
x +
% 9.
x 4
( , e-mail % 9
)
&
.
x 4
% 0 &
%
,
.
586
x 4
/ 9
.
x 4
% 9
,
9
.
x 4
/
%
%
&%
.
9
:
x 4
1% 9
%
%.
x 4
/
.
4. 08
85
*
%
(
,
%
,
%
).
I. $
*%
:
}
& % & (
, %
,
%
, 9
%, )
}
.
}
&
,
1
(
,
,
, &
,
/ )
6 %/
1%, &
,
,
%
0
%
.
4
/
%
%
&%
.
9
:
4
/
.
II. $
9%
%
.
*%
:
}
&
%.
}
,
9
.
}
/
9%
.
}
9
-9
%.
587
/
.
/
%
%
&
&
%
.
9
:
4
%
.
4
%
% 9
% 9
.
4
/
.
III.
%
%
.
*%
:
4 %
.
$&
/, *%
%.
+
.
4 %
.
4
9%
( ,
,
,
,
)
.
+
%
% &
&
,
%
&% .
/
%
%
&
&%
%.
9
:
4
* %
9
& &
&%
.
+
%.
4
/
.
588