Cooling Tower Fundamentals

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Cooling Tower
Fundamentals
Compiled from the knowledge and experience
of the entire Marley staff.

Edited by
John C. Hensley

SECOND EDITION

Published by
SPX Cooling Technologies, Inc.
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Overland Park, Kansas USA >VŽiÊNÊ>“œ˜ÊÀÞÊ
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 Copyright© 2006
by

SPX Cooling Technologies, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced

in any form without written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

2
Foreword
Although the world’s total fresh water supply is abundant,
some areas have water usage demands that are heavily out of
balance with natural replenishment. Conservation and efficient
reuse of this precious and versatile resource are mandatory
if such areas are to achieve proper development. And, the
need for water conservation does not limit itself only to arid
regions. Recognition of the detrimental environmental impact
of high temperature water discharge into an estuary, whose
inhabitants are accustomed to more moderate temperature
levels, makes one realize that the re-cooling and reuse of
water, however abundant, conserves not just that important
natural resource—it conserves nature as well. One helpful
means to that end is the water cooling tower.

Those responsible for the specifications, purchasing and

operation of plant, station, or building cooling systems must
consider many aspects beyond the primary requirement of
dissipating unwanted heat. The following text is devoted
to identifying the primary and peripheral considerations
and offering approaches refined by some eighty years of
experience in the cooling tower industry. The goal is to
assure the implementation of water cooling systems which
will satisfy all design and environmental requirements with
sound engineering and responsible cost.

This manual is not intended to be all-encompassing and

thoroughly definitive. The entire scope of cooling towers is
too broad, and the technology far too advanced, to permit
complete coverage in a single publication. Separate brochures
by SPX Cooling Technologies, either existing or planned, cover
individual topics in depth. The intent herein is to provide a
level of basic knowledge which will facilitate dialogue, and
understanding, between user and manufacturer.

3
 Contents
page

FOREWORD ......... ......... ................................................................................................... ......................................................... 3

SECTION [ COOLING TOWER BASICS

A. Background... ....................... ............. .......... ............................................................................... 7
B. Types of Towers ......................................................................................... ................................................ 8
C. Nomenclature ................ ..... .. .................................................................................................................... 14
D. The Psychrometrics of Evaporation ......................................................................................................... 17
E. Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance ....................................................................................... 19
F. Materials of Construction ................................................................................... .................. .... .............. 29
G. Maintaining Water Quality .......... ... ........................................................ ................................. . ............... 30
H. Operation in Freezing Weather ............................................................................................................. 33

SECTION II STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

A. General.. ........... ............................... ............................ ...... ................................................................ 37
B. Cold Water Basin ................... .... .................................. ............................................................. 37
C. Tower Framework ..................................................................... .. .................... ....................................... 41
D. Water Distribution System .... ........................................... ..................................................... .43
E. Fan Deck .................................................................................................................................................. 47
F. Fan Cylinders ....................................................... .... ................................................................................. 47
G. Mechanical Equipment Supports ..................... ...................................................................................... 48
H. Fill (heat transfer surface) .................. .................................................................................................... .48
I. Drift Eli minators .......................................................................................... .............................................. 50
J. Casing ... ............................................ ........................................................ .................... .......... 51
K. Louvers .. ............................. .......................................................... ................................ .................. 51
L. Access and Safety Considerations ..... .. ................................... ................................. ................... 52

SECTION III MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

A. General ........ ....... ...................... ........................ .......................................................................... ....... 53
B. Fans ................................... .. ............................... ...................... ......... .......................... ...................... 53
C. Speed Reducers .......... ......... ........................................................................................ . ................. ....... 56
D. Drive Shafts ....... ................................................... ..................................................... ... ..... ... 58
E. Valves ................................ ............................................................................................................ .. ....... 59
F. Safety Considerations .......................................... .................... ... ...... ............. .............. .... ......... 60

SECTION IV ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

A. Motors ............................. ......................................................................................................................... 61
B. Motor Controls .......................................................................................................................................... 62
C. Wiring System Design ............................................................................................................................... 63
D. Cycling of Motors ........ ... ........................................................................................................................... 64

SECTION V SPECIALIZED TOWER USAGE AND MODIFICATIONS

A. General .... .. ................................................................ ............................................................... .. .............. 65
B. Water Conservation ................................................................................................................................. 65
C. Visual Impact and Plume Control ....................... .................................................................................... 68
D. Adiabatic Air Precooling .......................................... ........................................ ......................................... 71
E. Energy Reduction .................................................................................................................................... 72
F. Energy Management and Temperature Control .......................................................................... ........... 72
G. Noise Control ...................................... ....................................................................................................... 74
H. Drift Reduction ........................................................................................................................................... 76
I. Abnormal Operating Conditions .................... ..................................................... ......... ............................. 76
J. Vibration Isolation ... .... ..... .................. .............................. .... .. ................. ........................................... 81
K. Free Cooling .................... ........................................... .... ..... ................................................................... 83
L. Helper Towers ................................................................ . .... .................................................................... 86

4
SECTION VI AUXILIARY COMPON ENTS
A. General ........................................................................................................ ............................................... 87
B. Extended Oil Fill and Gauge Lin es ................ .................................................................... ...................... 87
C. Mechanical Equipment Remova l Devices ............................................................................................... 88
D. Prevention of Basin Freezing .... ... ...... ...................................... .. .......... ... ................................................. 89
E. Filtering Systems ................................................. ... .. ................................................................................. 93
F. Fan Brakes and Backstops .......... .... ........................................................... ......... .. .................................. 94
G. Air Inlet Screens ........................................................ ................................................................................ 94
H. Distribution Basin Covers .......................................................................... ............ ................................... 94
I. Vibration Lim it Switch ..................... ................ ...... .................................................................................... 94
J. Fire Protection, Prevention and Control ................................................. ................................................. 95

SECTION VII THERMAL PERFORMAN CE TESTING

A. General ............................................... ........................ ............................................................................... 97
B. Tower Preparation for Test .................................................. ..................... ..... ......... .. ................................. 97
C. Instrumentation for Test ........................................... ................................................................................. 97
D. Operating Cond itions Du ring Test .............................................................. .............................................. 99
E. Conducting the Test ........................... .......................... .. ........................................................... ................ 99
F. Evaluation of Test Data ............................................................................. ................................................ 99

SECTION VIII OWNER RESPONSIBILITIES

A. General .......... .................................... ...................... ....... ........................................................................ 103
B. Covering Specification ................................................................................. ................................ .......... 103
C. Tower Orientation and Site Services .................................................................................... ................ 104
D. Economic Evaluation Parameters ......................................................................................................... 104
E. Contractual Information ......................................................................................................................... 105
F. Comparing Capability of Proposed Towers ......................................................................................... 106
G. Cleaning and Biological Control ... ...................... .... .............................................................................. 106

SECTION IX TABLES .............................. ...................... .................. ....... .................. ... ..................................................... 107

SECTION X INDEX ... ............................ ............................................. ............................................................................... 114

5
6

COOLING TOWER BASICS
A. BACKGROUND
The machines and processes of industry, as well
as those devoted to human comfort and well-being,
generate tremendous amounts of heat which must
be continuously dissipated if those machines and
processes are to continue to operate efficiently. Al-
though this heat is usually transferred to a cool,
flowing volume of water, final rejection is always to
the atmosphere and, invariably, is accomplished by
some form of heat exchanger. Many of those termin-
al heat exchangers are not easily recognized as such
because they are better known as "creeks", "rivers",
"lakes", etc.
The natural process of evaporation makes them
very effective heat transfer mediums, although
somewhat inefficient due to their limited surface
Figure 1 - The principle of cooling by evaporation_
SECTION I
area and their total dependence upon random winds.
Although the happy man depicted in Figure 1 may
not completely understand the principle of evapora-
tion, he is intuitively making use of this most ancient
form of natural cooling . Primeval , perspiring man·
kind depended upon natural breezes to accelerate
this evaporative cooling process, and was grateful
when they came. At some point in that distant past ,
however, hands began to manipulate broad leaves to
create an artificial breeze - and the basic concept
of a COOling tower was unknowingly founded. Eons
later, the advanced technology which allows Mr. Fig-
ure 1 to revel in a mechanically-produced flow of air
made finite development of the cooling tower prac-
ticable.
7
SECTION [
B. TYPES OF TOWERS
Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in
several types, with numerous sizes (models) avail·
able in each type. Not all types are suitable for appli·
cation to every heat load configuration. Understand·
ing the various types, along with their advantages
and limitations, can be of vital importance to the pro·
spective user, and is essential to the full understand·
ing of this text.
1. Atmospheric towers utilize no mechanical device
(fan) to create air flow through the tower. The
small atmospheric tower depicted in Figure 2 de·
rives its air flow from the natural induction (aspir-
ation) provided by a pressure·spray type water
distribution system. Although relatively inexpen·
sive, they are usually applied only in very small
sizes, and are far more affected by adverse wind
conditions than are other types. Their use on pro·
cesses requiring accurate, dependable cold water
temperatures is not recommended.
Air j 1 ). Flow
Water -'::;;;;;;~~~~~~~~l
In - t iio
Figure 2 - Atmospheric spray tower.
Conversely, the atmospheric type known as the
hyperbolic natural draft tower (Figs. 3a & 3b) is ex·
tremely dependable and predictable in its thermal
performance. Air flow through this tower is pro·
duced by the density differential that exists tie·
tween the heated (less dense) air inside the stack
and the relatively cool (more dense) ambient air
outside the tower. Typically, these towers tend to
be quite large (250,000 gpm and greater), and oc·
casionally in excess of 500 feet in height. Their
name, of course, derives from the geometric
shape of the shell.
Although hyperbolic towers are more expensive
than other normal tower types, they are used ex·
tensi vely in the field of electric power generation ,
where large unified heat loads exist , and where
long amortization periods allow sufficient time
for the absence of fan power (and mechanical
equipment maintenance costs) to recoup the dif·
ferential cost of the tower. The synfuels industry
also generates heat loads warranting considera·
8
Air
i Out
Water
Sprays
-. L:. ~
.-.~.~
..,··-.-~.a
Air
In
Outflow
Figure 3a - Counterflow natural draft tower.
Air
Out i
Figure 3b - Crossflow natural draft tower.
tion of the use of hyperbolic towers. However, be·
cause natural draft towers operate most effec·
tively in areas of higher relative humidity, many
such plants located in arid andlor higher altitude
regions find mechanical draft towers more applic·
able.
2. Mechanical draft towers use either single or mul·
tiple fans to provide flow of a known volume of air
through the tower. Thus their thermal perfor·
mance tends toward greater stability, and is af·
fected by fewer psychrometric variables, than
that of the atmospheric towers. The presence of
fans also provides a means of regulating air flow ,
to compensate for changing atmospheric and
load conditions, by fan capacity manipulation
andlor cycling. (Sect. V·F)
Mechanical draft towers are categorized as
either forced draft (Fig. 4), on which the fan is 10'
cated in the ambient air stream entering the
tower, and the air is blown through; or induced
 SECTION I
Air
Water

r
become subject to severe icing (with resultant im-
Sprays
Out

r balance) when moving air laden with either natur-

Air
In
------l Water
Out
Figure 4 - Forced draft, counterflow, blower fan tower.
draft (Fig. 5) wherein a fan located in the exiting
air stream draws air through the tower.
Forced draft towers are characterized by high
air entrance velocities and low exit velocities. Ac-
cordingly, they are extremely susceptible to recir-
culation (Sect. I-E-6-(c)) and are therefore consid-
ered to have less performance stability than the
induced draft. Furthermore, located in the cold
entering ambient air stream, forced draft fans can
al or recirculated moisture.
Usually, forced draft towers are equipped with
centrifugal blower type fans which , although re-
quiring considerably more horsepower than pro-
peller type fans , have the advantage of being able
to operate against the high static pressures asso-
ciated with ductwork. Therefore, they can either
be installed indoors (space permitting), or within
a specially designed enclosure that provides sig-
nificant separation between intake and discharge
locations to minimize recirculation.
Induced draft towers have an air discharge
velocity of from 3 to 4 times higher than their air
entrance velocity, with the entrance velocity ap-
proximating that of a 5 mph wind. Therefore, there
is little or no tendency for a reduced pressure
zone to be created at the air inlets by the action of
the fan alone. The potential for recirculation on
an induced draft tower is not self-initiating and ,
therefore, can be more easily quantified purely on
the basis of ambient wind conditions. Location of
the fan within the warm air stream provides excel-
lent protection against the formation of ice on the
mechanical components. Widespread accep-
tance of induced draft towers is evidenced by
their existence on installations as small as 15
gpm and as large as 700,000 gpm.

Water
In
r Air Out Water
In

1 1
) (

Air Air
In In

Water
) (
Out

Figure 5 - Induced draft, crossl/ow, propeller fan tower.

9
SECTION I

Air Out

Water
In

Figure 7 - Cut-away of tower in Figure 6.

Figure 6 - Fan-assisted natural draft tower.

3. Hybrid draft towers (Fig. 6) can give the outward Air
appearance of being natural draft towers with rei·
atively short stacks. Internal inspection, however
(Fig. 7), reveals that they are also equipped with
Ot
u
r
mechanical draft fans to augment air flow. Conse·
quently, they are also referred to as fan·assisted
natural draft towers. The intent of their design is
l
to minimize the horsepower required for air move·
ment , but to do so with the least possible stack
E ~
cost impact. Properly designed, the fans may Water
need to be operated only during periods of high In
ambient and peak loads. In localities where a low 'mi .ffij}] ~ --
level discharge of the tower plume may prove to ---->
be unacceptable, the elevated discharge of a fan- Air In (' I ! I -- 0---

Air In
assisted natural draft tower can become suffi·
cient justification for its use.
----> I ,L f-

4. Characterization by Air Flow: ."llI ~ ...::1

Cooling towers are also "typed" by the relative
~
..
flow relationship of air and water within the
tower, as follows: Figure 8 - Induced draft counterffow tower.
In counterflow towers (Fig. 8), air moves verti·
cally upward through the fill, counter to the down· Air
ward fall of water. Because of the need for ex- Out
tended intake and discharge plenums; the use of
high·pressure spray systems; and the typically
higher air pressure losses, some of the smaller
counterflow towers are physically higher; require
more pump head; and utilize more fan power than
Water
their crossflow counterparts. In larger counter·
In -->
flow towers, however, the use of low·pressure,
gravity-related distribution systems, plus the
availability of generous intake areas and plenum --> t--
spaces for air management, is tending to equal-
~r Air
ize, or even reverse, this situation. The enclosed
In In
nature of a counterflow tower also restricts ex·
--> t--
posure of the water to direct sunlight , thereby
retarding the growth of algae. (Sect. !·G·4)
Crossflow towers (Fig. 9) have a fill configura·
tion through which the air flows horizontally,
across the downward fall of water. Water to be
cooled is delivered to hot water inlet basins loca- Figure 9 - Double-ffow, crossffow tower.

10
 SECTION I

ted atop the fill areas, and is distributed to the fill
by gravity through metering orifices in the floor of
those basins. This obviates the need for a pres-
sure-spray distribution system, and places the re-
sultant gravity system in full view for ease of
maintenance. By the proper utilization of flow-
control valves (Sect. IIl-E-2), routine cleaning and
maintenance of a crossflow tower's distribution
system can be accomplished sectionally, while
the tower continues to operate.
Air
Out i sections as the mode of transportation will per-
6. Characterization by Construction
Field-erected towers are those on which the pri-
mary construction activity takes place at the site
of ultimate use. All large towers, and many of the
smaller towers, are prefabricated, piece-marked,
and shipped to the site for final assembly. Labor
andlor supervision for final assembly is usually
provided by the cooling tower manufacturer.
Factory-assembled towers undergo virtually
complete assembly at their point of manufacture,
whereupon they are shipped to the site in as few
mit. The relatively small tower indicated in Figure
11 would ship essentially intact. Larger, multi-cell
towers (Fig. 12) are assembled as " cells" or "mod-
ules" (See Nomenclajure) at the factory, and are
shipped with appropriate hardware for ultimate
joining by the user. Factory-assembled towers are
also known as "packaged" or "unitary" towers.

Air
In

--->

Water
Out
Figure 10 - Single-flow tower.

Crossflow towers are also sub-classified by the

number of fill "banks" and air inlets that are
served by each fan. The tower indicated in Figure
9 is a double-flow tower because the fan is induc-
ing air through two inlets and across two banks of
fill. Figure 10 depicts a single-flow tower having
only one air inlet and one fill bank, the remaining
three sides of the tower being cased. Single-flow
towers are customarily used in locations where Figure 11 - Small factory-assembled tower.
an unrestricted air path to the tower is available
from only one direction. They are also useful in
areas having a dependable prevailing wind direc-
tion, where consistent process temperatures are
critical. The tower can be sited with the air inlet
facing the prevailing wind, and any potential for
recirculation (Sect. I-E-7-(b)) is negated by the
downwind side of the tower being a cased face.
5. Spray-filled towers have no heat transfer (fill) sur-
face , depending only upon the water break-up af-
forded by the distribution system to promote max-
imum water-to-air contact. The atmospheric
tower seen in Figure 2 is a spray-filled tower, as is
the tower shown in Figure 16. Removing the fill
from the tower in Figure 8 would also make it
" spray-filled" . The use of such towers is normally
limited to those processes where higher water
temperatures are permissible. They are also util-
ized in those situations where excessive contami-
nants or solids in the Circulating water would
jeopardize a normal heat transfer surface. (Sect.
V·I-2) Figure 12 - Multi-cell factory assembled tower.

11
SECTION I

Figure 13 - Mufti-cell, field-erected, cross-

flow cooling tower with en-
closed stairway and extended
fan deck to enclose piping and
hot water basins.

7. Characterization by Shape the tower. Multi-faceted towers, such as the Octa-

Rectilinear towers (Fig. 13) are constructed in
cellular fashion, increasing linearly to the length
and number of cells necessary to accomplish a
specified thermal performance.
Round Mechanical Draft ("RMDn) towers (Figs.
14 & 32), as the name implies, are essentially
round in plan configuration, with fans clustered
as close as practicable around the centerpoint of
gonal Mechanical Draft ("OMDn) depicted in Fig-
ure 15, also fall into the general classification of
"round" towers. Such towers can handle enor-
mous heat loads with considerably less site area
impact than that required by multiple rectilinear
towers (Sect . !-E-7-(d), Fig . 39) In addition to
which , they are significantly less affected by re-
circulation. (Sect. !-E-6-(a), Fig. 32)

Water
Distribution

Fill

, ,'",.' ,: ·-·''".c'·~'-
' . .~

Drift '".: ,"

Eliminators _ _ _ _ _J

Figure 14 - Round Mechanical Draft (RMD), crossflow cooling tower.

12

Drift
Eliminators
Water
Distribution _--t~~ ~ii~~~8
Fill
Figure 15 - Octagonal Mechanical Draft (OMO), counterflow cooling tower.
8. Characterization by Method of Heat Transfer
All of the cooling towers heretofore described
are evaporative type towers, in that they derive
their primary cooling effect from the evaporation
that takes place when air and water are brought
into direct contact. At the other end of the spec-
trum is the Dry tower (Sect. V-B, Figs. 98 & 99)
where, by full utilization of dry surface coil sec-
tions, no direct contact (and no evaporation) oc-
curs between air and water. Hence the water is
cooled totally by sensible heat transfer.
SECTION I
In between these extremes are the Plume
Abatement (Sect. V-C, Fig. 103) and Water conser:
vation (Sect. V-B, Figs. 96 & 97) towers, wherein
progressively greater portions of dry surface coi l
sect ions are introduced into the overall heat
transfer system to alleviate specific problems, or
to accomplish specific requirements. Dry towers,
Plume Abatement, and Water Conservation towers
will be discussed in greater depth in Section V of
this manual.
13
SECTION I
C. NOMENCLATURE
The following terms are commonly used in cooling
tower science, many of which are unique to the cool·
ing tower industry:
Acfm - The actual volumetric flow rate of air·vapor
mixture. Unit: cu ft per min.
Air Horsepower - The power output developed by a fan
in moving a given air rate against a given resistance.
Unit: hp. Symbol : ahp.
Air Inlet - Opening in a cooling tower through which air
enters. Sometimes referred to as the louvered face
on induced draft towers.
Air Rate - Mass flow of dry air per square foot of cross·
sectional area in the tower's heat transfer region per
hour. Unit: Ib per sq ft per hr. Symbol : G'. (See Total
Air Rate).
Air Travel - Distance which air travels in its passage
through the fill. Measured vertically on counterflow
towers and horizontally on crossflow towers. Unit: ft.
Air Velocity - Velocity of air·vapor mixture through a
specific region of the tower (i.e. the fan). Unit: ft per
min. Symbol: V.
Ambient Wet·Bulb Temperature - The wet·bulb temper·
ature of the air encompassing a cooling tower, not
including any temperature contribution by the tower
itself. Generally measured upwind of a tower, in a
number of locations sufficient to account for all ex·
traneous sources of heat. Unit: of. Symbol: AWB.
Approach - Difference between the cold water temper·
ature and either the ambient or entering wet·bulb
temperature. Unit: ° F.
Atmospheric - Refers to the movement of air through a
cooling tower purely by natural means, or by the as·
pirating effect of water flow.
Automatic Variable·Pitch Fan - A propeller type fan
whose hub incorporates a mechanism which en-
ables the fan blades to be re-pitched simultaneously
and automatically. They are used on cooling towers
and air·cooled heat exchangers to trim capacity
and/or conserve energy.
Basin - See "Collection Basin·' and " Distribution
Basin".
Basin Curb - Top level of the cold water basin retain-
ing wall; usually the datum from which pumping
head and various elevations of the tower are mea·
sured.
Bay - The area between adjacent transverse and longi·
tudinal framing bents.
Bent - A transverse or longitudinal line of structural
framework composed of columns, girts, ties, and di·
agonal bracing members.
Bleed·Off - See "Blowdown".
Blowdown - Water discharged from the system to can·
trol concentrations of salts or other impurities in the
circulating water. Units % of circulating water rate
or gpm.
Blower - A squirrel·cage (centrifugal) type fan; usually
applied for operation at higher·than·normal static
pressures.
Blowout - See " Windage".
Brake Horsepower - The actual power output of a mo·
tor, turbine, or engine. Unit: hp. Symbol: bhp.
14
Btu (British Thermal Unit) - The amount of heat gain (or
loss) required to raise (or lower) the temperature of
one pound of water 1 0 F.
Capacity - The amount of water (gpm) that a cooling
tower will cool through a specified range, at a sp~ci·
fied approach and wet·bulb temperature. Unit: gpm
Casing - Exterior enclosing wall of a tower, exclusive
of the louvers.
Cell - Smallest tower subdivision which can function
as an independent unit with regard to air and water
flow; it is bounded by either exterior walls or parti·
tion walls. Each cell may have one or more fans and
one or more distribution systems.
Chimney - See " Shell".
Circulating Water Rate - Quantity of hot water enter-
ing the cooling tower. Unit: gpm.
Cold Water Temperature - Temperature of the water
leaving the collection basin, exclusive of any temper·
ature effects incurred by the addition of make·up
and/or the removal of blowdown. Unit: ° F. Symbol:
CWo
Collection Basin - Vessel below and integral with the
tower where water is transiently collected and di·
rected to the sump or pump suction line.
Counterflow - Air flow direction through the fill is
countercurrent to that of the falling water.
Crossflow - Air flow direction through the fill is essen·
tially perpendicular to that of the falling water.
Distribution Basin - Shallow pan·type elevated basin
used to distribute hot water over the tower fill by
means of orifices in the basin floor. Application is
normally limited to crossflow towers.
Distribution System - Those parts of a tower, begin·
ning with the inlet connection, which distribute the
hot circulating water within the tower to the points
where it contacts the air for effective cooling. May
include headers, laterals, branch arms, nozzles, dis·
tribution baSins, and flow·regulating devices.
Double·Flow - A crossflow cooling tower where two op·
posed fill banks are served by a common air plenum.
Drift - Circulating water lost from the tower as liquid
droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream . Units:
% of circulating water rate or gpm . (For more precise
work, an UG parameter is used, and drift becomes
pounds of water per million pounds of exhaust air.
Unit: ppm.)
Drift Eliminators - An assembly of baffles or labyrinth
passages through which the air passes prior to its
exit from the tower, for the purpose of removing en·
trained water droplets from the exhaust air.
Driver - Primary drive for the fan drive assembly. AI·
though electric motors predominate, it may also be a
gas engine, steam turbine, hydraulic motor or other
power source.
Dry-Bulb Temperature - The temperature of the enter·
ing or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as
measured with a dry·bulb thermometer. Unit: ° F.
Symbol : DB.
Entering Wet·Bulb Temperature - The wet·bulb tem·
perature of the air actually entering the tower, in-
cluding any effects of recirculation. In testing, the
average of multiple readings taken at the air inlets to

establish a true entering wet-bulb temperature. Unit
of. Symbol: EWB.
Evaluation - A determination of the total cost of own-
ing a cooling tower for a specific period of time. In-
cludes first cost of tower and attendant devices,
cost of operation, cost of maintenance and/or repair,
cost of land use, cost of financing , etc., all normal-
ized to a specific paint in time.
Evaporation Loss - Water evaporated from the circu-
lating water into the air stream in the cooling pro-
cess. Units: % of circulating water rate or gpm.
Exhaust (Exit) Wet-Bulb Temperature - See "Leaving
Wet-Bulb Temperature".
Fan Cylinder - Cylindrical or venturi-shaped structure
in which a propeller fan operates. Sometimes re-
ferred to as a fan "stack" on larger towers.
Fan Deck - Surface enclosing the top structure of an
induced draft cooling tower, exclusive of the distri-
bution basins on a crossflow tower.
Fan Pitch - The angle which the blades of a propeller
fan make with the plane of rotation, measured at a
prescribed point on each blade. Unit: degrees.
Fan Scroll - Convolute housing in which a centrifugal
(blower) fan operates.
Fill - That portion of a cooling tower which constitutes
its primary heat transfer surface. Sometimes re-
ferred to as "packing".
Fill Cube - (1) Counterflow: The amount of fill required
in a volume one bay long by one bay wide by an air
travel high. Unit: cu ft.
(2) Crossflow: The amount of fill required in a volume
one bay long by an air travel wide by one story high.
Unit: cu ft.
Fill Deck - One of a succession of horizontal layers of
splash bars utilized in a splash-filled cooling tower.
The number of fill decks constituting overall fill
height, as well as the number of splash bars incor-
porated within each fill deck, establishes the effec-
tive primary heat transfer surface.
Fill Sheet - One of a succession of vertically-arranged,
closely-spaced panels over which flowing water
spreads to offer maximum surface exposure to the
air in a film-filled cooling tower. Sheets may be flat ,
requiring spacers for consistent separation; or they
may be formed into corrugated, chevron, and other
patterns whose protrusions provide proper spacing,
and whose convolutions provide increased heat-
transfer capability.
Film-Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower in which
film-type fill is utilized for the primary heat-transfer
surface.
Float Valve - A valve which is mechanically actuated
by a float. Utilized on many cooling towers to control
make-up water supply.
Flow-Control Valves - Manually controlled valves
which are used to balance flow of incoming water to
all sections of the tower.
Flume - A trough which may be either totally enclosed,
or open at the top. Flumes are sometimes used in
cooling towers for primary supply of water to various
sections of the distribution system.
Fogging - A reference to the visibility and path of the
SECTION I
effluent air stream after having exited the cooling
tower. If visible and close to the ground, it is referred
to as "fog". If elevated, it is normally called the
"plume".
Forced Draft - Refers to the movement of air under
pressure through a cooling tower. Fans of forced
draft towers are located at the air inlets to " force "
air through the tower.
Geareducer® - See "Speed Reducer".
Heat Load - Total heat to be removed from the circula-
ting water by the cooling tower per unit time. Units:
Btu per min . or Btu per hr.
Height - On coaling towers erected over a concrete
basin, height is measured from the elevation of the
basin curb. "Nominal" heights are usually measured
to the fan deck elevation, not including the height of
the fan cylinder. Heights for towers on which a
wood, steel, or plastic basin is included within the
manufacturer's scope of supply are generally mea-
sured from the lowermost point of the basin, and are
usually overall of the tower. Unit: ft.
Hot Water Temperature - Temperature of circulating
water entering the cooling tower's distribution sys-
tem. Unit: ° F. Symbol: HW.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration - See "pH".
Induced Draft - Refers to the movement of air through
a cooling tower by means of an induced partial vac-
uum . Fans of induced draft towers are located at the
air discharges to "draw" air through the tower.
Inlet Wet-Bulb Temperature - See "Entering Wet-Bulb
Temperature".
Interference - The thermal contamination of a tower's
inlet air by an external heat source. (i.e. the dis-
charge plume of another cooling tower.)
Leaving Wet-Bulb Temperature - Wet-bulb tempera-
ture of the air discharged from a cooling tower. Unit:
of. Symbol: LWB.
Length - For crossflow towers, length is always per-
pendicular to the direction of air flow through the fill
(air travel), or from casing to casing. For counterflow
towers, length is always parallel to the long dimen-
sion of a multi-cell tower, and parallel to the in-
tended direction of cellular extension on single-cell
towers. Unit: ft.
Liquid-to-Gas Ratio - A ratio of the total mass flows of
water and dry air in a cooling tower. (See Total Air
Rate & Total Water Rate) Unit: Ib per lb. Symbol: UG.
Longitudinal - Pertaining to occurrances in the direc-
tion of tower length.
Louvers - Blade or passage type assemblies installed
at the air inlet face of a cooling tower to control
water splashout and/or promote uniform air flow
through the fill. In the case of film-type crossflow fill,
they may be integrally molded to the fill sheets.
Make-Up - Water added to the circulating water sys-
tem to replace water lost by evaporation, drift , wind-
age, blowdown, and leakage. Units: % of circulating
water rate or gpm.
Mechanical Draft - Refers to the movement of air
through a cooling tower by means of a fan or other
mechanical device.
15
SECTION I
Module - A preassembled portion or section of a cool·
ing tower cell. On larger factorY'assembled towers,
two or more shipped modules may require joining to
make a cell.
Natural Draft - Refers to the movement of air through a
cooling tower purely by natural means. Typically, by
the driving force of a density differential.
Net Effective Volume - That portion of the total struc·
tural volume within which the circulating water is in
intimate contact with the flowing air. Unit: cu ft.
Nozzle - A device used for controlled distribution of
water in a cooling tower. Nozzles are designed to de·
liver water in a spray pattern either by pressure or by
gravity flow.
Packing - See "Fill".
Partition - An interior wall subdividing the tower into
cells or into separate fan plenum chambers. Parti·
tions may also be selectively installed to reduce
windage water loss.
Performance - See "Capacity".
pH - A scale for expressing acidity or alkalinity of the
circulating or make·up water. A pH below 7.0 indio
cates acidity and above 7.0 indicates alkalinity. A pH
of 7.0 indicates neutral water.
Pitot Tube - An instrument that operates on the princi·
pie of differential pressures. Its primary use on a
cooling tower is in the measurement of circulating
water flow.
Plenum Chamber - The enclosed space between the
drift eliminators and the fan in induced draft towers,
or the enclosed space between the fan and the fill in
forced draft towers.
Plume - The effluent mixture of heated air and water
vapor (usually visibl e) discharged from a cooling
tower.
Psychrometer - An instrument incorporating both a
dry·bulb and a wet·bulb thermometer, by which si·
multaneous dry·bulb and wet·bulb temperature read·
ings can be taken.
Pump Head - See "Tower Pumping Head".
Range - Difference between the hot water temperature
and the cold water temperature (HW - CW) Unit: of.
Recirculation - Describes a condition in which a por·
tion of the tower's discharge air re·enters the air in·
lets along with the fresh air. Its effect is an elevation
of the average entering wet·bulb temperature com·
pared to the ambient.
Riser - Piping which connects the circulating water
supply line, from the level of the base of the tower or
the supply header, to the tower's distribution system.
Shell - The chimney·like structure, usually hyperbolic
in cross·section, utilized to induce air flow through a
natural draft tower. Sometimes referred to as a
"stack" or "veil" .
Speed Reducer - A mechanical device, incorporated
between the driver and the fan of a mechanical draft
tower, designed to reduce the speed of the driver to
an optimum speed for the fan. The use of geared reo
duction units predominates in the cooling tower in·
dustry, although smaller towers will utilize differen·
tail pulleys and V·belts for the transmission of rela·
tively low power.
16
Splash Bar - One of a succession of equally·spaced
horizontal bars comprising the splash surface of a
fill deck in a splash·filled cooling tower. Splash bars
may be flat, or may be formed into a shaped cross·
section for improved structural rigidity and/or im·
proved heat transfer capability. When flat, they are
sometimes referred to as "slats" or "lath".
Splash· Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower in which
splash·type fill is used for the primary heat transfer
surface.
Spray·Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower which has
no fill, with water·to·air contact depending entirely
upon the water break·up and pattern afforded by
pressure spray nozzles.
Stack - An extended fan cylinder whose primary pur·
pose is to achieve elevation of the discharge plume.
Also see "Fan Cylinder" and "Shell ".
Stack Effect - Descriptive of the capability of a tower
shell or extended fan cylinder to induce air (or aid in
its induction) through a cooling tower.
Standard Air - Air having a density of 0.0751b per cu ft.
Essentially equivalent to 70° F dry air at 29.92 in Hg
barometric pressure.
Story - The vertical dimension between successive
levels of horizontal framework ties, girts, jOists, or
beams. Story dimensions vary depending upon the
size and strength characteristics of the framework
material used. Unit: ft.
Sump - A depressed chamber either below or along·
side (but contiguous to) the collection basin, into
which the water flows to facilitate pump suction.
Sumps may also be designed as collection pOints for
silt and sludge to aid in cleaning.
Total Air Rate - Total mass flow of dry air per hour
through the tower. Unit: Ib per hr. Symbol : G.
Total Water Rate - Total mass flow of water per hour
through the tower. Unit: Ib per hr. Symbol: L
Tower Pumping Head - The static lift from the eleva·
tion of the basin curb to the centerline elevation of
the distribution system inlet; plus the total pressure
(converted to ft of water) necessary at that point to
effect proper distribution of the water to its pOint of
contact with the air. Unit: ft of water.
Transverse - Pertaining to occurrances in the direction
of tower width.
Velocity Recovery Fan Cylinder - A fan cylinder on
which the discharge portion is extended in height
and outwardly flared . Its effect is to decrease the to·
tal head differential across the fan, resulting in
either an increase in air rate at constant horsepower,
or a decrease in horsepower at constant air rate.
Water Loading - Circulating water rate per horizontal
square foot of fill plan area of the cooling tower.
Unit: gpm per sq ft.
Water Rate - Mass flow of water per square foot of fill
plan area of the cooling tower per hour. Unit: Ib per
sq ft per hr. Symbol: L'.
Wet·Bulb Temperature - The temperature of the enter·
ing or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as
measured with a wet·bulb thermometer. Unit: ° F.
Symbol: WB.
Wet·Bulb Thermometer - A thermometer whose bulb is
 SECTION I

encased within a wetted wick.

Windage - Water lost from the tower because of the ef-
fects of wind. Sometimes called "blowout".
Wind Load - The load imposed upon a structure by a
wind blowing against its surface_ Unit: Ib per sq ft.

Air
Out

r -I
r
In llnnn"'

Wate r
In ----> -~
l il"'11~ii\:;41\-!11
' i/YY~ II; \\;\:1\~'
!t fl'II[111:;1
Air In
----t

----> 11JJV1
, 'I I 1[II Y
I I
t--
t--
Air In

·.·r.-:". . ': ~ ~ ." ;.~~.. :·;.·-:::'~;~'f~:,:·;-·~{?:-8f~~ ., ~,';

t--
. -'.'.', . . .
. :;".; .
:. ~ ' '

Figure 16 - Spray-filled, counterflow cooling tower. Figure 17 - Typical splash-type fill.

D_ THE PSYCHROMETRICS OF EVAPORATION

Evaporation as a means of cooling water is util- and water. In utilizing that method, however, struc-
ized to its fullest extent in cooling towers, which are tural and economic limitations wou ld soon be
designed to expose the maximum transient water reached.
surface to the maximum flow of air - for the longest A significantly better way to increase contact time
possible period of time. is by the installation of " fill" within the tower to im-
The spray-filled, counterflow tower shown in Fig- pede the progress of the falling water. Although the
ure 16 attempts to accomplish this basic function by various types of fills, and their configurations, will
spraying the water into fine droplets, and in contain- be discussed in Section II, the basic purpose and ac-
ing those droplets to fal l through a mechanically-in- tion of a splash-type fill is depicted in Figure 17.
duced, upward-moving stream of air. Placed in the horizontal area of the tower below the
It is rather obvious that the overall cooling effect sprays - and above the air inlet level, in staggered
would be improved by increasing the height of the rows, these splash bars retard the falling water and
tower, thereby increasing the distance of water fall increase the surface area exposed to the air, thereby
and maximizing the total time of contact between air promoting the process of evaporation.

17
SECTION I

,~
," ,~ ,~ .~ ,~

~~
~o- 3~nl't~3dW31 INIOdM30
'i' . .1'
1
,'i'. , . ' .0
1

1
,

~. ", Slow.!O !"" ~' P'W" • "I"~ , ,0 '1m ,-"

, "

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,

~
1

q
1
, '

/ 1 ,
2~If ,
~,
, , ,
, ht
,
, , ,

i , ,

, , ,
1

C
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,: ,

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.
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i t
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o

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"'." ~
"0 , ,
"., Pilla
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en
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rumt
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~/ ",j
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d

Figure 18 - Psychrometric chart with air·water temperature pursuit curve superimposed.

18
 SECTION I

Primary knowledge of how to achieve effective air nearby atmosphere, with the fervent Intention that
and water contact notwithstanding, given the prob- atmospheric winds will not find a way to reintroduce
lem of coaling water from 85°F to 70°F, how can one it back into the tower.
hope to do so when the sensible air temperature is Meanwhile, the water droplets produced by the
78°F at a 50 percent relative humidity? tower's distribution system are compet ing with the
Utilizing only sensible heat transfer (as in an air- air for the same space and, through natural affinity,
cooled heat exchanger) the problem would be impos- are attempting to coalesce into a common flowing
sible because the entering air dry-bulb temperature stream having minimum surface area to expose to
(7S°F) is higher than the desired cold water tempera- the air.
ture (70° F). However, the process of evaporation that Obviously, the factors which affect cooling tower
occurs in a cooling tower makes the solution an performance are myriad. Those factors whose ef-
easy-one. fects predominate are identified and discussed In
Understanding the evaporative cooling process this section. Additional performance-influencing
can be enhanced by tracing on a psychrometric factors will be discussed in succeeding sections.
chart (Fig. IS) the change in condition of a pound of 1. Wet-Bulb Temperature
air (dry wt.) as it moves through the tower and con- Important to note in the foregoing example (Art.
tacts a pound of water (UG = 1), as denoted by the D: Fig. 18) is the fact that precisely the same
solid line. Air enters the tower at condition 1 (7S0F amount of enthalpy exchange (cooling effect)
dry-bulb & 50% R.H.), whereupon it begins to gain would have taken place had the air entered the
moisture content and enthalpy (total heat) in an ef- tower at a temperature of 65° F and 100% relative
fort to reach equilibrium with the water, and contin- humidity (condition 1') which, by definition, is a
ues this pursuit of equilibrium until it exits the tower 65° F "wet-bulb" temperature. For this reason, the
at condition 2. primary basis for thermal design of any evapora-
During the transit of this pound of air through the tive type cooling tower is the wet-bulb tempera-
tower, several notable changes occurred which are ture of the air entering the tower.
pertinent to the study of cooling towers:
1. Total heat content increased from 30.1 Btu to 45.1
Btu. This enthalpy increase of 15 Btu was gained
from the water. Since, by definition, a Btu is equal
to the heat gain or loss required to change the
temperature of one pound of water by 1° F, this
means that the temperature of one pound of
water was reduced by the specified amount of
15°F (85-70).
2. The moi st ure content of the pound of air in-
creas ed from 72 grains to 163 grains. (7000 grains
= 1 lb.) This increase of 91 grains (0.013 Ibs.) rep-
resents total evaporation from the water. There-
fore, since the latent heat of vaporization of water
(at 85°F) is approximately 1045 Btullb, this means
that 13.6 (0.013 x 1045) of the 15 Btu removed
from the water (91 % of the total) happened by
virt ue of evaporation.
3. Although the temperature of the water was re- To Remote
duced 15° F, the net sensible (dry-bulb) air temper- Readout
ature in crease was only 3.3°F, from 78°F t o
81_3°F. (Indeed, at a somewhat lower UG ratiO,
the dry-bulb temperature of the leaving air would
actually have been less than its entering value.)

E_ FACTORS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFOR-

MANCE
The atmosphere from which a cooling tower draws H __-+-- Distilled
its supply of air incorporates infinitely variable psy- Water
chrometric properties, and the tower reacts thermal-
ly or physically to each of those properties. The
tower accelerates that air; passes it through a maze
of structure and fill; heats it; expands it; saturates it
with mOisture; scrubs it; compresses it; and re-
sponds to all of the thermal and aerodynamic effects
that such treatment can produce. Finally, the cool-
ing tower returns that "used up" stream of air to the Figure 19 - Mechanically aspirated psychrometer.

19
SECTION I

In point of fact, design air conditions for the ex-

ample problem would not have been given to a
cooling tower designer as "78'F at a 50% relative
humidity". Rather, instructions would have been
to design for a "65'F wet-bulb temperature". Only
if there was a requirement to know the exact
amount of evaporation, or if the selection were for
something other than a normal mechanical draft
cooling tower, would there have been a need to
know the design dry-bulb temperature of the air,
or its relative humidity.
Wet-bulb temperatures are measured by caus-
ing air to move across a thermometer whose bulb
(properly shielded) is encased in a wetted muslin
"sock". As the air moves across the wetted bulb,
moisture is evaporated and sensible heat is trans-
ferred to the wick, cooling the mercury and caus-
ing equilibrium to be reached at the wet-bulb tem-
perature. For most acceptable and consistent re-
sults, the velocity of the air across the wick must
be approx imately 1000 fpm, and the water used to
wet the wick should be as close as possible to the
wet-bu lb temperature. Distilled water is normally
recommended for wetting of the wick.
When a wet-bulb thermometer and a dry-bulb
thermometer are combined in a common device,
simultaneous coincident readings can be taken,
and the device is called a "psychrometer". Figure 21 - Sling psychrometer as used to determine
wet bulb term perature

There are some applications, however, where a

•• 00 comprehensive study should be made of the daily
(Fig. 22) wet-bulb temperature cycle through criti-
~ 0
cal months and, in some instances, the entire

1 Dry-bulb thermometer

Wet-bulb thermometer
(j
Figure 20 - Sling psychrometer.
Although the mechanically aspirated psychrom-
eter (Fig. 19) is generally used for purposes of
testing and scientific study, the sling psychrom-
eter (Fig. 20), used as indicated in Figure 21, can
give very satisfactory results.
Selection of the design wet-bulb temperature
must be made on the basis of conditions existing
at the site proposed for a cooling tower, and
should be that which will result in the optimum
cold water temperature at, or near, the time of
peak load demand. Performance analyses have
shown that most industrial installations based
upon wet-bulb temperatures which are exceeded
in no more than 5% of the total hours during a
normal summer have given satisfactory results.
The hours in which peak wet-bulb temperatures
exceed the upper 5% level are seldom consecu-
tive hours, and usually occur in periods of rela-
tively short duration. The "flywheel" effect of the
total water system inventory is usually sufficient
to carry through the above-average periods with-
out detrimental results.
year. (Fig. 23) High-load power generating sta-
tions, applications of the cooling tower to off-
season free cooling (V-K), and certain critical pro-
cesses fall into this category. Wet-bulb duration
curves (Fig. 24) may be established from which it
is possible to evaluate and compare equipment
installed costs, plant operating costs, efficien-
cies and capabilities at various operating wet-
bulb conditions. From such a study, which would
consider both seasonal loads and the annual wet-
bulb pattern, it is possible to select the optimum
cooling tower for the installation. In many cases,
the study would result in reduced capital expendi-
ture, while still providing the desired ultimate op-
erating characteristics.
Air temperatures, wet-bulb as well as coinci-
dent dry-bulb, are routinely measured and record-
ed by the United States Weather Bureau, world-
wide U.S. military installations, airports, and vari-
ous other organizations to whom antiCipated
weather patterns, and specific air conditions, are
of vital concern. Compilations of this data exist
which are invaluable to both users and designers
of cooling towers. One such publication is en-
titled " Engineering Weather Data", compiled by
the Departments of the Army, Navy and Air Force,
and available through the U.S. Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. Excerpts from that and other

20
 SECTION I

that an upwind heat source beyond those limita·

71 tions could cause a cooling tower to experience
wet·bulb temperatures somewhat higher than
u. 70
would be anticipated from published data.
.
" I'-.'\
0

::;
....w 68
69
/' "" Before making a final decision concerning the
proper design wet·bulb temperature, it is good
practice to take simultaneous wet·bulb readings
/
'"=>...J 67 at the proposed tower site, as well as at other

'"....w 66 ~ / open, unaffected locations at the same plant.

These readings should be compared to one reo
~ 65 "- / corded at the same time at the nearest source of
weather data (airport, weather bureau, etc.), and
12 Max . 4 8 12 4 8 12 the apparent design wet·bu lb temperature ad·
Noon justed accordingly.
Finally, and most importantly, once having de·
Figure 22 - Daily variation of wet bulb temperatures cided the correct design wet·bulb temperature,
the specifier must be clear as to whether the cool·
ing tower manufacturer Is to treat it as an ambient
wet·bulb or an entering wet·bulb in the actual de·
ou. 70
sign of the tower. As indicated earlier, the basis
.. 60 /' for thermal design of any evaporative type cool·
::;
w ing tower is the wet·bulb temperature of the air
.... 50 / r-.. actually entering the tower. If the design wet·bulb
'"
:: 40 ./ ....... is specified to be ambient, then reputable cooling
'" 30 ~ . /
....
i"""- r- tower manufacturers will adjust that temperature
~ JFMAMJJASOND upward, in varying degrees, to compensate for
any potential recirculation. (Sect. I·E·6)
Figure 23 - Annual variation of wet bulb temperatures Conversely, if the design wet·bulb temperature
is specified to be entering, then the cooling tower
manufacturer will make no adjustment of that
temperature in his design, and the wet·bulb tem·
70
perature at the time of test will be the average of
multiple readings taken at the tower air inlets.
60 1\ Currently, cooling tower test codes provide pro·
"- ""- t-. cedures for measuring performance in the case of
u.
o

..... ""
::;
so
-r-- r-- either entering or ambient wet·bulb temperature
specifications, with the general recommendation
trending toward entering wet·bulb as being the
w
~ specification which produces not only equal com·
petition at the time of bidding, but also provides
30

20 \ the least room for doubt at the time that the tower
is tested.

10
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
HOURS
90
Figure 24 - Typical wet bulb temperature duration curve
.u.
similar sources, pertinent to the utilization of cool·
ing towers, are also compiled in a publication avail·
able from The Marley Cooling Tower Company.
ci. 80
E
/
The wet·bulb temperature determined from the
aforementioned publications represents the am·
bient for a geographic area, and does not take in·
t!!-

~
O;
70
./
V
to account localized heat sources which may arti·
ficially elevate that temperature at a specific site.
'0
'0 V
/
(J
The codes which govern the sizing and testing of
cooling towers define ambient wet·bulb tempera· 60
ture as that which is measured at a distance of 50 40 50 60 70 80
to 100 feet upwind of the tower, at an elevation Wet·Bulb Temperature - 'F
approximately 5 feet above its base, without inter·
vening heat sources. Accordingly, one can see Figure 25 - Typical performance curve

21
SECTION I
From the length of this dissertation, one can
gather that accurate determination of the design
entering wet-bulb temperature is vital, if the cool-
ing tower is to perform as planned_ This is sup-
ported by Figure 25, which shows the direct rela-
tionship between wet-bulb and cold water temper-
atures_ If the actual wet bulb is higher than antici-
pated by design, then warmer-than-desired aver-
age water temperatures will result Conversely, if
the actual wet-bulb is lower than expected, then
the Owner will probably have purchased a cooling
tower larger than he needs.
2. Dry-Bu lb and/or Relative Humidity
Although it is always good practice to establish
an accurate design dry-bulb temperature (coinci-
dent with the design wet-bulb temperature) it is
absolutely required only when types of towers are
being considered whose thermal performance is
affected by that parameter. These would include
the hyperbolic natural draft (Fig. 3), the fan assis-
ted natural draft (Figs. 6 & 7), the dry tower (Figs.
98 & 99), the plume abatement tower (Fig. 103),
and the water conservation tower (Fig. 96). It is
also required where there is a need to know the
absolute rate of evaporation at design conditions
for any type tower. (Fig. 18)
Where required, the same thought process and
concern should prevail in the establishment of a
design dry-bulb temperature as occurred in deter-
mining the design wet-bulb temperature.
3. Heat Load
Although appropriate selection of the cooling
tower size establishes the equilibrium tempera-
tures at which the tower will reject a given heat
load, the actual heat load itself is determined by
the process being served. All else being equal , the
size and cost of a cooling tower is proportional to
the heat load. Therefore, it is of primary impor-
tance that a reasonably accurate heat load deter-
mination be made in all cases. If heat load calcu-
lations are low, the cooling tower purchased will
probably be too small. If the calculations are high,
oversized, more costly equipment will result
Since volumes of reliable data are readily avail-
able, air conditioning and refrigeration heat loads
can be determined with considerable accuracy.
However, significant variations exist in the realm
of industrial process heat loads, each very specif-
ic to the process involved. (See Table 1, Section
IX) In every case, it is advisable to determine from
the manufacturer of each item of equipment in-
volved with, or affected by, the cooling water sys-
tem the amount of heat that their equipment will
contribute to the total.
4. GPM, Range and Approach
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower
(Btu/min.) is determined by the pounds of water
per minute being circulated through the process,
multiplied by the number of degrees Fahrenheit
that the process elevates the circulating water
temperature. In cooling tower parlance, this be-
comes:
22
Heat Load = gpm x 8.33 x R = Btu/min . (1)
Where: gpm = Circulating water rate in gallons
per minute.
8.33 = Pounds per gallon of water.
R = "Range" = Difference between hot
water temperature entering tower and
cold water temperature leaving tower,
in degrees Fahrenheit.
_ Hot water
to tower
All temperatures
Cooling used are illustrative
only and subject
range
to wide variation
'- Cold water
r .rom tower
Wet-bulb
.. temperature
Figure 26 - Diagram showing definition of "Cooling
Range" and "Approach".
Figure 26 graphically shows the relationship of
range and approach as the heat load is appl ied to
the tower. Although the combination of range and
gpm is fixed by the heat load in accordance with
Formula (1), approach (difference between cold
water temperature and entering air wet-bulb tem-
perature) is fixed by the size and efficiency of the
cooling tower. A large tower of average efficiency
will deliver cold water at a temperature which "ap-
proaches" a given wet-bulb temperature no closer
than a somewhat smaller tower having signifi-
cantly better efficiency.
Improving efficiency is, of course, the primary
reason for extensive and continuing research and
development by cooling tower manufacturers,
and subsequent sections of this manual will dis-
cuss those factors of design which affect effi-
ciency. Suffice it here to say that increased effi-
ciency will measurably improve (decrease) ap-
proach.
Given two towers of reasonably equal efficien-
cies, operating with proportionate fill configura-
tions and air rates, the larger tower will produce
colder water, as evidenced by Figure 27. Impor-
tant to note, from a tower cost standpoint, is the
fact that the "base" tower (15·F approach) would
have had to be twice as large to produce a 7· F ap-
proach (8·F colder water), whereas it could have
 SECTION [

2.5

a:
0
I- 2.0
1\
\
0
«
LL
LU
N 1.5

~
Ui
a:

--
LU
:s: 1.0
0
I- ~
I-- Figure 29 - Interference.
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30
5. Interference
APPROACH-'F
As previously indicated, local heat sources up·
wind of the cooling tower can elevate the wet·
Figure 27 - Effect of chosen approach on tower size at bulb temperature of the air entering the tower,
fixed heat load, gpm, and wet·bulb temper- thereby affecting its performance. One such heat
ature. source might be a previously installed cooling
tower on site, or in the immediate vicinity. Figure
produced a 25' F approach (10' F warmer water) at 29 depicts a phenomenon called "interference",
only 60% of its size. wherein a portion of the saturated effluent of an
Note also that the deceasing approach curve is upwind tower contaminates the ambient of a
beginning its asymptotic movement toward zero downwind tower. Although proper cooling tower
approach . For this reason, it is not customary in placement and orientation (Sect . [·E-7·(c)) can
the cooling tower industry to guarantee any ap· minimize the effect of interference, many existing
proach of less than 5'F. installations reflect some lack of long range plan·
As can be seen from an analysis of Formula (1), ning, requiring that design adjustments be made
heat load dissipation can be accomplished with in preparation for the installation of a new tower.
almost infinite combinations of flow rates and
ranges. Usually, however, a relatively narrow
band of possible combinations is dictated by hy·
draulic limitations andlor temperature·efficient Dow'IW;nd Wet- Bulb Ttn'lI" nturt
"Grade I..e.el
levels of the process being served . Where some
latitude of choice is given by the process, a smal- •~ "~ •~ "a "~ "a •~
ler, less costly tower will be required when the + Sta. +
+ + + + + +
range is increased and the GPM decreased, as '"
shown in Figure 28. Although prudent design re-
sponsibility places flow and temperature restric-
tions on cooling towers as well, their latitude
usually exceeds that of the typical processes
they are designed to serve.

a:
0
I-
0
«
LL
LU
1.3
1.2
" "- ~
1.1
N
Ui ~
~creaSi
1.0
a: .9
LU --.c:...ng gPrn
:s:0 .8
--=:::
I- .7
.6
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
RANGE VARIANCE-%

Figure 28 - Effect of varying range on tower size when

heat load, wet·bulb temperature and cold Figure 30 - Downwind wet·bulb contour of large exist-
water temperature are constant ing cooling tower.

23
SECTION I
Figure 30 indicates the increase in wet-bulb
temperature profile downwind of a large, poorly
oriented cooling tower operating broadside to a
10 mph wind, based upon actual readings taken
at grade level. If the only available location for a
new tower were 300 ft. NNW of this tower, the
specifier would be wise to select a design wet-
bulb temperature at least 3 degrees higher than
local conditions would otherwise indicate. How-
ever, at a given cold water temperature require-
ment, this wou ld be equivalent to reducing the ap-
proach by about 3 degrees, which Figure 27 re-
veals would have a significant impact upon the
cost of the new tower. Obviously, if i'..Ql'. other lo-
cation for the new tower is available, it should be
placed out of the lee of the existing tower.
6. Recirculation
Article E-1 of this Section described the important
difference between ambient and entering wet-
bulb temperatures. The latter can be, and usually
is, affected by some portion of the saturated air
leaving the tower being induced back into the
tower air inlets.
Wind
----4
Figure 31 - Recirculation
This undesirable situation is called ·'recircula-
tion", and reputable cooling tower manufacturers
devote much research and development time both
to determining the potential for recirculation under
various wind conditions, and to designing their
towers in such a way as to minimize its effect.
The potential for recirculation is primarily re-
lated to wind force and direction, with recircula-
tion tending to increase as wind velocity in-
creases. For that reason, accepted codes under
which cooling towers are tested for thermal per-
formance limit wind velocity during the test to 10
mph_ Without this, and similar limitations, cool-
ing tower testing and design would become infi-
nitely more uncertain and difficult.
Although wind is the primary cause of recircu-
lation, several other aspects of cooling tower de-
sign and orientation play important parts in its re-
duction and control:
24
a. Tower Shape: When flowing wind encounters
an obstruction of any sort, the normal path of
the wind is disrupted and a reduced-pressure
zone, or "wake", forms on the lee side (down-
wind) of that obstruction. Quite naturally, the
wind will try to fill this "void" by means of the
shortest possible route. If the obstruction is
tall and narrow, the wind easily compensates
by flowing around the vertical sides. However,
if the structure opposing the wind is long and
relatively lOW, the quickest path for pressure
equalization is over the top - and downward .
Figure 30 is an exaggerated (although actu-
al) example of what can happen in this situa-
tion. Note that the air inlet on the north face of
the tower is experiencing wet-bulb tempera-
tures some 6 to 7 degrees higher than that
seen by the south face. The resultant increase
in enthalpy of the entering air has, of course,
degraded thermal performance tremendously.
Wind flows in a much more civilized fashion
around a round cylindrical shape, (Fig. 32) cre-
ating an almost negligible zone of reduced
pressure on the down w ind side; the air require-
ments of which are easily satisfied by stream-
lined flow around the shape. Application of
this principle to the design of large cooling
towers has resulted in extremely stable perfor-
mance levels for critical projects. (See Fig. 35
also)
Figure 32 - Round Mechanical Draft tower operating in
a significant wind. Compare plume rise to
flat trajectory of smoke leaving stack.

Figure 33 - Longitudinal wind direction concentrates
separate stack plumes into one of high
buoyancy.
b. Orientation with Prevailing Wind: If the wind
indicated in Figure 30 is blowing in its prevail·
ing direction, the Owner would have been well
advised to turn the tower 90 degrees from its
indicated orientation, as has been done in Fig·
ure 33. With this orientation, the wind first en·
counters the relatively high, narrow end of the
tower, and the small negative pressure zone at
the far end is easily filled by wind flowing
around the vertical sides. Furthermore, wind
moving parallel to the line of fans causes the
separate effluents from each fan cylinder to
"stack up" one on another, forming a concen·
trated plume of greater buoyancy.
The Round Mechanical Draft tower (Fig. 32)
is, of course, unaffected by wind direction , and
the centralized clustering of the fans produces
a concentrated, buoyant plume.
~ -----
--
~ i=
>-r?~~
Wind
)
Va
;;;-
//
Figure 34 - Effect of wind velocity and discharge veloc·
ity on plume behavior.
SECTION I
c. Air Discharge Velocity: At any given atmos-
pheric condition, the velocity at which the dis·
charge plume from a tower will rise depends
upon the kinetic energy imparted by the fan,
and the buoyant energy (decrease in density)
imparted to the effluent plume by the tower
heat load, both of which are changed to paten·
tial energy by virtue of ultimate elevation of the
plume.
The direction that a plume will travel de·
pends upon the speed, direction, and psychro·
metric characteristics of the wind it encoun·
ters upon leaving the fan cylinder. Low wind
velocities (Va, Fig. 34) will permit an almost
vertical plume rise, barring retardation of that
rise by unusual atmospheric conditions. (For
an induced draft tower operating under calm
conditions, with a vertically rising plume, en·
tering and ambient wet·bulb temperatures can
be considered to be egual.) Higher wind veloci·
ties will bend the plume toward the horizontal ,
where a portion of it can become entrapped in
the aforementioned lee-side low pressure zone
for re·entry into the tower. (Figs. 31 & 36)
The velocity ratio indicated in Figure 35 is
the result of dividing the plume discharge ve·
lociiy (Vj) by the velocity of the ambient wind
(Va). For all intents and purposes, the recircu·
lation ratio is the percent of total effluent air
that is reintroduced into the tower air inlets by
virtue of recirculation. As can be seen, lower
velocity ratios (higher wind velocities) result in
greater recirculation. The values for the rec·
tangular tower represent those anticipated for
an industrial tower of moderate size operating
broadside to the prevailing wind. The recircula-
tion ratio for that tower would reach minimum
value with a 90 degree directional change.
Since the velocity ratio is also a function of
plume discharge velocity, ambient wind force
5.0
0 4.0
«
a::
z 3.0
0
i=~
«0
...J-
::>
U
a::
2.0
U
w
a::
1.0
0~~~-L~~~~~~~-7
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
VELOCITY RATIO (VjN a)
Figure 35 - Comparative recirculation potential of
round and rectangular towers.
25
SECTION I
cannot accept all of the blame for recircula-
tion. At any given wind condition , the velocity
ratio will decrease if the plume velocity is de-
creased, resulting in an increase in the recircu-
lation ratio. This is what makes forced draft
towers (Fig. 36) so susceptible to recirculation.
The normal discharge velocity from an induced
draft tower is about 20 mph, whereas the
plume velocity leaving a forced draft tower is
approximately 5·6 mph. Figure 35 reveals that
this 4:1 difference in velocity ratios results in
considerably greater recirculation in a forced
draft tower.
Wind
-----t
Va
Figure 36 - Recirculation potential in a forced draft
cooling tower.
d. Fan Cylinder Height and Spacing: Within
structural limitations, discharge heights of fan
cylinders can be increased. (Fig. 100) Also, the
fan cylinders can be spaced somewhat farther
apart to allow for a less restricted flow of wind
between them. Both of these stratagems, usu-
ally done in concert, can measurably diminish
the potential for recirculation in most opera·
ting Situations, although not without some im·
pact upon tower cost.
Such specialized modifications will be cov·
ered in Section V of this manual.
7. Tower Siting and Orientation
A significant portion of this text is devoted to
the effects of recirculation and interference and,
with expert guidance from the cooling tower man·
ufacturer, it is the responsibility of the Ownerl
specifier to situate the tower such that these and
other thermal performance influencing effects
will be minimized. Since the long term capability
of a cooling tower is determined by its proper
placement on Site, the importance of such place·
ment cannot be overemphasized.
Every effort should be made to provide the least
possible restriction to the free flow of air to the
to wer. In addition to this primary conSideration,
the Owner must give attention to the distance of
the tower from the heat load, and the effect of
that distance on piping and wiring costs; noise or
vibration may create a problem, which can be ex·
26
pensive to correct after the fact; drift or fogging
may be objectionable if the tower is located too
close to an area that is sensitve to dampness or
spotting; also easy access and adequate working
space should be provided on all sides of the tower
to facilitate repair and maintenance work.
The performance of every cooling tower, large
or small, is dependent upon the quantity and ther·
mal quality of the entering air. External influences
which raise the entering wet·bulb temperature, or
restrict air flow to the tower, reduce its effective
capacity. Air restrictions, recirculation and inter-
ferences can be minimized, possibly eliminated,
by careful planning of tower placement using the
following guidelines:
a. Air Restrictions: In residential, commercial,
and small industrial installations, towers are
frequently shielded from view with barriers or
enclosures. Usually, this is done for aesthetic
reasons. Quite often, these barriers restrict air
flow, resulting in low pressure areas and poor
air distribution to the air inlets. Sensible con·
struction and placement of screening barriers
will help to minimize any negative effect upon
thermal performance.
Screening in the form of shrubbery, fences,
or louvered walls should be placed several feet
from the air inlet to allow normal air entry into
the tower. When an induced draft tower is en-
closed, it is desirable for the enclosure to have
a net free area opposite each louvered face
which is at least equal to the gross louver area
of that tower face.
Screening barriers or enclosures should not
be installed without obtaining some input con-
cerning their design and placement from the
cooling tower manufacturer.
b. Recirculation: Except in the case of single·
flow towers (Sect. I-B·4), the proper placement
to minimize recirculation is to orient the tower
such that the primary louvered faces are situ·
ated parallel (not broadside) to the prevailing
wind coincident with the highest ambient wet·
bulb temperature. On towers of relatively
shorter length, this allows the saturated efflu·
ent to be carried beyond the air inlets. Longer
multiple·fan towers in this orientation benefit
from the wind having concentrated the sepa·
rate·cell plumes into one of greater buoyancy.
Because of the restricted siting areas avail·
able in some plants, the Owner may have no
choice but to orient towers broadside to a pre·
vailing wind, and to adjust his design wet·bulb
temperature accordingly. The amount of ad·
justment necessary can be reduced by recog·
nizing that recirculation potential increases
with the length of the tower (Fig. 30) and by
splitting the tower into multiple units of lesser
individual length with a significant air space in
between. If, for example, the tower in Figure 30
had been installed as two 150 foot long towers
in line, with a 50 foot space between the ends
 SECTION I

1 Tower Length % Tower Length Y, Tower Length

Minimum Minimum Minimum

I' J::

Ji
0 0 0 0
0
0
0
'" "'.
"'./
/
/ 0
0
0
0
0
0
\
\
0
0
0
\
\
0 0 0 ./ oo ~~ 0 \
0 0 0 \./ 0
\
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 \
0
0
0 <5'"
.S"c 0 "?0,.
Sector o f no Interference lOr OF
Of
"0 t"I"rf, "0~
"'..",.
"r" ~"
/)c"
"'" "",

Figure 37 - Proper orientation of towers in a prevailing longitudinal wind. (Requires relatively minimal tower size
adjustment to compensate for recirculation and interference effects.)

I
l
X% of Tower Length

The % of tower length separation is primarily

a function of the tower's physical characteris ti cs
10000001 10000001

/
/ / /[0000001

//rOOOOO~//
Sector of no Interference

looooo~/ / r--,/--,--r--,--,--.--
/ c:
.'2
c: U
",Q)
"(i; .:
Q) 0
o
/ ' --,._~-

Figure 38 - Proper orientation at rowers in a prevailing broadside wind. (Requires significantly greater tower size ad-
justment to compensate for recirculation and interference effects.)

27
 SECTION I

of the towers, the net amount of recirculatory
effect may well have been halved.
c. Interference: Similarly, multiple towers should
not be situated such that any tower is within
the downwind interference zone (lee) of an-
other tower or extraneous heat source. If a
tower is so located , then its design wet-bulb
temperature should be adjusted appropriately.
Although the round tower indicated in Fig-
ure 32 suffers relatively little from recircula-
tion, it is certainly not immune to interference
from an upwind tower, nor will it hesitate to im-
pact a downwind tower under certain atmos-
pheric conditions.
d. Effect on Site Piping: The need for proper sit-
ing and orientation is fundamental to a tower's
ability to cool water dependably, and must
take precedence over any concern as to the
quantity or complexity of site piping required
to accommodate the appropriate cooling
tower layout. On relatively small installations,
the extent of coali ng tower relocation that may
be required usually has an insignificant impact
on total piping cost. Large multi-tower proj-
ects, however, typically require several hun-
dred feet of pipe of appreciable diameter, rep-
resenting a portion of the overall project cost
that is anything but insignificant.
As will be seen in Section I1-D, the multiplic-
ity of water distribution system arrangem.ents
available on crossflow cooling tower designs
coordinate to reduce the required site piping to
a minimum for rectilinear tower layouts. As
can be seen in Figure 39, however, most effec-
tive reductions in site piping requirements oc-
cur when either hyperbolic or round mechani-
cal draft towers are chosen. This is because of
their inherent tolerance to much closer spacing.
Obviously, there are no rules of thumb which
will cover every conceivable situation. Nor are the
indicated guidelines intended to take the place of
direct contact and discussion with a reputable
cooling tower manufacturer. Considering that the
location and orientation of the tower can impact
the entering wet-bulb temperature from as little
as 0.5·F, to as much as 3·F to 5·F, the user
wou ld be wise to invite as much expert assis-
tance as possible. On certain critical projects, in-
volving appreciable heat loads, it may well be ad-
visable to consider site-modeling for wind tunnel
study.

000000

(4)
0000000
Comparison of Supply
000000 & Return Piping Requirements (2)
Rectangular
Mechanical Draft Rectangular Hyperbolic & Round 0000000
Cooling Towers Cooling Towers Cooling Towers Rectangular
Mechanical Draft
#1 = 1600' #1 = 690' -@2Q2QQQlCoolin g Towers
#2 = + 1160' #2 = + 130' /.. 0000000
(3) #3 = 1600' #3 = 690'
#4 = + 1280' #4 = +130' (1 )

0000000 Total = 5700' Total = 1640' 0000000

(1 )

Hyperbolic
~ Round

'OW"@
PLANT
Natural Draft Mechanical Draft
(Four equal heat loads)
(2) Cooling Towers
Co,,'",
~
Figure 39 - Comparison of piping and ground use for both rectilinear towers and round towers. (Both types selected
for equal performance,)

28

F. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Mention of typical materials utilized for specific
components Is made throughout this text, as appro·
prlate. This portion, therefore, will be somewhat reo
Iterative in Its Identification of "standard" construc·
tion materials; but will cover In greater depth why
those materials were chosen, and will Indicate the
primary alternatives utilized to satisfy unique reo
qulrements. The Impact of water quality on material
selection will be discussed In Article G following.
Other effects will be covered in Section V, "Special-
ized Tower Usage and Modifications".
1. Wood: Because of Its availability, workability, rel-
ative low cost, and Its durability under the very
severe operating conditions encountered In cool·
Ing towers, wood Is the predominant structural
material utilized.
Having met these requirements admirably,
Douglas Fir is used extensively in the cooling
tower industry. It began to compete with Califor-
nia Redwood as the preferred material in the early
1960's, and has since established a record of suc-
cess rivaling that of redwood. Douglas Fir ply-
wood, in exterior grades, is also widely used as
decking, partitions, and basin flooring materials.
Various other wood species, both domestic and
foreign, may be used In cooling towers, provided
that they exhibit proven durability In severe expo-
sures and meet the physical and structural reo
quirements of the installatlon_
Regardless of specie, however, any wood used
In cooling tower construction must be treated
with a reliable preservative to prevent decay. Al-
though Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) has
compiled an enviable record beginning in 1954, Its
arsenic content has Introduced recent environ·
mental concerns that Inhibit its use. Currently,
the preferred treatment Is Acid Copper Chromate
(ACC), containing salts of chromium, chromic
acid, and copper. Such preservatives are diffused
into the wood by total immersion in a pressure
vessel, with pressure being maintained either un-
til a prescribed amount of preservative is retained
by the wood, or until the wood refuses to accept
further treatment. In either case, laboratory tests,
as well as historical records, have proven the
treatment to be adequate.
Creosote treatment Is used occasionally, al·
though it adds considerbly to the tower cost due
to difficulties encountered In handling the treated
wood_ Also, Its greater tendency to leach out of
the wood can lead to heat transfer problems, and
may complicate maintenance of water quality.
Although wood is relatively Insensitive to chlor-
ides, sulfates, and hydrogen sulfide, it can be
damaged by excessive levels of free chlorine, and
is sensitive to prolonged exposure to excessively
hot water. Design hot water temperatures should
be limited to 140"F, or should be controlled to
that level by the use of a cold water by-pass, as
described In Section V-J-1.
SECTION J
2. Metals (Hardware): Steel Is utilized for many
components of the cooling tower where high
strength is required. This would include fan hubs
for larger diameter fans; unitized supports for sta·
bilizatlon of the mechanical equipment; many
drlveshafts (although stainless steels are normal-
ly used for the larger shafts); fan guards and
drlveshaft guards; as well as the tie rods, bolts,
nuts and washers.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, circulat-
ing water conditions will be considered normal,
and the coating of choice for steel items will be
galvanization_ For severe water service, those
components whose requirements are not eco-
nomically met by alternative materials are usually
coated with epoxy-coal-tar.
Cast iron and ductile iron are used for gear
cases, anchor castings, flow-control valve bodies,
and fan hubs for intermediate sized fans. AI·
though both cast iron and ductile iron enjoy good
corrosion resistance, they are usually either gal-
vanized or coated with a high grade enamel for
cooling tower use. For severe water service, how-
ever, they are usually sand-blasted and coated
with epoxy-coal-tar. Valve bodies may even be
porcelainized to guard against erosion.
Bolts, nuts and washers, of course, do not lend
themselves to a pre-coat, other than galvanization
or cadmium plating. Severe water conditions nor-
mally dictate a change in materials, and an appro-
priate grade of stainless steel is the popular
choice because of excellent corrosion resistance
in the aerated conditions existing in cooling
towers.
Copper alloys are sometimes used to resist
speCial conditions, such as salt or brackish water
service. Silicon bronze fasteners are suitable for
service in salt water, but must be protected
against erosion. The use of Naval brass is normal-
ly discouraged because of its tendency toward
stress corrosion cracking _Utilization of more so·
phisticated metals, such as monel and titaniun, is
usually precluded by cost considerations.
Selection of aluminum alloys for use in cooling
towers is done with care. Only the more corrosion
resi stant alloys are used, and they are utilized
only for specific components of significant cross
section _ Among these components are fan
blades, fan hubs for smaller size fans, some lad-
der assemblies, and handrail fittings for steel
framed cooling towers.
Most of the smaller towers designed for factory
assembly are primarily of steel construction.
Some local building and/or fire codes also dictate
that larger towers be of steel construction as
well. In these cases, galvanized steel Is used for
structures, basins, partitions, decking, fan cyl-
inders, and many other major components. In se-
lected applications of extreme severity, such
towers have been successfully manufactured of
stainless steel , although the cost impact was sig-
nificant as might be expected.
29
SECTION I
3. Plastics: The use of selected plastics began to
be investigated in the early 1950's and, since that
time, has accelerated tremendously. Contributing
to this increased usage are their inherent resis-
tance to microbiological attack, corrosion and
erosion; their compatibility with other materials;
their formability; their great strength-to-weight
ratio; and their acceptable cost level.
The capability of plastics to be molded into
single parts of complex shape and dimensions is
a distinct advantage, particularly for such close-
tolerance components as fan blades and fan cyl-
inders. Their many desirable characteristics,
combined with the advancements being made in
both plastic materials and their production,
assure that they will continue to be utilized for
cooling tower components, and the rate of usage
is anticipated to increase.
Plastics are currently used in such components
as structural connectors, fan blades, fan cylin-
ders, fill, fill supports, drift eliminators, piping,
nozzles, casing, louvers, and louver supports.
Most commonly used are fiber reinforced poly-
ester (FRP or GRP), fiber reinforced epoxy, poly-
vinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene, fiber rein-
forced nylon, and fiber reinforced polyphenylene
oxide.
Generally speaking, plastic components are of
a dimension, location, or formulation that makes
them least susceptible to abnormal water condi-
tions. However, the relatively thin cross section
utilized for PVC film fill sheets makes them some-
what sensitive to temperature, requiring some-
thing more than routine thought in fill support de-
sign. Some plastics, such as PVC, are inherently
fire resistant. Where required, others may be for-
mulated for fire retardancy. The most common
such formulation being fire retardant fiber rein-
forced polyester, utilized for casing and louvers.
4. Concrete: Concrete has been used for many
years in Europe and other regions of the world,
and Its use Is Increasing in the United States. Fol-
lowing the first concrete hyperbolic cooling tower
installed in the USA In 1961, numerous others
have been Installed, and the technology has been
expanded to large mechanical draft towers. In
many cases, the higher first cost of concrete con-
struction is justified by decreased fire risk and,
for larger structures, higher load carrying capacity.
Basically, design philosophies for concrete
cooling tower construction coincide with those
espoused by the American Concrete Institute
(ACI), except denser mixes and lower water/ce-
ment ratios are utilized than would be expected in
more commercial construction. Typically, Type I
cement is utilized, except where the presence of
above-normal sulfate concentrations dictate the
use of Type II In water-washed areas.
Circulating water In want of calcium (quantified
by a negative Saturation Index) can be corrosive
to concrete components, in which case the con-
crete gives up a portion of Its calcium content In
30
an effort to "neutralize" the water. Chemical
treatment of the Circulating water should be
aimed at maintaining a slightly positive Satura-
tion (Langelier) Index.(Formula (7), pg. 32)
G_ MAINTAINING WATER QUALITY
Although the air quality at any particular site can
be the cause of serious adverse effects upon both a
cooling tower's longevity of service, and its ability to
function thermally, it usually manifests itself in an
undesirable, perhaps unexpected, change in water
~. This is because cooling towers are extreme-
ly effective air washers, and the technological ad-
vances which are intended to improve their thermal
performance also serve to increase their air washing
efficiency. Consequently, the quality of the water be-
ing circulated over a tower quickly reflects the qual-
ity of the air with which it is in intimate contact.
Meanwhile, of course, the air exits a cooling tower
much cleaner than its entering state.
This constant washing of the incoming air, plus
the base characteristics of the make-up water sup-
ply, are the parameters which establish the ultimate
quality of the continuously recirculated water
stream, complicated by the fact that the process of
evaporation has the ability to cause incoming con-
taminant levels to concentrate tremendously. (See
"Blowdown" following)
In order to establish a basis for the utilization of
standard construction materials, the following "nor-
mal " water conditions have become arbitrarily
defined:
a. A circulating water with a pH between 6 and 8; a
chloride content (as NaCI) below 750 ppm; a sul-
fate content (S04) below 1200 ppm; a sodium bi-
carbonate (NaHCO:Jl content below 200 ppm; a
maximum temperature of 120'F; no significant
contamination with unusual chemicals or foreign
substances; and adequate water treatment to
minimize corrosion and scaling.
b. Chlorine, if used, added intermittently, with a free
residual not to exceed 1 ppm, maintained for
short periods.
c. An atmosphere surrounding the tower no worse
than "moderate industrial", where rainfall and fog
are only slightly acid, and they do not contain sig-
nificant chlorides or hydrogen sulfide (H 2S).
Water conditions falling outside these limits
would warrant an investigation of the combined ef-
fect of all the constituents on each component ma-
terial. In many cases, it will be found that very few
components require a change in materials. Wood
and plastiC components, for example, are very toler-
ant of chemical excursions far beyond these limits.
Conversely, carbon steel items are relatively unfor-
giving of all but the most limited variations.
1. Blowdown: As indicated previously, the water of
evaporat ion exits the tower in a pure vapor state,
leaving behind its burden of total dissolved solids
(lOS) to concentrate in the recirculating mass of
water. Given no control, the TDS level in the circu-
lating water will increase tremendously, jeopar-
 SECTION I

dizing not only the cooling tower, but the heat ex-
changer and all other water circuit related compo-
nents as well.
The proper method for controlling TOS concen-
trations is called "blowdown ", where a portion of
the circulat ing water flow (along with its TOS bur-
den) is continuous ly wasted and replenished with
re latively pure make-up water.
The approximate level to which contaminants
can concentrate in the circulating water is deter-
mined by the following formu la:
C= E+O+B
0+ B
Where: E = Rate of evaporation ; gpm (If not ac-
curately known, evaporation can be
approximated by multiplying total
water flow rate in gpm times the
cooling range (0 F) t imes 0.0008) (3)
o = Rate of drift loss; gpm (If not accur-
ately known, drift rate can be ap-
proximated by multiplying total wa-
ter flow rate in gpm t imes 0.0002) (4)
B = Rate of blowdown; gpm
However, because an acceptable level of con-
centrat ion has usually been predetermined, the
operator is more concerned with the amount of
blowdown necessary to maintain that concentra-
tion, and the following transposition of Formula
(2) is used:
B = E - [(C - 1) x OJ (5)
(C-1 )
For example, let us assume that a given cooling
tower is designed to reduce the incoming temper-
ature of 10,000 gpm by 25°F (range). Let us further
assume that the level of ch lorides in the make-up
water is 250 ppm , and we do not want that level to
go beyond 750 ppm in the circu lating water. Al-
lowable concentrations are 750/250 = 3. The ap-
proximate evaporation rate wou ld be 10,000 x 25
(2) x 0.0008 = 200 gpm. The approximate drift rate
wou ld be 10,000 x 0.0002 = 2 gpm. Applying
these values to Formula (5), blowdown would be:
2OO-K3-1)x2J = 2OO - (2 x 2) = 200-4 196
(3 -1) 2 2 2
= 98 gpm.
Even if the assumed evaporation and drift rates
were perfectly accurate, the calculated blowdown
rate of 98 gpm might still not be quite enough be-
cause of the effects of the aforementioned air-
borne contaminants, which are usually incalcula-
ble. Once the approximate level of blowdown has
been determined , the circulating water quality
should be regu larly monitored and appropriate
adjustments made.

5
I'

::;:
0..
C) 4
Assumed:
-! .~ .- -i.U I
Percent Evaporation = Rang e x 0.08
a:
w Percent Drift = 0.02
:::0
f-
C)
z 3
-HI
--l --
- - -- -_.
-

-
~

::J
0 ~,. - -
0
II
u.. . 10° F Range r
0
2
20 ° F Range I
'"I
0
_ 30°F
_ 40°F
Range
Range
z
:::
0
0
:::0
..J
1
I: -
.. ~ .
- .

.- - .. - .= t
. ·1

C:l

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

NUMBER OF CONCENTRATIONS

Figure 40 - Coofing to wer blowdown versus number of concentrations.

31
SECTION I
Figure 40 is a plot of the percent of circulating
water flow to be wasted in order to maintain vari-
ous concentrations, based upon the approximate
evaporation and drift rates indicated by Formulas
(3) and (4), expressed as percentages.
Despite the benefits of blowdown, however,
chemical, electrostatic, or electronic treatment of
the water is often required to prevent scale forma-
tion , corrosion, or biological growth. When treat-
ment is required, or antiCipated to be required, the
services of a reliable water treatment company
should be obtained.
2. Scale Prevention: The principle scale-forming in-
gredient in cooling water is calcium carbonate,
which has a solubility of about 15 ppm and is
formed by the decomposition of calcium bicar-
bonate. The maximum amount of calcium bicar-
bonate that can be held in solution depends upon
the temperature and the free carbon dioxide con-
tent of the water. Raising the temperature or re-
ducing the free carbon dioxide, at the point of
equilibrium, will result in the deposition of scale.
If agents (such as sulfuric acid) are added to
convert a portion of the calcium bicarbonate to
calcium sulfate, the resultant concentration of
calcium sulfate should not be allowed to exceed
1200 ppm (expressed as CaC0 3). Otherwise, sul-
fate scale may begin to form , which is very dense
and quite difficult to remove. Treatment com-
panies may also advise the use of selected com -
pounds designed to keep scale-forming solids in
solution.
The Langelier equation can be used to deter-
mine the carbonate stability, or corrosive proper-
ties, of a cooling water for a specific temperature
when dissolved solids, total calcium, total alkalin-
ity, and pH values are known. The Saturation In-
dex (See Formula (7) and Table 2), obtained from
these values, is the difference between the actual
measured pH and the calculated pHs at satura-
tion with calcium carbonate. When the Saturation
Index is zero, the water is in equilibrium with solid
CaC0 3 at that temperature; when it is positive,
the water is supersaturated with CaC0 3 and may
deposit a coating or scale in the system; when it
is negative, the water will dissolve CaC0 3 and
may be corrosive.
The Ryznar equation was developed to provide
a closer correlation between the calculated pre-
diction and the quantitative results actually ob-
tained in the field. The numerical value obtained
from this equation is designated as the Stability
Index. A value of 6 to 7 indicates a water which is
the most balanced . Yalues less than 6 are in the
area of scaling, while values above 8 indicate in-
creasi ng corrosion tendencies.
It should be emphasized that these indices are
only a measure of the directional tendency, or
driving force, of a water. Since the solubility of
calcium carbonate is dependent on temperature,
the water in a cooling system will have a different
index for each temperature encountered. In prac-
32
tice, the indices are used to arrive at a calculated
method of treatment. Removable lengths of pipe,
or metal coupons, should be inspected periodical-
ly to confirm that the treatment is in balance. If
objectionable scaling is occurring, an increase in
acid feed may be required. If corrosion is evident ,
a reduction of acid feed , or the introduction of a
lime or soda ash solution, may be needed. For a
system in which a considerable temperature
spread occurs, and treatment is set to control
scale laydown , it is frequently necessary to use
an inhibitor to prevent corrosion in the low tem-
perature areas. It is desirable to calculate both
the Saturation Index and the Stability Index in
order to most accurately predict the scaling or
corrosive tendencies of a water.
The index values are calculated from the fol -
lowing equations, utilizing appropriate values ob-
tained from Table 2:
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D) (6)
Where: pHs = pH value at which water is in equi-
librium with solid CaC03 .
A = Table 2 value reflecting total solids.
B = Table 2 value reflecting tempera-
ture.
C = Table 2 value reflecting calcium
hardness.
D = Table 2 value reflecting alkalinity.
Saturation Index = pH (actual) - pHs (7)
Stability Index = (2 x pHs) - pH (actual) (8)
3. Corrosion Control: The metals utilized in a cool -
ing tower are susceptible to corrosion in varying
degrees. This is often true of even the most so-
phisticated metals, although they can usually
withstand deeper excursions into the realm of
corrosion, and for longer periods of time, than
can the more " standard " metals. Circulating
water having corrosion characteristics beyond
those antiCipated in the tower's design requires
treatment. This may be due to high oxygen con-
tent , carbon dioxide, low pH, or the contact of dis-
similar metals. Where correction of the source of
trouble cannot readily be made, various treatment
compounds may be used as inhibitors which act
to build and maintain a protective film on the
metal parts.
Since most water system corrosion occurs as a
result of electrolytic action, an increase in the dis-
solved solids increases the conductivity and the
corrosion potential. This is particularly true of the
chloride and sulfate ions. Therefore, blowdown is
a very useful tool in the fight against corrosion.
4. Control of Biological Growth: Slime (a gelatinous
organic growth) and algae (a green moss) may de-
velop in the cooling tower, and their presence can
interfere with cooling efficiencies. (See Sect. Y·I)
Proprietary compounds are available from water
treatment companies for the control of slime
andlor algae. Chlorine and chlorine containing

compounds are effective algaecides and slimi ·
cides, but exc ess chlorine can damage wood and
other organic materials of construction. If used ,
chlorine shou ld be added intermittently (shock
treatment), and only as frequently as necessary to
control slime and algae. Residual levels of free
chlorine should not exceed one part per million
parts of water (1 ppm). Chlorine or chlorine con·
taining compounds must be added carefully,
since very high levels of chlorine will occur at or
near the point of entry into the circulating water
system, causing a localized reduction of pH and
resultant corrosion.
5. Foaming and Discoloration: Heavy foaming can
sometimes occur when a new tower is put into op·
eration. This type of foaming usually subsides
after a relatively short operating period. Persistent
foaming can be caused by the concentrations of
certain combinations of dissolved solids, or by
the contamination of the circulating water with
foam·causing compounds. This type of foaming
is often alleviated by increasing the rate of blow·
down . In extreme cases, foam depressant chemi·
cals must be added to the system, which are
available from a number of chemical companies.
Woods contain some water soluble sub·
stances, and these commonly discolor the circu·
lating water on a new tower. This discolorat ion is
not harmful to any of the components in the sys·
tem, and can be ignored in that regard. However,
a combination of foaming and discolored water
can result in staining of adjacent structures when
foam is entrained in the air stream and dis·
charged out the fan cylinders. In those cases,
operation of the fans should be avoided until the
foaming is controlled.
6. Control of Foreign Materials: Suspended materi·
als, brought into the system from the air, can best
be removed by continuous filtration . (See Sect. VI·
E) Oils and fats should be removed from the circu·
lating water by means of a skimmer (See Sect.
Y·I-2) or, preferably, by eliminating the source of
such contamination. Oils and fats are not only a
fire hazard, but will reduce thermal performance
of both the heat exchanger and the cooling tower.
H. OPERATION IN FREEZING WEATHER
Cooling towers are designed to promote the maxi·
mum possible contact between air and water-and
to do so for the maximum possible time period. This
design endeavor results in an efficiency which , al·
though greatly appreciated in the summertime, has
the capability to produce performance·degrading ice
formations during winter operation. Obviously,
therefore, means by which the cooling tower's effi·
ciency can either be controlled , or can be made to
work toward the management of ice formations,
must be incorporated into its design, and must be
properly utilized by the operator.
In broadly general terms, " acceptable" ice may be
defined as ice of relatively thin cross section which
forms on the louvers or air intake structure of the
SECTION i
tower. (Fig. 41) Having been anticipated in a tower's
design loading , such ice is normally of no structural
concern and, in many cases, its retardation of air
flow through the tower achieves a result similar to
the air·side control procedures about to be discussed.
Equally broadly, "unacceptable" ice can be cate·
gorized as either a significant amount of ice that has
formed on the fill, jeopardizing the operation and ex·
istence of the heat transfer surface; or excessive ice
in a support region which may threaten the tower
structure. (Fig. 42)
Although the methods of ice control vary some·
what with type of tower, as well as the water distrlbu·
tion system and mechanical equipment arrange·
ments, the following statements are true for all
situations:
a. The potential for ice varies directly with the quan·
tity of air flowing through the tower. Reducing the
air flow retards the formation of ice.
b. Where air flow is uncontrolled (as in the case of
hyperbolic towers), the potential for ice format ion
varies inversely with the heat load imposed on the
tower. A reduced heat load increases the proba·
bility that unacceptable ice will form.
c. The potential for ice varies inversely with the
amount of water flowing over the fill. A reduced
pumping rate increases the likelihood of unac·
ceptable ice formation.
All mechanical draft towers afford some degree of
air·side control, the variability of which depends
upon the number of fans with which the tower is
equipped and, most importantly, the speed·change
capability of the motors. Towers designed to be op·
erated in cold climates also include means by which
t o exercise water·side control. In mechanical draft
towers, both air·side and water·side control are mu·
tually supportive. However, natural draft towers offer
no reasonable opportunity for air·side control and,
for that reason , the methods will be discussed separ·
ately, as follows:
1. Air·Side Control
The basic operating concepts that resu lt in
good energy management (Sect. Y·F) also serve to
reduce a cooling tower's ability to produce unac·
ceptable ice formations. Manipulation of the air
flow is an invaluable tool, not only in the retarda·
tion of ice formation, but in the reduction or eli·
mination of ice already formed. In addition to
bringing less cold air into contact with the circu·
lating water, reducing the entering air flow veloc·
ity alters the path of the falling water, allowing it
to impinge upon (and melt) ice previously formed
by random droplets which wind gusts, or normal
splashing, may have caused to escape the protec·
tion of the relatively warm mainstream of water.
Single·speed fans afford the least opportunity
for airflow variation, and towers so equipped reo
quire maximum vigilance on the part of the user
to determine the proper cyclic fan operation that
will best control ice. Two·speed fan motors offer
appreciably better operating flexibility, and
should be the minimum mandatory requirement
33
SECTION I
for towers to be used in freezing climates. Fans
may be individually cycled back and forth be-
tween full-speed and half-speed as required to
balance cooling effect and ice control, limited
only by the maximum allowable motor insulation
temperature which an abnormal number of speed
changes per hour may cause to be exceeded.
(Sect. IV-D)
Best ice control, consistent with proper opera-
ting procedures, is achieved by the use of Auto-
matic-Variable-Pitch (AVP) fans. (Sects. III-B-2 &
V-F) Set to prevent tower water from dropping be-
Iowa given temperature, these fans automatically
reduce airflow as ambient temperature reduces.
On towers equ ipped with a separate plenum for
each fan, individual fans may also be shut off,
providing another increment of flexibility. How-
ever, on towers having two or more fans evacua·
Figure 41a - "Acceptable " counterflow ice.
Figure 42a - "Unacceptable" counterflow ice.
34
ting a common plenum, those fans should be
brought to the off position in unison to prevent a
downdraft of cold, moisture laden air from icing
up the mechanical equipment of an inoperative
fan.
Ultimately, severe ice formations may require
that the fans be reversed for a period of time. This
causes the falling water pattern to be shifted out-
ward, bringing a deluge of relatively warm water
in contact with ice formations for rapid melting.
The warmed air exiting the air inlets also pro-
motes melting of ice formation not reached by the
falling water. This mode of operation should be
utilized only for short periods of time due to the
possibility of ice forming on the fan cylinders, fan
blades, and mechanical equipment. The allow-
able length of time will be a function of atmos-
Figure 41b - "Acceptable" crossflow ice
I~
-
-
Figure 42b - "Unacceptable" crossflow ice.

pheric conditions and should be established, and
monitored, by the operator. On multi-fan towers ,
individual fan reversal should be avoided . Other·
wise, the discharge vapors from adjacent fans
may cause severe icing of a reversed fan.
2. Water-Side Control
All large towers, regardless of type, which are
designed for operation in freezing weather should
be equipped with a water distribut ion system
wh ich can be manipulated to place the greatest
concentration of flowing water nearest the air in-
takes of the tower. This is particularly true in the
case of natural draft to wers (Fig. 3) where no
means of air-side control is avai lable. Not only
does this give the most difficult cooling job to the
coldest air, but it also assures a rapid rise in air
temperature to preclude freezing within the fill.
Most importantly, it places the maximum amount
of relatively warm flowing water in close proximo
ity to the areas of greatest ice concern.
Since the potential for freezing on the fill de·
pends so much upon the incoming water tempera-
ture, provision for total water by-pass directly into
the cold water basin (Fig. 43) is advisable on me·
III
~ ~~
I
~ <;j><>
..'; " "r"; ~~<: "
'.
Figure 43 - Typical piping and valving arrangement to by-pass return water directly into the cold water basin.
SECTION I
chancial draft towers, and should be considered
mandatory on natural draft towers. During cold
weather start-up, the basin water inventory may
be at a temperature very near freezing, at which
time the total water flow should be directed back
into the cold water basin upon its return from the
process load, without going over the fill. This by-
pass mode should be continued until the total
water inventory reaches an acceptable tempera-
ture level (usuall y about aO · F), at which time the
by-pass may be closed to cause total flow over
the fill.
Even during operation, combin ations of low-
load and low-ambient can promote ice formations
despite normal air-side and water-side control
procedures. In those cases, it may be necessary
to divert to total by-pass flow in order to maintain
a reasonable basin water temperature. Modula-
tion of by-pass whereby a portion of the water
flow is al lowed to continue over the fill, must not
be allowed to occur on a natural draft tower, and
its utilization on mechanical draft towers should
be discouraged unless 1) very fine air-side control
is maintained, 2) the water distribution system
35
SECTION I
has the capability to concentrate water flow to
the outboard portions of the fill , and 3) the opera·
tor monitors the tower's condition vigilantly. Even
so, fill flow rates of less than 50 percent must not
be allowed.
Of the two basic types of towers utilized (counter·
flow and cross flow) neither can be considered to
have an overriding advantage over the other in terms
of cold weather operation . Although the counterflow
tower's configuration tends to confine ice forma·
tions to areas of greatest structural strength, it is
also the most difficult to de·ice. This is because their
straight,sided shape reduces the opportunity for di·
rect warm water contact with a major ice formation,
36
requIring more frequent fan reversal. Crossflow
towers have an inwardly sloping air inlet face which
assures continuous contact of warm water with criti-
cal areas and, with only occasional fan reversal, pro·
motes rapid de·icing.
This manual is not intended to offer precise in·
structions on cold weather operation of a particular
tower, but is meant to raise the level of understand·
ing and awareness of potential users and practition·
ers. Precise instructions for individual cases should
be obtained from the manufacturer.
Measures for the prevention of basin freezing in
an inoperative tower are covered in Section VI of this
manual.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
A. GENERAL
The structure of a cooling tower must accommo·
date long duration dead loads imposed by the
weight of the tower components, circulating water,
snow and ice; plus short term loads caused by wind,
maintenance and, in some areas, seismic activity. It
must maintain its integrity throughout a variety of
external atmospheric conditions, and despite a con·
stant internal rainstorm. Wide·ranging temperatures
must be accepted, as well as the corrosive effects of
high humidity and constant oxygenation.
Were it not for the fact that a cooling tower struc·
ture must also provide the least possible impedance
to the free contact of air and water, the solution to
the above problems would be relatively routine. That
requirement, plus the constant vibratory forces im·
posed by mechanical equipment operation, dictate
structural conSiderations, and variations, which are
unique to the cooling tower industry. Although basic
design concepts are predicated upon universally ac·
cepted design codes, reputable cooling tower manu·
facturers will mOdify these codes as necessary to
compensate for effects deemed not to have been
foreseen by the original authority.
The components to be considered in this Section
are the cold water basin , framework , water distribu·
tion system, fan deck, fan cylinders, mechanical
equipment supports, fill , drift eliminators, casing,
and louvers. The best materials for these compon·
ents are continuously sought, along with improved
techniques for integrating them into a stable, de·
pendable, long lasting unit.
SECTION II
B. COLD WATER BASIN
The cooling tower basin serves the two fundamen·
tally important functions of 1) collecting the cold
water following its transit of the tower, and 2) acting
as the tower's primary foundation. Because it also
functions as a collecting point for foreign material
washed out of the air by the Circulating water, it
must be accessible, cleanable, have adequate drain·
ing facilities, and be equipped with suitable screen·
ing to prevent entry of debris into the suction·side
piping.
1. Basin Types: Ground level installations, typical of
virtually all large industrial towers, utilize con·
crete basins (Fig. 44) almost exclusively, whereas
elevated or rooftop installations are normally
equipped with basins provided by the cooling
tower manufacturer, compatibl e with the COOling
tower framework. Typical materials include wood
(Fig. 45), steel and, occasionally, plastic. In those
cases, the cooling tower manufacturer usually in·
cludes drain and overflow fittings, make·up
valve(s), sumps and screens, as well as provisions
for anchorage.
Concrete basins for wood or steel framed, field·
erected towers (Fig. 44) are usually designed and
built by the purchaser, utilizing dimensional and
load information provided by the manufacturer.
However, due to their integration into the overall
tower structure, and because of the extensive site·
related concrete work required, cold water basins
for concrete towers (Fig. 46) are often both designed
and built by the COOling tower manufacturer.
Figure 44 - Crossflow tower framework on
concrete basin prepared for
future tower extension.
37
SECTION II

Figure 45 - Plywood cold water basin floor. (Note de-

pressed sump)

To insure proper functioning of the tower, the

basin must provide a stable, level foundation.
Generally, a well-drained soil with moderate bear-
ing capacity will support mechanical draft towers
of wood or steel construction. Concrete towers
impose heavier loads on the soil and, in some
cases, may require the use of piles or caissons.
The soil should have a uniform bearing capacity
under the basin to prevent uneven settlement.
Footings must be below the prevailing frostline
(Fig. 47), and construction practices should al- Figure 46 - Basin and basic framework of an octago-
ways conform to local codes. nal mechanical draft tower in concrete
Wood towers may be equipped with either construction.
wood or steel basins, with tongue and groove,
treated Douglas Fir plywood flooring (Fig. 45) be- basins typically require considerably less mainte-
ing the predominant choice because of its high nance than do carbon steel basins.
strength and dimensional stability. Wood basins Steel basins may be of carbon steel (galvanized
are normally flat, less than 2' deep, and equipped or painted), or stainless steel, and of either bolted
with depressed sumps to facilitate pump suction. or welded construction. If bolted, jOints must be
Joints are sealed to prevent leakage. Plywood gasketed and sealed leak-tight. If welded, the

...._ _ 5

Figure 47 - Extreme depth of frost

penetration (in.) based
on state averages.

38

weld vicinity should be suitably coated for corro-
sion protection_ Steel basins also are normally
flat , except for those under certain factory-
assembled towers (Fig. 12)) which incorporate a
depressed section to facilitate cleaning and im-
prove outflow characteristics. Being subject to
oxidation, steel basins require more mainte-
nance, and are more sensitive to water quality,
than are wood basins.
2. Basin Support: A grillage of steel or concrete is
normally utilized for support of a tower installed
over a wood or steel basin. (Fig. 48) Grillages
must be designed to withstand the total wet oper-
ating weight of the tower and attendant piping, as
well as the dead loads contributed by stairways,
catwalks, etc. It must also accept transient loads
attributable to wind, earthquake, and mainte-
nance traffic_ Grillage members must be level,
Figure 48 - Steel grillage supporting tower equipped
with wood cold water collection basin.
Figure 49 - Water from the basin of this
tower returns directly to the
lake.
SECTION II
and of sufficient strength to preclude excess de-
flection under load.
In designing the grillage, the possibility of fu-
ture extension of the tower should be considered
as a means of minimizing future cost impact.
3. Basin Depth: As indicated previously, wood and
steel basins are of relatively shallow construc-
tion, typically 14" to 20" deep. Although greater
depths are possible, they are seldom required or
recommended. Sufficient freeboard above the op-
erating water level is included to accommodate
the normal amount of transient water that col-
lects in the basin at shutdown.
Greater design flexibility is afforded with the
concrete basins typically utilized for larger
towers (Fig. 44), and adaptable for smaller towers.
Once the load pOints are accommodated at the
proper elevation , the basin floor (slab) may be as
far below the top of the basin wall (curb) as re-
quired to satisfy design criteria. The basin must
be deep enough to provide sufficient hydraulic
head for proper water flow into the sump(s), and
to accept the transient water and potential back-
flow at pump shutdown. Beyond this, the basin
may be made deep enough to hold a reserve in
case of interrupted make-up water supply; to sta-
bilize water temperatures under highly variable
loads; or to act as a reservoir to supply the plant
fire protection system.
"Dry basins" are minimum depth basins which
drain by gravity into adjacent flumes, vessels, col -
lection ponds, or streams. They are so deSignated
because they are intended to drain completely
upon pump shutdown . Typical applications of
this principle are the "indoor tank" (Fig. 135), and
the "helper" tower. (Fig. 49) (Sect. Vol) Sufficient-
ly low water levels in dry-basin towers may neces-
sitate air seals to prevent the reduction in tower
performance associated with air by-passing be-
neath the fill.
39
SECTION II
Removable
Cover
Double
Screens
Figure 50 - Typical cross-section of concrete sump pit.
4. Basin Sumps: Sumps for towers with wood or
steel basins are normally designed and furnished
by the manufacturer. (Fig. 45) Concrete sumps
(Fig. 50), provided by the purchaser, should be de-
signed for water entrance velocities of less than
3'/sec., and should be of sufficient depth to satis-
fy pump suction head requirements. Screens are
usually vertical, of V." square mesh, sized for
1'/sec. net velocity through the open area of the
screen, and held in place by channels imbedded
in the sump walls to allow for easy removal.
Screens may be installed in duplicate to permit
cleaning during continued operation.
5_ Basin Cleaning Facilities: Because it is an area of
relatively low flow velocity, any water borne or air
borne particulates entering the circulating water
system will tend to settle in the basin, where the
resultant silt can be either periodically or continu-
ously removed from the system. Periodic sludge
removal usually takes place during normal shut-
40
Cleanout
Drain
down intervals. Where towers are expected to op-
erate continuously, strategically located basin
partitions can permit partial shutdown for sec-
tional cleaning and maintenance_
Where possible, large capacity cleanout drains
(Fig. 50) should be provided. Concrete basin
floors should slope toward the sumps or drains at
a rate of l' per 100', to permit flushing of the sedi-
ment. Where drains cannot be provided, basins
should slope toward a cleanout sump from which
sludge can be pumped, or removed manually.
Side-stream filtration (Sect. VI-E) has been found
to be an effective means of maintaining suspend-
ed solids at acceptable levels in the Circulating
water system, and of reducing the costs associ-
ated with periodic silt removal. For most effective
filtration , discharge flow from the filter should be
returned to areas of low velocity in the basin in
order to help maintain particulate suspension.

Figure 51 - Factory-assembled towers of treated wood
construction are utilized in corrosive
areas.
C. TOWER FRAMEWORK
The most commonly used materials for the frame·
work of field·erected towers are wood and concrete,
with steel utilized infreq uently to conform to a local
building code, or to satisfy a specific preference.
Factory·assembled towers predominate in steel con·
struction, although wood constru ction is increasing·
Iy utilized in locations (or for processes) that tend to
promote corrosion. (Fig. 51)
A uniform wind load design of 30 pounds per
square foot is standard, with higher values either
Figure 52 - Framework and joint detail in a well·designed cooling tower of wood construction.
SECTION II
dictated or advisable in some areas. Earthquake
loads, if applicable, are in accordance with zones de·
fined in the Uniform Building Code of the Interna·
tional Conference of Building Officials. Design
stress values for wood members and fasteners are
based on the National Design Specification of the
National Forest Products Association. Steel memo
bers are governed by the American Institute of Steel
Construction manual , and concrete is based on
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con·
crete of the American Concrete Institute. Fir lumber
grades conform to Standard 16 of the West Coast
Lumber Inspection Bureau , latest revision . Redwood
lumber grades conform to Standard Specification
for Grades of California Redwood Lumber of the
California Redwood Association, latest revision.
In large wood towers, the co lumns are normally
spaced on 4' x 8' or 6' x 6' centers. (Fig . 44) These
bay sizes have evolved over the years, and have
proved best to properly support the fill , drift elimina·
tor, and louver modules, as well as to keep lumber
sizes to those that are readily available.
Diagonal bracing in the plane of the columns is
usually of column size (Fig. 52), with loads trans-
mitted through fiber reinforced plastic structural
connectors at the jOints. Horizontal girts in the trans·
verse and longitudinal directions carry the fill mod·
ules, and keep the unbraced column lengths to short
vertical spans. In order to achieve a determinate def-
inition of lateral bracing of the columns against
buckling , transverse and longitudinal girt lines
should be at the same plane.
41
SECTION II

Figure 53
Figure 54
Concrete tower structural members (Fig. 46) may
be a combination of precast and poured-in-place
construction with design varying according to ap-
plicable loads and tower configuration. Main col-
umns for support of fans and large distribution
flumes may be formed by pumping concrete. This
technology also permits high-lift pumping of con-
crete for hyperbolic shell construction. (Fig. 53)
Fill and distribution system support may utilize a
column and beam system , or stacked panel trusses.
(Fig. 54)
Applicable reinforcement , prestressing, or post-
tensioning is utilized as required by design consider-
ations. (Fig. 55)
Precast double-tee sections are frequently used
for such elements as fan decks, or the floors of
flumes and distribution basins. (Figs. 56a & 56b)

Figure 55

Figure 568 Figure 56b

42
 SECTION II

D. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

In a general sense, piping and distribution of the
water within the envelope of the tower are responsi·
bilities of the tower manufacturer. Site piping , as
well as attendant ri sers, valves and controls, which
occur outside the confines of the cooling tower are
provided and installed by others.
Magnitude and routing of the circulating water
lines between the heat source and the tower location
are usually dictated by type of tower, topography
and site layout. (Sect. I-E-7·(d), Fig. 39) Lines may be
buried to minimize problems of thrust loading,
thermal expansion and freezing; or elevated to mini·
mize cost of installation and repair. In either case,
the risers to the tower inlet must be externally sup·
ported, independent of the tower structure and piping.
1. Types and Arrangements: Crossflow tower con· Figure 57 - Counterflow distribution system in opera·
figuration (Fig. 56b) permits the use of a gravity· tion.
flow distribution system wherein the supply water
is elevated to hot water distribution basins above and more difficult to balance, clean , maintain and
the fill , from which it flows over the fill (by gravity) replace; but contribute sfgnificantly to overall
through metering orifices located in the distribu· heat transfer, tend toward lower pump heads in
tion basin floor. towers of larger size, and are less conducive to
Conversely, counterflow configuration (Fig. 57) algae growth.
normally necessitates the use of a pressure·type A typical supply piping arrangement, applica·
system of closed pi pe and spray nozzles. ble to multi·cell crossflow or counterflow towers,
Gravity systems are readily inspected, cleaned positions the supply line adjacent to the long side
and maintained, and easily balanced; but contri· of the tower and running the full length. (Fig. 58)
bute negligibly to overall heat transfer, tend to reo Vertical risers (one per cell) connect the supply
quire a somewhat higher pump head in larger line to the manufacturer's inlet connections at
towers, and may promote the formation of algae the elevation of the tower's distribution system.
unless the open basins are covered. Pressure Valves are usually installed in these risers to en·
spray systems are more susceptible to clogging able individual cells to be taken out of service.

Figure 58 - Seven cell tower with individual side risers.

43
SECTION II
The crossflow design permits many piping vari -
ations that can be adapted to multi-cell towers.
Two risers at one end of the tower (Fig. 59), con-
necting to the manufacturer's header piping, is
one method used for large circulating water rates.
In the picture shown, the piping has been ar-
ranged to allow the future installation of another
tower in the near direction.
Figure 60 - Lesser flows can be handled by single riser
and header.
44
Figure 59 - Double end inlets
allow large water flows
without the necessity
for piping of unreason-
able size. Note ladder
and safety cage. (Stair-
way is installed at far
end)
Where flow rates permit, a single riser at the
end of the tower (Fig. 60), or somewhere along the
louvered face, can be utilized, connecting to the
manufacturer's manifold header at the top of the
tower. In either case, the manufacturer's header
piping runs the full length of the tower, serving
each half-cell distribution basin through flow-
control valves, and crossover piping as neces-
sary. (Fig. 61)
Figure 61 - Single header supplies near-side basin
through valves. Far-side distribution basin
supplied via crossover piping and valves.

Figure 62 - Distribution system of an operating round
crossflow tower.
Concrete crossflow round towers (Fig. 62) typ-
ically utilize an open concrete flume, fed by one or
more concrete internal risers, for primary distribu-
tion of the hot water. Radial flow from the flume
into the open distribution basin is through adjust-
able weirs or gates. Proper placement of stop
logs in the flume permits the opportunity for ma-
jor maintenance of a sector of an operating tower,
should the need arise.
Concrete counterflow round or octagonal
towers (Fig_ 63) also make use of one or more in-
ternal concrete risers feeding an elevated system
of closed flumes or conduits (usually of concrete)
which, in turn, supply an array of branch piping
and closely spaced nozzles to achieve uniform
water distribution over the fill.
- Figure 64 - Large plastic dis-
SECTION II
Figure 63 - Typical counterflow tower distribution sys-
tem.
2. Distribution System Materials: Distribution sys-
tems are subjected to a combination of hot water
and maximum oxygenation. Therefore, the materi-
als utilized should be highly resistant to both cor-
rosion and erosion. Histori cally proven materials
are hot-dip galvanized steel, cast iron, and red-
wood stave pipe. Because of the relatively low
pressures to which cooling tower piping is sub-
jected, the use of various types of plastic pipe
(Fig . 64) and nozzles has also become a mark of
quality construction. Except for relatively small
diameters, the plastic pipe utilized is usually fiber
reinforced_ Precast and prestressed concrete
pipe and flumes are also utilized on concrete
towers.
tribution header.
45
SECTION II

3. Riser Sway Braces: Wind andlor earthquake con· the cold water basin , installed with their point of
siderations will occasionally influence specifying discharge downturned, and sufficiently above the
engineers to call for sway braces which tie the up· basin water level to preclude contamination of
per end of a foundation·cantilevered riser to the that supply by the circulating water. Non-potable
larger tower structure, which is assumed by the water, of course, may be connected for injection
specification writer to have the greater rigidity. of the make-up supply at any pOint in the water
This is not good practice when the riser is of a circuit.
material having a high modulus of elasticity, such Overflow lines (Fig. 50) may be sized large
as steel. The cooling tower structure will react enough to facilitate flush-out cleaning of a sump,
quite differently from the riser under an imposed but must be large enough to handle full make-up
load condition. For example, under earthquake flow in case that device malfunctions.
acceleration the riser will respond at high fre· Blowdown lines should be sized to handle the
quency and low amplitude, whereas the tower maximum anticipated amount of water to be
structure (of lower modulus material) will respond wasted. (Sect. I-G-1) Although blowdown can be
at lower frequency and greater amplitude. The taken from the cold water basin, it is usually easi-
result is that any connection between the two will er to control if taken from the pressure-side (i.e.
be attempting to transmit the seismic response of the inlet riser) piping.
the tower into the more rigid risers, and damage
to the endwall framing or the piping connections
may follow.
A riser brace capable of transmitting the high
loads generated by a differential response is a
costly auxiliary structure which imposes signifi·
cant loadings at anchorage pOints in the cold
water basin, and its utilization in such cases
should be avoided. Properly designed cooling
tower header piping will accommodate typical
horizontal and vertical movement without dis-
tress, and the flanged joint between the riser and
the distribution header should never be consi-
dered as a riser support. In cases of doubt, an ex-
pansion jOint or flexible coupling should be pro-
vided between the riser and header to allow rela-
tive movement to occur.
Risers of FRP plastic pipe have a modulus of
elasticity close to that of the tower structure and
will experience similar seismic response. There-
fore, destructive transfer of opposed loads is un-
likely, and the flexibility of the FRP pipe riser may
require lateral support at the top. In such cases a Figure 65 - Float-operated, mechanical make-up valve.
riser sway brace may be a desirable solution.
4. Ancillary Systems: Provision must be made for
make-up, overflow and blowdown, and should be
made for by-pass. Since proper by-pass utilization
is covered more fully in Sections I-H and V-F, suf-
fice it here to say that the location of the by-pass
should be in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations to prevent damage to the struc-
ture or the fi II.
The amount of make-up water required con-
sists of the total water losses accrued through
evaporation (Sect. I-D), drift (Sect. II-I), blowdown --11---- High water alarm
(Sect. I-G-1) and system leakage. On relatively
small towers, make-up is controlled by a mechani- -11---- Make-up supply cut-off
cal float valve responding to the basin water level. Ht;p.--- Make-up demand
(Fig. 65) Float switches or electric probe systems
Low water heater
are normally used on larger towers to open and cut-off & alarm
close a make-up valve, or to start and stop a
make-up pump. (Fig. 66) These may be located in
a stilling chamber designed to suppress the ef-
fect of normal wave action in the basin . Make-up Figure 66 - Electric probes can be used to actuate vari-
lines from potable sources are usually brought to ous systems.

46

E. FAN DECK
The fan deck is considered a part of the tower
structure, acting as a diaphragm for transmitting
dead and live loads to the tower framing. It also pro·
vides a platform for the support of the fan cylinders,
as well as an accessway to the mechanical equip·
ment and water distribution systems.
Fan deck materials are customarily compatible
with the tower framework. Wood towers normally
utilize tongue-and·groove fir plywood; galvanized
steel on steel towers; and prestressed double·tee
sections on concrete towers.
Uniform live loading design on larger towers is
normally 60 pounds per square foot, reducing to 40
Figure 68 - Cut-away view of velocity recovery type fan
pounds per square foot on the smaller towers.
Figure 67 - Typical fiber·reinforced plastic fan cylinder.
F. FAN CYLINDERS
Considerable thought, calculation , modeling, and
testing goes into the design and construction of a
fan cylinder because it so directly affects the proper
flow of air through the tower. (Sect. m·B) Fan effi·
ciencies can be severely reduced by a poorly de·
signed fan cylinder, or significantly enhanced by a
well-designed one.
The essence of a well designed fan cylinder (Fig.
67) incorporates; an eased inlet to promote smooth
flow of air to the fan; minimum fan blade tip clear·
ance; a smooth profile below and above the fan; suf·
SECTION II
cylinder.
ficient structural strength to maintain a stable plan
and profile; and either sufficient height to protect
operating personnel, or a removable mesh guard,
structurally reinforced.
All of these physical requirements have practical
limitations, generally controlled by the materials of
construction. Fiber·reinforced plastic, because of its
formability, strength, relatively light weight, stabili·
ty, and resistance to water and weathering, is the
preferred material for (his application. Cylinders are
formed over molds which accurately control contour
and dimensions, resulting in a fan cylinder that ap·
proaches ideal air movement, coupled with minimum
noise. Good fan cylinders are also constructed of
wood or steel. However, shape factors usually result
in lower fan efficiencies.
Fan cylinders of an extended height (sometimes
called "fan stacks") promote discharge of the satur·
ated air stream at higher elevations, minimizing the
effects of recirculation and interference. (Sect. I·E·5
& 6) One type of fan stack is in the form of a flared
diffuser (Fig. 68) that provides a gradual increase in
cross·sectional area beyond the fan with a resultant
decrease in leaving air velocity. This effectively con·
verts velocity pressure to static pressure, resulting
in a Significant increase in air delivery over what
could be accomplished with a straight stack at the
same fan horsepower. These velocity·recovery
stacks are particularly applicable to large industrial
towers. (Figs. 58 & 59)
47
SECTION II
Figure 69 - Mechanical equipment mounted on torque tube, before installation of fan cylinder and motor. Note re-
taining guards for drive shaft.
G. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT SUPPORTS
The framework of a cooling tower is not totally in-
flexible, even on concrete towers which utilize struc-
tural members of relatively massive cross section.
Considering the tremendous torsional forces en-
countered in the operation of large fans at high
horsepower, it becomes apparent that some means
of assuring a constant plane-relationship through-
out the motor-geareducer-fan drive train must be pro-
vided in order to maintain proper alignment of the
mechanical equipment.
For smaller fan units, unitized steel weldments of
structural cross section serve well. However, the
forces imposed by the operation of larger fans dic-
tate the use of unitized supports of greater sophisti-
cation. These usually consist of large, heavy-wall
torque tubes welded to outriggers of structural steel.
(Fig. 69)
Customary material for these unitized supports is
carbon steel, hot-dip galvanized after fabrication ,
with stainless steel construction available at signifi-
cant additional cost. The combination of heavy con-
struction, plus galvanization, generally makes stain-
less steel construction unnecessary.
48
H. FILL (Heat Transfer Surface)
The single most important component of a cooling
tower is the fill. Upon its ability to promote both the
maximum contact surface, and the maximum con-
tact time, between air and water depends the effi-
ciency of the tower. And , it must promote this air-
water contact while imposing the least possible re-
striction to air flow. Maximum research and develop-
ment effort goes into the design and application of
various types of fill , and technological advances are
cause for celebration.
Most reputable cooling tower manufacturers de-
sign and produce fill specifically suited to their dis-
tribution , fan , and support systems; developing all in
concert to avoid the performance-degrading effects
of a misapplied distribution system, or an air-imped-
ing support structure. Those who are less meticu-
lous will adapt commerciall y available components
(fill, fans, driveshafts, distribution systems, etc.) into
the shape and appearance of a cooling tower, relying
upon the laboratory ratings of these components to re-
main dependable in less-than-Iaboratory conditions.
The two basic fill classifications are splash type
(Fig. 70) and film type. (Fig. 71) Although either type
 SECTION II

Figure 70b - Splash type fill: plastic splash bars.

Figure 70a - Splash type fill: wood splash bars.

can be applied in crossflow or counterflow configur-

ation, counterflow towers are tending toward almost
exclusive use of the film fills. Crossflow towers, on
the other hand, make use of either type with equal
facility, occasionally in concert.
Splash type fill breaks up the water, and interrupts
its vertical progress, by causing it to cascade
through successive offset levels of parallel splash
bars. Maximum exposure of the water surface to the
passing air is thus obtained by repeatedly arresting
the water's fall and splashing it into small droplets,
as well as by wetting the surface of the individual
splash bars. (Fig. 17)
Splash fill is characterized by reduced air pres- Figure 71 - Film type fill.
sure losses, and is not conducive to clogging. How-
ever, it is very sensitive to inadequate support. The be exercised to assure that the splash bars will not
splash bars must remain horizontal. If sagging oc- abrade the coating, exposing the wire to corrosion.
curs, the water and air will "channel" through the fill Treated wood lath (primarily Douglas Fir) predom-
in separate flow paths, and thermal performance will inated for many years as splash bar material, and
be severely impaired. Also, if the tower is not level, continues to be extensively used because of its
water will graVitate to the low ends of the splash strength, durability, availability, and relatively low
bars and produce this channeling effect. cost. (Fig. 70A) Currently, however, plastics have
Long term performance reliability requires that gained predominance. They may be injection mold-
the splash bars be supported on close centers, and ings of polypropylene, or similar materials which can
that the support material be as inert as practicable. be compounded for resistance to fire; or they may_be
Of the various support mechanisms presently in use, extrusions of PVC (Fig. 70B), which inherently has a
fiber reinforced plastic grid hangers are recognized low flame spread rate. Stainless steel or aluminum
as having the longest history of success, with PVC splash bars are occasionally used in steel framed
coated wire grids also enjoying considerable use. In towers where totally fireproof construction may be
utilizing coated carbon steel grids, however, care must mandatory.

49
SECTION II

Film type fill causes the water to spread into a thin

film, flowing over large vertical areas, to promote
maximum exposure to the air flow. (Fig. 71) It has the
capability to provide more effective cooling capacity
within the same amount of space, but is extremely
sensitive to poor water distribution, as well as the air
blockage and turbulence that a poorly designed sup·
port system can perpetuate. The overall tower design
must assure uniform air and water flow throughout
the entire fill area. Uniform spacing of the fill sheets
is also of prime importance due to the tendency of
air to take the path of least resistance.
Because the fill sheets are closely spaced, the use
of film fill should be avoided in situations wheretfi9
Circulating water can become contaminated with
debris.
Film fill can be made of any material that is cap·
able of being fabricated or molded into shaped
sheets, with a surface formed as required by the Figure 72 - Two·pass "herringbone" drift eliminators
design to direct the flow of air and water. Because of wood construction .
PVC is inert to most chemical attack, has good
strength characteristics, is light in weight, has a low
flame spread rate, and can easi Iy be formed to the
shape required, It is currently the most popular
material.

I. DRIFT ELIMINATORS
As a by-product of the cooling tower having pro·
moted the most intimate contact between water and
air in the fill, water droplets become entrained in the
leaving air stream. Collectively, these solid water
droplets are called "drift" and are not to be confused
with the pure water vapor with which the effluent air
stream is saturated, nor with any droplets formed by
condensation of that vapor. The composition and
quality of drift is that of the circulating water flowing
through the tower. Its potential for nuisance, in the
spotting of cars, windows and buildings, is consider-
able. With the tower located upwind of power lines, Figure 73 - "Honeycomb" type drift eliminators
substations, and other critical areas, its potential as formed of plastic.
an operating hazard can be significant.
Drift eliminators remove entrained water from the
discharge air by causing it to make sudden changes
in direction. The resulting centrifugal force separ·
ates the drops of water from the air, depositing them
on the eliminator surface, from which they flow back
into the tower. Although designers strive to avoid ex-
cess pressure losses in the movement of air through
the eliminators, a certain amount of pressure differ-
ential is beneficial because it assists in promoting
uniform air flow through the tower fill.
Eliminators are normally classified by the number
of directional changes, or "passes", with an in-
crease in the number of passes usually accom·
panied by an increase in pressure drop. They may
consist of two or more passes of spaced slats posi·
tioned in frames (Fig . 72) or may be molded into a
honeycomb configuration with labyrinth passages.
(Fig. 73) Some towers that utilize film type fill have
drift eliminators molded integrally with the fill Figure 74 - Drift eliminators molded integrally with fill
sheets. (Fig. 74) sheets.

50

Since drift eliminators should be as corrosion
resistant as the fill, materials acceptable for fill are
usually incorporated into eliminator design, with
treated wood and various plastics (predominantly
PVC) being most widely used.
In the decade of the 1970s, concern for the pos-
sible environmental impact of drift from cooling
towers stimulated considerable research and de-
velopment in that field and, as might be expected,
significant advances in drift eliminator technology
occurred. Currently, the anticipated drift levels in
smaller, more compact towers will seldom exceed
0.02% of the circulating water rate. In larger towers,
affording more room and opportunity for drift-limit-
ing techniques, drift levels will normally be in the
region of 0.008%, with levels of 0.001% attainable. vers significantly increases their cost, but it permits
(Sect. V-H)
J. CASING
A cooling tower casing acts to contain water
within the tower, provide an air plenum for the fan,
and transmit wind loads to the tower framework. It
must have diaphragm strength, be watertight and
corrosion resistant, and have fire retardant qualities.
It must also resist weathering, and should present a
pleasing appearance.
Currently, wood or steel framed, field-erected
towers are similarly cased with fire-retardant fiber-
reinforced polyester corrugated panels, overlapped
and sealed to prevent leakage. Factory-assembled
steel towers (Fig. 11) utilize galvanized steel panels,
and concrete towers are cased with precast concrete
panels.
If required for appearance purposes, the cas-
ing can be extended to the height of the handrail. their inherently better water management character-
(Fig. 75)
SECTION II
K. LOUVERS
Every well-designed crossflow tower is equipped
with inlet louverts, whereas counterflow towers are
only occasionally required to have louvers. Their pur-
pose is to retain circulating water within the confines
of the tower, as well as to equalize air flow into the fill.
They must be capable of supporting snow and ice
loads and, properly designed, will contribute to good
operation in cold weather by retaining the increase in
water flow adjacent to the air inlets that is so neces-
sary for ice control. (Sect. I-H-2)
Closely spaced, steeply sloped louvers afford
maximum water containment, but are the antithesis
of free air flow, and can contribute to icing problems.
Increasing the horizontal depth (width) of the lou-
wider spacing, lesser slope and improved horizontal
overlap, and is the design direction taken by most
reputable manufacturers. (Fig. 49)
The most-utilized louver materials are corrugated
fire-retardant fiber reinforced polyester and treated
Douglas Fir plywood on field-erected towers, galva-
nized steel on factory-assembled steel towers, and
precast, prestressed concrete on concrete towers.
The evolution of louver design began in the early
era of splash type fill, more than a half century ago,
at which time their primary function was to control
the multitude of random water droplets produced
by the splashing action. Because of the width and
spacing necessary to accomplish this magnitude
of water recovery, louvers became a highly visible,
accented part of the cooling tower's appearance,
as evidenced by Figure 49.
With the advent of acceptable film type fills, with
istics, louver design was reassessed. Ultimately, the
51
SECTION II

highly visible type louvers disappeared from certain
cooling towers specifically designed for operation
only with film type fill. (Fig. 76) However, as can be
seen in Figure 77, the louvers remain - they have
merely become an integral part of the leading edge
of the fill sheets.
Figure 77 - Air inlet louvers molded integrally with fill
sheets.
One should not anticipate from this that louvers
are obsolescent. Splash type fill is still widely used,
especially in contaminated water service, and is ex·
pected to remain so for the foreseeable future. Fur·
thermore, the use of film·filled towers without exter·
nal louvers in certain operating conditions, such as
excessively high water loadings, is ill advised.
protective safety cage device, and must be so en·
closed where vertical heights exceed OSHA limita·
tions. Larger mechanical draft towers (Fig. 49) are
customarily supplied with wide access stairways,
constructed of a material compatible with the cool·
ing tower structure. In either case, sturdy handrails,
kneerails, and toeboards must be provided around
the periphery of the access level.
On relatively long cooling towers, it is wise to
equip each end of the tower with a stairway or lad·
der. Indeed, some localities require this for confor·
mance with fire safety regulations.
Certain areas of a cooling tower require occasion-
al maintenance, but are relatively enclosed. Counter·
flow towers should be equipped with an access door
in each cell to gain access to the water distribution
system. Usually, these doors are located in the fan
deck floor, complete with vertical ladders down to
the distribution level.
Double·flow (crossflow) towers (Fig. 78) should be
equipped with access doors, located just above the
cold water basin level, at each end of the tower and
in each successive cell partition wall to permit ac·
cess to the basin , as well as to encourage inspection
of the tower's structural internals. Where the tower
is mounted over a deep basin, an interior walkway
running the full length of the tower connecting these
access doors must be included. (On basins less than
4' deep, this walkway is optionaL) Single·flow towers
(Fig. 10) should have a basin-level access door in the
backwall casing of each cell.

L. ACCESS & SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Access to various components of a cooling tower
is usually influenced by the manufacturer's recom-
mendations, whereas safety considerations are the
result of intelligent interpretation of the guidelines
promulgated by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). Both aspects take the user's
unique requirements into consideration to the great·
est possible degree.
On towers of relatively low height (Figs. 5 & 11),
where maintenance access may be gained by the
use of mobile platforms or portable ladders, fixed ac·
cess ladders and safety handrails are not man· Figure 78 - Note access ladders, handrails, and fan
datory. This also applies to small atmospheric (Fig. guards.
2) and forced draft towers (Fig. 4) where no elevation
of the tower is specifically decked as a working plat·
form.
Towers of larger dimension normally require some
form of permanently fixed access to the level(s) of
normal maintenance. On hyperbolic towers (Fig. 3),
access usually terminates at the water distribution
system level, except where the existence of aircraft
warning lights dictates higher access. Standard
equipment on mechanical draft towers of intermedi·
ate size (Fig. 78) typically consists of a fixed vertical
ladder, which may optionally be enclosed within a

52

MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
A. GENERAL
Cooling tower mechanical equipment is required
to operate within a highly corrosive, moisture·laden
atmosphere that is unique to the cooling tower in·
dustry, and the historical failure rate of commercial ·
Iy available components caused reputable tower
manufacturers to undertake their own production of
specific components some years ago. Currently, the
low failure rate of manufacturer·produced compo·
nents reinforces that decision. Purchasers also
benefit from the advantage of single·source respon·
sibility for warranty, and replacement parts.
Exclusive of motors, which are covered in Section
IV, the mechanical components basic to the opera·
tion of the cooling tower are fans , speed reducers,
drive shafts, and water flow control valves. Auxiliary
devices, of a mechanical nature, are discussed in
Section VI.
B. FANS
Cooling tower fans must move large volumes of
air efficiently, and with minimum vibration . The mao
terials of manufacture must not only be compatible
with their design , but must also be capable of with·
standing the corrosive effects of the environment in
which the fans are required to operate. Their impor·
tance to the mechanical draft cooling tower's ability
to perform is reflected in the fact that fans of im·
proved efficiency and reliability are the object of
continuous development.
1. Propeller Fans: Propeller type fans predominate
in the cooling tower industry because of their
ability to move vast quantities of air at the rela·
tively low static pressures encountered. They are
comparatively inexpensive, may be used on any
size tower, and can develop high overall efficien·
cies when "system designed" to complement a
specific tower structure - fill - fan cylinder con·
figuration. Most·utilized diameters range from 24
inches to 10 meters (Fig. 79), operating at horse·
powers from 'I. to 250 + . Although the use of lar·
ger fans , at higher power input, is not without pre·
cedence, their application naturally tends to be
limited by the number of projects of sufficient
size to warrant their consideration. Fans 48
inches and larger in diameter are equipped with
adjustable pitch blades, enabling the fans to be
applied over a wide range of operating horse·
powers. Thus the fan can be adjusted to deliver
the precise required amount of air at the least
power consumption .
The rotational speed at which a propeller fan is
applied typically varies in inverse proportion to its
diameter. The smaller fans turn at relatively high
speeds, whereas the larger ones turn somewhat
slower. This speed·diameter relationship, how·
SECTION III
Figure 79 - Typical large diameter fan utilized on cool·
ing towers.
ever, is by no means a constant one. If it were, the
blade tip speed of all cooling tower fans would be
equal. The applied rotational speed of propeller
fans usually depends upon best ultimate efficien·
cy, and some diameters operate routinely at tip
speeds approaching 14,000 feet per minute. How-
ever, since higher tip speeds are associated with
higher sound levels, it is sometimes necessary to
select fans turning at slower speeds to satisfy a
critical requirement .
The increased emphasis on reducing cooling
tower operating cost s has resulted in the use of
larger fans to move greater volumes of air more
efficiently. Much research has also gone into the
development of more efficient blade, hub, and fan
cylinder designs. The new generations of fans are
light in weight to reduce parasitic energy losses,
and have fewer , but wider, blades to reduce aero·
dynamic drag. Moreover, the characteristics of air
flow through the tower, from inlet to discharge,
are analyzed and appropriate adjustments to the
structure are made to minimize obstructions; fill
and distribution systems are designed and ar·
ranged to promote maximum uniformity of air and
water flow; and drift eliminators are arranged to
direct the fin al pass of air toward the fan. This is
recognized as the "systems" approach to fan de-
sign, without which the best possible efficiency
cannot be obtained.
The intent of good propeller fan deSign is to
achieve air velocities across the effective area of
the fan , from hub to blade tips, that are as uni-
form as possible. The most effective way to ac-
53
SECTION III

Figure 80 - Large fa n being instal/ed. Note twist and Figure 82 - Welded fan hub for large fan.
taper of blades.

..
campi ish this is with tapered and twisted blades
having an airfoil cross section. (Fig. 80) Historic·
ally, cast alum inum alloys have been the classic
materials used for production of this blade type.
Cast aluminum blades continue to be utilized be·
cause of their relative low cost, good internal vi·
bration damping characteristics, and resistance
to corrosion in most cooling tower environments.
Currently, lighter blades of exceptional corro-
sion resistance are made of fiberglass-reinforced
plastic, cast in precision molds. These blades
may be solid; formed around a permanent core; or •
formed hollow by the use of a temporary core,
(Fig. 81) In all cases, they have proved to be both • •
efficient and durable.
Fan hubs must be of a material that is structur-
ally compatible with blade weight and loading,
and must have good corrosion resistance. Gal-
vanized steel weldments (Fig. 82), gray and duc-
tile iron castings, and wrought or cast aluminum Figure 83 - Fixed-pitch, sheet metal fan used on smal/-
er towers.

Figure 81 - Cross-section of plastic, hal/ow-core fan Figure 84 - Automatic variable-pitch fan used to ma-
blade. nipulate air flow and fan horsepower.

54

• ing being hot-dip galvanization . Damper mechan-
4. Fan Laws: All propeller type fans operate in ac-
Figure 85 - Blower type fan.
are in general use as hub materials. Where hub
and blades are of dissimilar metals, they must be
insu lated from each other to prevent electrolytic
corrosion.
Smaller diameter fans are customarily of gal-
vanized sheet metal construction with fixed-pitch,
non-adj ustable blades. These fans are matched to
differing air flow requirements by changing the
design speed.
2. Automatic Variable-Pitch Fans: These are propel-
ler fans on which a pneumatically actuated hub
controls the pitch of the blades in unison. (Fig. 84)
Their ability to vary airflow through the tower in
response to a changing load or ambient condition
-coupled with the resultant energy savings, and
ice control-make them an optional feature much
in demand. (Sects. I-H-1 & V-F)
3. Centrifugal Fans: These are usually of the double
inlet type, used predominantly on cooling towers
designed for indoor installations. Their capability
to operate against relative ly high static pressures
makes them part icularly suitable for that type of
app lication. However, their inabi lity to handle
large volumes of air, and their characteristically
high input horsepower requirement (approximate-
ly twice that of a propeller fan) limits their use to
relat ively small applications.
Three types of centrifugal fans are available; 1)
forward curve blade fans , 2) rad ial blade fans and
3) backward curve blade fans. The characteristics
of t he forward curve blade fan make it the most
appropriate type for cooling tower service. By vir-
tue of the direction and velocity of the air leaving
the fan wheel , the fan can be equipped with a
comparatively small size housing, which is desir-
able from a struct ural standpoint. Also, because
the required velocity is generated at a compara-
tively low speed, forward curve blade fans tend to
operate quieter than other centrifugal types.
Centrifuga l fans are usuall y of sheet metal can-
SECTION III
struction, with the most popular protective coat-
isms are also available to facilitate capacity con-
trol of the cooling tower.
cordance with common laws. For a given fan and
cooling tower system, the fol lowing is true:
a. The capacity (cfm) varies directly as the speed
(rpm) ratio, and directly as the pitch angle of
the blades relative to the plane of rotation.
b. The static pressure (h s) varies as the square of
the capacity ratio.
c. The fan horsepower varies as the cube of the
capacity ratio.
d. At constant cfm, the fan horsepower and sta-
t ic pressure vary directly with air density.
If, for example, the capacity (cfm) of a given fan
were decreased by 50 percent (either by a <educ-
t ion to half or design rpm, or by a reduction in
blade pitch angle at constant speed), the capacity
ratio would be 0.5. Concurrently, the static pres-
sure would become 25 percent of before, and the
fan horsepower would become 12.5 percent of be-
fore. These characterist ics afford unique oppor-
tunities to combine cold water temperature con-
trol with significant energy savings, as described
in Section V-F of this manual.
Selected formulas, derived from these basic
laws, may be utilized to determine the efficacy of
any particular fan application:
Symbols:
Q - Volume of air handled (cfm). Unit: cu It per
min.
A = Net flow area. Unit: sq ft.
V = Average air velocity at plane of measure-
ment. Unit: It per sec.
g = Acceleration due to gravity. Unit: 32.17 It per
sec per sec.
D = Density of water at gauge fluid temperatu re.
Unit: Ib per cu ft. (See Table 3).
d = Air density at point of flow. Unit: Ib per cu ft.
(See Table 4).
hs = Static pressure drop through system. Unit:
inches of water.
hv = Velocity pressure at point of measurement.
Unit: inches of water.
ht = Total pressure differential (= hs + hv)·
Unit: inches of water.
vr = Fan cylinder velocity recovery capabi lity.
Unit: percent.
Thermal performance of a cooling tower de-
pends upon a specific mass f low rate of air
through the fill (pounds of dry air per minute),
whereas the fan does its job purely in terms of vol-
ume (cubic feet per minute). Since the specific
volume of air (cubic feet per pou nd) increases
with temperature (See Fig. 18 & Table 4), it can be
seen that a larger volume of air leaves the tower
than enters it. The actual cfm handled by the fan
is the product of mass flow rate t imes the specific
55
SECTION III

volume of dry air corresponding to the tempera- Static Efficiency = static ahp (13)
ture at which the air leaves the tower. This volu- input hp
metric flow rate is the "Q" used in the following
formulas, and it must be sufficient to produce the Total Efficiency = ahp (14)
correct mass flow rate or the tower will be short input hp
of thermal capacity. It must be understood that input hp is mea·
Utilizing appropriate cross-sectional flow sured at the fan shaft , and does not include the
areas, velocity through the fan and fan cylinder drive·train losses reflected in actual motor brake
can be calculated as follows: horsepower (bhp). Input hp will normally average
Q approximately 95 percent of motor bhp on larger
V= (9) fan applications.
A x 60
It must be understood that "A" will change with C. SPEED REDUCERS
the plane at which velocity is being calculated. The optimum speed of a cooling tower fan seldom
Downstream of the fan , "A" is the gross cross· coincides with the most efficient speed of the driver
sectional area of the fan cylinder. At the fan , "A" (motor). This dictates that a speed reduction , power
is the area of the fan less the areaof the hub or
transmission unit of some sort be situated between
hub cover. the motor and the fan . In addition to reducing the
Velocity pressure is calculated as follows:
speed of the motor to the proper fan speed (at the
_ V2 x 12 x d
hv - (10) least possible loss of available power) the power
2 x g x D transmission unit must also provide primary support
If "V" in Formula (10) represents the velocity for the fan, exhibit long term resistance to wear and
through the fan, then hv represents the velocity corrOSion, and contribute as little as possible to
pressure for the fan itself (hvf). Moreover, if the overall noise level.
fan is operating within a non·flared·discharge fan Speed reduction in cooling towers is accom-
cylinder, this effectively represents the total ve- plished either by differential gears of positive en-
locity pressure because of no recovery having gagement, or by differential pulleys (sheaves) con-
taken place. nected through V·belts. Typically, gear reduction
However, if the fan is operating within a flared, units are applied through a wide range of horse-
velocity-recovery type fan cylinder (Fig. 68), hv power ratings, from the very large down to as little as
must be recalculated for the fan cylinder exit 5 hp. V-belt drives, on the other hand, are usually ap-
(h ve), at the appropriate velocity, and applied in plied at ratings of 50 hp or less.
the following formula to determine total velocity
pressure:
hv = hvf - [(hvf - hve) x vr] (11)
Although the value of vr will vary with design
expertise, and is empirically established, a value
of 0.75 (75 percent recovery) is normally assigned
for purposes of anticipating fan performance
within a reasonably well·designed velocity·recov·
ery cylinder.
The power output of a fan is expressed in terms
of air horsepower (ahp) and represents work done
by the fan:
aph = Q x ht x D (12)
33,000 x 12
Static air horsepower is obtained by substitut·
ing static pressure (h s) for total pressure (ht) in
Formula (12).
A great deal of research and development goes
into the improvement of fan effiCiencies, and
those manufacturers that have taken a systems
approach to this R&D effort have achieved results
Figure 86 - Geareducer type used for applied horse·
which, although incrementally small, are highly
powers above 75 hp.
significant in the light of current energy costs.
Static efficiencies and overall mechanical (total)
efficiencies are considered in the selection of a 1. Gear Reduction Units: Geareducers® are avail·
particular fan in a specific situation, with the able in a variety of designs and reduction ratios to
choice usually going to the fan which delivers the accommodate the fan speeds and horsepowers
required volume of air at the least input horse· encountered in cooling towers. (Fig. 86) Because
power: of their ability to transmit power at minimal loss,
spiral bevel and helical gear sets are most widely

56
 SECTION III

utilized, although worm gears are also used in

some designs. Depending upon the reduction
ratio required, and the input hp, a Geareducer
may use a single type gear, or a combination of
types to achieve "staged" reduction. Generally,
two-stage reduction units are utilized for the
large, slower·turning fans requiring input horse·
powers exceeding 75 bhp.
The service life of a Geareducer is directly reo
lated to the surface durability of the gears, as well
as the type of service imposed (i.e. intermittent vs
continuous duty). The American Gear Manufac·
turers Association (AGMA) has established criter·
ia for the rating of geared speed reducers, which
are subscribed to by most reliable designers.
AGMA Standard 420 defines these criteria and of·
fers a list of suggested service factors. The Geare-
ducer manufacturer will have established service
factors for an array of ratios, horsepowers, and
types of service, commensurate with good engi·
neering practice. The Cooling Tower Institute
(CTI) Standard 111 offers suggested service fac·
tors specifically for cooling tower applications.
Long, trouble·free life is also dependent upon
the quality of bearings used. Bearings are normal-
ly selected for a calculated life compatible with
the expected type of service. Bearings for indus-
trial cooling tower Geareducers (considered as
continuous duty) should be selected on the basis
of a 100,000 hour L·10 life. L·10 life is defined as
the life expectancy in hours during which 90 per-
cent or more of a given group of bearings under a Figure 87 - Remote oil level indicator and drain con-
specific loading condition will still be in service. nection.
Intermittent duty applications provide satisfac-
tory life with a lower L·10 rating. An L·10 life of
35,000 hours is satisfactory for an 8 to 10 hour per
day application. It is equivalent, in terms of years
of service, to a 100,000 hour L-10 life for continu-
ous duty.
Lubrication aspects of a Geareducer, of course,
are as important to longevity and reliability as are
the components that comprise the Geareducer.
The lubrication system should be of a simple,
non·complex design, capable of lubricating
equally well in both forward and reverse opera·
tion. Remote oil level indicators (Fig. 87), and con·
venient location of fill and drain lines, simplify
and encourage preventive maintenance. Lubri·
cants and lubricating procedures recommended
by the manufacturer should be adhered to closely.
2. V·Belt Drives: These are an accepted standard for
the smaller factorY'assembled cooling towers
(Fig. 11), although most of the larger unitary
towers (Fig . 12) are equipped with Geareducers.
Correctly designed and installed, and well main·
tained, V·belt drives can provide very dependable
service. The drive consists of the motor and fan
Figure 88 - Fan drive system for smaller fans.
sheaves, the bearing housing assembly support·
ing the fan, and the V·belts.
V·belts (as opposed to cog belts) are used most ment of features. Most of these designs are suit-
commonly for cooling tower service. A variety of able for cooling tower use. In many cases, more
V·belt designs is available, offering a wide assort· than one belt is required to transmit power from

57
SECTION III

the motor to the fan. Multiple belts must be sup-

plied either as matched sets, measured and pack-
aged together at the factory, or as a banded belt
having more than one V-section on a common
backing.
Various types of bearings, and bearing housing
assemblies, are utilized in conjunction with V-belt
drives. Generally. sleeve bearings are used on
smaller units and ball or roller bearings on the
larger units, with oil being the most common lub-
ricant In all cases, water slinger seals are recom-
mended to prevent moisture from entering the
bearing.
Belts wear and stretch, and belt tension must
be periodically adjusted_ Means for such adjust-
ment should be incorporated as part of the motor
mount assembly_ Stability and strength of the Figure 90 - Driveshaft in relatively small fan drive ap-
mounting assembly is of prime importance in or- plication.
der to maintain proper alignment between driver
and driven sheaves_ (Fig. 89) Misalignment is one
of the most common causes of excessive belt and
sheave wear.
Manually adjustable pitch sheaves are occa-
sionally provided to allow a change in fan speed_
These are of advantage on indoor towers, where
the ability to adjust fan speed can sometimes
compensate for unforeseen static pressure.

o
Figure 91 - Closeup of larger driveshaft showing guard.

•
Figure 89 - Adjustable motor mount for V-belt driven
fan. (Belt guard removed)
D_ DRIVE SHAFTS
The drive shaft transmits power from the output
shaft of the motor to the input shaft of the Geareduc-
ef. Because the drive shaft operates within the
tower, it must be highly corrosion resistant Turning
at full motor speed, it must be well balanced-and
capable of being re-balanced_ Transmitting full
motor power over significant distances, it must ac-
cept tremendous torque without deformation. Sub-
jected to long term cyclical operation, and occasion-
al human error, it must be capable of accepting
some degree of misalignment.
Drive shafts are described as "floating" shafts,
equipped with flexible couplings at both ends_
Where only normal corrosion is anticipated and cost
is of primary consideration, shafts are fabricated of
carbon steel, hot-dip galvanized after fabrication.
(Fig_ 90) Shafts for larger industrial towers, and
those that will be operating in atmospheres more
conducive to corrosion, are usually fabricated of tu-
bular stainless steel. (Fig. 91) The yokes and flanges
which connect to the motor and geareducer shafts
are of cast or welded construction, in a variety of ma-
terials compatible with that utilized for the shaft.
Flexible couplings transmit the load between the
driveshaft and the motor or geareducer, and com-
pensate for minor misalignment. A suitable material
for use in a cooling tower's saturated effluent air
stream is neoprene, either in solid grommet form
(Fig. 92), or as neoprene-impregnated fabric (Fig. 93),
designed to require no lubrication and relatively little
maintenance. Excellent service records have been
established by the neoprene flexible couplings, both
as bonded bushings and as impregnated fabric disc
assemblies_ These couplings are virtually imper-
vious to corrosion, and provide excellent flexing
characteristics_

58

It is very important that driveshafts be properly
balanced. Imbalance not only causes tower vibra-
tion, but also induces higher loads and excessive
wear on the mechanical equipment coupled to the
shafl. Most cooling tower driveshafts operate at
speeds approaching 1800 rpm. At these speeds, it is
necessary that the shafts be dynamically balanced
to reduce vibrational forces to a minimum.
Figure 92 - Grommet type driveshaft coupling.
Figure 93 - Disc type driveshaft coupling.
E_ VALVES
Valves are used to control and regulate flow
through the water lines serving the tower. Valves
utilized for cooling tower application include stop
valves, flow-control valves, and make-up regulator
SECTION III
valves. The types of valves, quantity required , and
complexity of design are dictated by the type and
size of the tower, and the requirements of the user.
1. Stop Valves: These are usually of the gate or but-
terfly type_ They are used on both counterflow and
crossflow towers to regulate flow in multiple-riser
towers, and to stop flow in a particular riser for
cell maintenance. Because flow-control valves
(see following) are customarily supplied with
crossflow towers, stop valves are not normally
considered mandatory in their case. As a rule,
stop valves are located in a portion of site piping
for which the user is responsible_ In more com-
plex concrete tower designs, stop valves may be
incorporated into the internal distribution system
and provided by the cooling tower manufacturer.
In these cases, slide-gate type valves are used
successfully when relatively low pressures are
involved.
2. Flow-Control Valves: In the realm of COOling
towers, these are considered to be valves that dis-
charge to atmosphere_ Essentially, they are end-
of-line valves, as opposed to in-line valves. They
are used on crossflow towers to equalize flow be-
tween distribution basins of a tower cell, as well
as between cells of a multi-cell tower. (Fig. 61 &
94) Properly designed, they may be used to shut
off flow to selected distribution baSins, for inter-
im cleaning and maintenance, while the remain-
der of the tower continues to operate_
Figure 94 - Flow control valve.
59
SECTION III

3. Make·Up Valves: These are valves utilized to auto-

matically replenish the normal water losses from
the system. (Fig. 65) They are normally provided
by the manufacturer where the cold water collec-
tion basin is part of his scope of work. Otherwise,
they are left to the user's responsiblity. Various
means of make-up are described in Section II-D-4.

F. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fan cylinders less than 6 feet high must be equip-
ped with suitable fan guards (Fig. 95) for the protec-
tion of operating personnel. Driveshafts must oper-
ate within retaining guards (Fig. 91) to prevent the
driveshaft from encountering the fan if the coupling
should fail. The motor shaft and outboard driveshaft
coupl ing should either be within the confines of the
fan cylinder, or enclosed within a suitable guard. Figure 95 - Low height fan cylinders require fan guards.

60

ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
A. MOTORS
Electric motors are used almost exclusively to
drive the fans on mechanical draft cooling towers,
and they must be capable of reliable operation
under extremely adverse conditions . The high humid-
ity produced within the tower, plus the natural ele·
ments of rain, snow, fog, dust, and chemical fumes
present in many areas combine to produce a severe
operating environment.
1. Motor Enclosures: The two basic types of motor
enclosures are Open and Totally Enclosed. The
Open motor circulates external air inside the en·
closure for cooling, whereas a Totally enclosed
motor prevents outside air from entering the en·
closure. Both types of motors are available in
either fractional or integral horsepowers.
Open motors are further classified as Drip·
proof, Splash·Proof, Guarded, and Weather Pro·
tected. The distinction between them being the
degree of protection provided against falling or
air-borne water gaining access to live and rotat·
ing parts. Dripproof motors, as defined by NEMA,
are seldom used on cooling towers, and never on
outside install ations. Integral-horsepower open
Dripproof motors now marketed (sometimes called
"protected") usually meet NEMA requirements
for Weather-Protected Type I enclosures, except
they will not prevent the passage of a "''' diam-
eter rod. These enclosures are widely used on
cooling towers where they can be installed out-
side the humid air stream. NEMA-defined Weath-
er-Protected Type II enclosures require oversize
housings for special air passages to remove air-
borne particles. This type enclosure is not avail-
able in the motor sizes normally used on cooling
towers.
Totally Enclosed motors used on cooling
towers are classified as Non-ventilated (TENV),
Fan-cooled (TEFC), Air-over (TEAO), and Explo-
sion-Proof. Whether a motor is TENV or TEFC is
dependent upon the need for an internally-
mounted fan to keep the operating temperature of
the motor within the rating of its insulation. Air-
Over motors are TEFC motors without the fan,
and must have an outside cooling source. Totally
Enclosed motors are recommended and used for
locations where fumes , dust, sand, snow, and
high humidity conditions are prevalent, and they
can provide a high quality installation either in or
out of the air stream provided the typical prob-
lems of mounting , sealing and servicing are prop-
erly addressed _ In all cases, Totally Enclosed
motors should be equipped with drain holes, and
Explosion-Proof motors should be equipped with
an approved drain fitting_
Explosion-Proof motors are manufactured and
SECTION IV
sold for operation in hazardous atmospheres, as
defined by the National Electrical Code. The
motor enclosure must withstand an explosion of
the specified gas, vapor or dust within it, and pre-
vent the internal explosion from igniting any gas,
vapor or dust surrounding it. The motors are U_L.
approved, and marked to show the Class, Group,
and operating temperature (based on a 40"C am-
bient) for wh ich they are approved. In applying
these motors, no external surface of the operat-
ing motor can have a temperature greater than 80
percent of the ignition temperature of the gas,
vapor or dust involved.
The National Electrical Code defines hazard-
ous locations by Class, Group and Division. Class
I locations contain flammable gases or vapors;
Class II locations contain combustible dust; and
Class III locations contain ignitible fibers or fly-
ings. "Group" defines the specific gas, vapor,
dust, fiber or flying. "Division" defines whether the
explosive atmosphere exists continuously (Divi-
sion 1), or only in case of an accident (Division 2).
Motors for Division 1 applicat ions must be Ex-
plosion-Proof_Standard Open or Totally Enclosed
motors that do not have brushes, switching me-
chanisms, or other arc-producing devices , can be
used in Class I, Division 2 applications_ In some
cases, they can also be used in Class II, Division
2 and Class III, Division 2 app li cat ions.
2. Motor Design: Three phase squirrel cage induc-
tion motors have become the standard on water
cooling towers. They do not have the switches,
brushes or capacitors of other designs and, there-
fore, require somewhat less maintenance_Where
three phase power is not available, single phase
capaCitor-start motors may be used, usually not
exceeding 7.5 horsepower. Concerned cooling
tower manufacturers will supply motors that are a
few steps beyond "off-the-shelf" quality. These
motors are usually purchased from speCifications
developed after comprehensive, rigorous testing
under simulated operating conditions.
3. TWO-Speed Motors: Two-speed motors for fan
drive are of a variable torque design, in which the
torque varies directly with the speed, with
18001900 rpm being the most common speeds.
Single-winding design motors enjoy greatest utili-
zation, since they are smaller in size and less ex-
pensive than those of a two-winding design.
Every cooling tower installation deserves defin-
ite consideration of the use of two-speed motors.
Whether operated seasonally or year-round, there
will be periods when a reduced load andlor a re-
duced ambient will permit satisfactory cold water
temperatures with the fans operating at half-
speed. The benefits accrued from this mode of
61
SECTION IV
operation (Sects. I-H, III·B & V·F) will usually off·
set the additional cost of two-speed motors in a
relatively short time.
Additionally, since nighttime operation is nor·
mally accompanied by a reduced ambient, some
operators uti lize two-speed motors to precl ude a
potential noise complaint. (See Sect. V·G)
4. High-Efficiency Motors: Several motor manufac-
turers provide high·efficiency designs that are
suitable for use on cooling towers. These motors
are in the same frame sizes as standard motors,
but utilize more efficient materials. While the effi·
ciency will vary with the manufacturer and the
size of the motor, the efficiency will always be
higher than that manufacturer's standard motor.
Naturally, there is a price premium for high·effi·
ciency motors, which must be evaluated against
their potential for energy savings.
5. Motor Insulation: One of the most important fac·
tors contributing to long service life in an electric
motor is the quality of the insulation. It must with-
stand thermal aging , contaminated air, mOisture,
fumes, expansion and contraction stresses, me-
chanical vibration and shock, as well as electrical
stress.
Insulation is categorized by classes, which es·
tablish the limit for the maximum operating tem·
perature of the motor. Classes A, B, F & Hare
used in the U.S.A., with Class A carrying the low·
est temperature rating and Class H the highest .
Standard integral horsepower motors have Class
B insulation, and are designed for a maximum al·
titude of 3300 feet and a maximum ambient tem·
perature of 40·C. Class F insu lation is used for
higher altitudes, as well as higher ambients, and
is gaining increased use as a means of improving
the service factor of a motor of given frame size.
6. Motor Service Factor: The service factor (s.l.) of a
motor is an indication of its maximum allowable
continuous power output, as compared to its
nameplate rating . A 1.0 service factor motor
shou ld not be operated beyond its rated horse·
power at design ambient conditions, whereas a
1.15 service factor motor will accept a load 15 per-
cent in excess of its nameplate rating. Usually,
motor manufacturers will apply the same electri-
cal design to both motors, but will use Class B in-
sulation on 1.0 service factor motors and Class F
insulation on 1.15 service factor motors. Class B
insulation is rated at a total temperature of 130·C
and Class F is rated at 155· C.
More importantly, a 1.15 service factor motor
operates at a temperature from 15·C to 25·C
lower (compared to the temperature rating of its
insulation) than does a 1.0 service factor motor
operating at the same load. This, of course, re-
sults in longer insulation life and, therefore,
longer service life for the motor. For this reason,
responsible cooling tower manufacturers will rec·
ommend the use of 1.15 service factor motors for
fan loads at or near nominal horsepower ratings.
62
Since increased air density increases fan load
(See Sect. III·B), an added attraction for using
1.15 service factor motors is that there is less
chance of properly sized overloads tripping out
during periods of reduced heat load and low ambi·
ent temperatures.
7. Motor Heaters: Although the insulation utilized in
cooling tower motors is considered to be non·
hygroscopic, it does slowly absorb water and, to
the degree that it does, its insulation value is reo
duced. Also, condensed moisture on insulation
surfaces can result in current leakage between
pin holes in the insulation varnish. Because of
this, it is advisable to keep the inside of the motor
dry.
This can be done by keeping the temperature
inside the motor 5·C to 10·C higher than the tem·
perature outside the motor. Motors in continuous
service will be heated by the losses in the motor,
but idle motors require the addition of heat to
maintain this desired temperature difference.
One recommended method of adding heat is by
the use of electric space heaters, sized and in·
stalled by the motor manufacturer. Another meth·
od is single phase heating , which is simply the ap·
plication of reduced voltage (approximately 5 to
7.5 percent of normal) to two leads of the motor
winding. Both of these methods require controls
to energize the heating system when the motor is
idle. If low voltage dynamic braking (Sect. VI· F) is
used to prevent an inoperative motor from rota-
ting , it will add sufficient heat to the motor wind·
ings to prevent condensation.
8. Motor Torques: High starting torque motors are
neither required nor recommended for cooling
tower fan drives. Normal torque motors perform
satisfactorily for both propeller and centrifugal
fans , and cause far less stress on the driven com·
ponents. Normal torque motors should be speci·
fied for single·speed applications, and variable
torque in the case of two·speed.
There are five pOints along a motor speed·
torque curve that are important to the operation
of a cooling tower fan drive; 1) locked· rotor
torque, 2) pull-up torque (minimum torque during
acceleration), 3) breakdown torque (maximum
torque during acceleration), 4) full load torque,
and 5) maximum plugging torque (torque applied
in reversing an operating motor). Compared to full
load torque, the average percentage values of the
other torques are: locked·rotor torque = 200 %;
pull-up torque = 100%; breakdown torque =
300%; and plugging torque = 250%.
B. MOTOR CONTROLS
Control devices and wiring, the responsibility for
which usually falls to the purchaser, can also be sub·
jected to demanding service situations. Controls
serve to start and stop the fan motor and to protect it
from overload or power supply failure , thereby help·
ing assure continuous reliable cooling tower opera·

tion. They are not routinely supplied as a part of the
cooling tower contract but , because of their impor-
tance to the system , the need for adequate consider-
ation in the selection and wiring of these compo-
nents cannot be overstressed.
The various protective devices, controls, and en-
closures required by most Electrical Codes are de-
scribed in the following paragraphs. In all cases,
motors and control boxes must be grounded.
1. Fusible Safety Switch or Circuit Breaker: This de-
vice provides the means to disconnect the con-
troller and motor from the power circuit. It also
serves to protect the motor-branch-circuit con-
ductors, the motor control apparatus, and the
motors against overcurrent due to short circuits
or grounds. It must open all ungrounded conduc-
tors and be visible (not more than 50 feet distant)
from the controller, or be designed to lock in the
open position. The design must indicate whether
the switch is open or closed, and there must be
one fuse or circuit breaker in each ungrounded
conductor. A disconnect switch must be horse-
power rated, or must carry 115 percent of full load
current and be capable of interrupting stalled-
rotor current. A circuit breaker must also carry
115 percent of full load current and be capable of
interrupting stalled-rotor current.
2. Non-Fused Disconnect Switch: This switch is re-
quired at the cooling tower only if the fusible safe-
ty switch or circuit breaker either cannot be
locked in the open position, or cannot be located
in sight of the motor.
3. Manual and Magnetic Starters: These controls
start and stop the motor. They also protect the
motor, motor control apparatus, and the branch-
circuit conductors against excessive heating
caused by low or unbalanced voltage, overload,
stalled rotor, and too frequent cycling. Starter re-
quirements are determined by the basic horse-
power and voltage of the motor. Overloads in a
starter are sized to trip at not more than 125 per-
cent of full load current for motors having a 1.15
or higher service factor , or 115 percent of full load
current in the case of 1.0 service factor motors.
Single phase starters must have an overload in
one ungrounded line. A three phase starter must
have overloads in all lines. If a magnetic control -
ler is used, it may be actuated by temperature de-
vices sensing the water temperature leaving the
cold water basin of the cooling tower.
4. Control Enclosures: The National Electrical Man-
ufacturers Association (NEMA) has established
standard types of enclosures for control equip-
ment. The types most commonly used in conjunc-
tion with cooling towers are as follows:
a. NEMA Type 1 - General Purpose: Intended
primarily to prevent accidental contact with
control apparatus. It is suitable for general
purpose applications indoors, under normal at-
mospheric conditions. Although it serves as a
protection against dust, it is not dust-proof.
SECTION IV
b. NEMA Type 3 - Dusttight, Raintight, and
Sleet-Resistant: Intended for outdoor use, and
for protection against wind-blown dust and
water. This sheet metal enclosure is usually
adequate for use outdoors on a cooling tower.
It has a watertight conduit entrance, mounting
means external to the box , and provision for
locking. Although it is sleet·resistant, it is not
sleet-proof.
c. NEMA Type 3R: This is similar to Type 3, ex-
cept it also meets UL requirements for being
rainproof. When properly installed , rain cannot
enter at a level higher than the lowest live part.
d. NEMA Type 4 - Watertight and Dusttight: En-
closure is designed to exclude water. It must
pass a hose test for water, and a 24 hour salt
spray test for corrosion. This enclosure may be
used outdoors on a cooling tower. It is usually
a gasketed enclosure of cast iron or stainless
steel.
e. NEMA Type 4X: Similar to Type 4, except it
must pass a 200 hour salt spray test for corro-
sion . It is usually a gasketed enclosure of fiber
reinforced polyester.
f. NEMA Type 6 - SubmerSible, Watertight ,
Dusttight and Sleet-Resistant: Intended for
use where occasional submersion may be en-
countered. Must protect equipment against a
static head of water of 6 feet for 30 minutes.
g. NEMA Type 12 - Dusttight and Driptight: En-
closure intended for indoor use. It provides
protection against fibers, flyings , lint , dust,
dirt, and light splashing.
h. NEMA Type 7 - Hazardous Locations -
Class I Air-Break: This enclosure is intended
for use indoors in locations defined by the Na-
tional Electrical Code for Class I , Division 1,
Groups A, B, C or D hazardous locations.
i. NEMA Type 9 - Hazardous Locations -
Class II Air-Break: Intended for use indoors in
areas defined as Class II, Division 1, Groups E,
F or G hazardous locations.
C_ WIRING SYSTEM DESIGN
The design of the wiring system for the fans,
pumps, and controls is the responsibility of the Own-
er's engineer. Although the average installation pre-
sents no particular problem, there are some which
require special consideration if satisfactory opera-
tion is to result. Conductors to motors must be sized
both for 125 percent of the motor full load current ,
and for voltage drop. If the voltage drop is excessive
at full load, the resultant increased current can
cause overload protection to trip. (Although motors
should be operated at nameplate voltage, they can
be operated at plus or minus 10 percent of name-
plate voltage.)
In a normal system with standard components,
even the larger cooling tower fans will attain opera-
ting speed in less than 15 seconds. During this start-
ing cycle, although the motor current is approxi-
63
SECTION IV
mately 600 percent of full load current, the time de-
lays in the overload protective devices prevent them
from breaking the circuit.
Because of the high starting current, the voltage
at the motor terminals is reduced by line losses.
Within certain limits, the output torque of a motor
varies as the square of the voltage. Thus, under start-
ing conditions, the current increases, the voltage de-
creases, and the torque decreases, with the result
that the starting time is increased. Long conductors
which increase voltage drop, low initial voltage, and
high inertia fans can al l contribute to increased
starting time, which may cause the protective de-
vices to actuate. In extreme cases, the starting volt-
age may be insufficient to allow acceleration of the
fan to full speed regardless of time.
The wiring system design must consider pertinent
data on the available voltage (its actual value, as
well as its stability), length of lines from the power
supply to the motor, and the motor horsepower re-
quirements. If this study indicates any question as
to the startup time of the motor, the inertia of the
load as well as that of the motor should be deter-
mined. This is the commonly known "flywheel" ef-
fect (WK2 factor). Once the WK2 of the load (referred
64
to the motor shaft) is obtained , the acceleration time
can be determined using the motor speed-torque and
speed-current curves, compared to speed-torque
curves for the fan. If the calculated time and current
is greater than allowed by the standard overload pro-
tection of the motor, the condition may be corrected
by increasing voltage, increasing conductor size, or
by providing special overload relays. Given no solu-
tion to the base problem, special motors or low iner-
tia fans may be necessary.
D. CYCLING OF MOTORS
The high inrush current that occurs at motor start-
up causes heat to build up in the windings and insul-
ation _ For this reason, the number of start-stop or
speed-change cycles should be limited in order to
allow time for excessive heat to be dissipated. As a
general rule, 30 seconds of acceleration time per
hour should not be exceeded. A fan -motor system
which requires 15 seconds to achieve full speed,
therefore, would be limited to two full starts per
hour. Smaller or lighter fans , of lesser inertia, permit
greater frequency of cycling.
Additional items of electrical equipment , of a
more auxiliary nature, are discussed in Section VI.

SPECIALIZED TOWER USAGE & MODIFICATIONS
A. GENERAL
Because of the vast number of cooling towers
presently in operation on various buildings, and at a
multitude of industrial sites, many people have
come to recognize the classic shape of a coaling
tower and are aware of its basic function. Hopefully,
readers of this manual to this point will have fortified
their recognition of the "standard" cooling tower
and, perhaps, may have increased their understand·
ing of how it acccomplishes its task.
From time to time, concerns arise of an operation-
al, economiC, or environmental nature which are
solved by thoughtful modifications to either the
cooling tower's normal operational mode, or to its
basic design concept. Since operational concerns
tend to be related to a specific site or locality, their
solutions usually result in rather minor modifica·
tions which may not be apparent to the naked eye.
However, economic and environmental concerns are
much more broad in their impact, resulting in cooling
tower evolutions which, although currently unique,
give promise of extensive future utilization.
Figure 96 - Water conservation type cooling tower.
SECTION V
This Section describes various concerns and situ·
ations, along with the solutions which represent
best current technology.
B. WATER CONSERVATION
The evaporative cooling tower was originally can·
ceived as a water conservation device, and it contin-
ues to perform that function with an ever-increasing
efficiency, sacrificing only from 3% to 5% of the cir·
culating water to evaporation, drift and blowdown.
This conservation rate in excess of 95% is a boon to
industrial areas which are confronted with a lim ited
or costly water supply.
In certain regions, however, the scarcity of water
is such that even the small normal losses are more
than can reasonably be accepted. These situations
have given rise to Water Conservation COOling
towers of the type shown in Figure 96, in operation
on a large southwestern electric generating plant.
The installation pictured consists of two towers of
five "celis" each, with each cell served by an array of
five fans.
--_.......
65
SECTION V
Figure 97 indicates the basic arrangement of one
such "cell" in end and side elevations. As can be
seen in the end elevation, water entering the cell
flows first through dry·surface, finned-tube heat ex·
changer sections, where its temperature is sensibly
reduced (without evaporation) to the minimum level
permitted by the dry-bulb temperature of the air tra·
versing the coils.
Upon exiting the coils, the path taken by the water
is usually dictated by the need for further tempera·
ture reduction. If additional cooling is necessary,
flow is directed to the "wet" section of the unit,
where evaporative cooling is utilized to remove the
remaining portion of the heat load. Conversely, if the
temperature of the water leaving the dry section is
cYLINORICAl
PARTITION
End Elevation
(cross·section)
Side Elevation
WET SECTION
Figure 97 - Elevations of one "cell" of a Water Conservation tower.
66
adequate, the water is by-passed directly to the cold
water basin, avoiding the evaporative section alto·
gether. In this case, the opportunity for water loss is
limited to the relatively negligible amount of surface
evaporation which may take place in the cold water
basin.
At most, the evaporative section of a water con-
servation cooling tower will see but a fraction of the
total annual heat load, with the magnitude of that
fraction being related to the daily and seasonal tem·
perature variations of the ambient air at site. Fur-
thermore, since this reduced opportunity for evapor-
ation results in proportionate reductions in drift and
blowdown, total water consumption becomes an
amount acceptable in all but the most arid regions.
-cf-.'"' SECTION F ANS
DRY SECTION FANS
_ ,,,",.';,;
•
""';;;o,';;;ED 1C01lS)
HEAT

Locations in which water is in critically short sup-
ply may require the use of a dry tower, utilizing only
dry-surface, finned tube heat exchanger sections for
the sensible (non-evaporative) transfer of heat to the
atmosphere. This type of cooling tower is conceptu-
alized at an electric generating station in Figure 98,
and shown in simplified cross section in Figure 99_
Since the thermal performance of such towers is
influenced only by the dry-bulb temperature of the
entering air, potential users must understand that
Figure 98 - Conceptual dry tower layout at an electric generating plant.
"""- -V ENT MANIFOLD SYSTEM
- -
TWO PASS FINNED
1' U6 E HEAT
7 /
EXCHANG ER
Figure 99 - Cross-section elevation of Dry tower_
SECTION V
the cold water temperature attainable may be some
20"F to 30"F higher than what would be expected
from a normal evaporative type cooling tower. Never-
theless, their existence makes possible the utiliza-
tion of sites not otherwise feasible.
With the ultimate perfection of steam turbines
which will operate efficiently at back-pressures in
the region of 8 to 12 inches (Hg) it is anticipated that
dry towers will permit siting of power plants at highly
desirable mine mouth locations.
FAN PLENUM
VERTICAL BLADE
67
SECTION V
C. VISUAL IMPACT AND PLUME CONTROL
Industrial cooling towers can be large, imposing
structures which sometimes tend to dominate a
local scene. This is particularly true of hyperbolic na·
tural draft towers. In most cases, local objections to
the anticipated appearance of a cooling tower are
overcome, or mollified , by good public relations on
the part of the Owner. Other, more diffi cult cases
may necessitate changing to a different type, shape,
or size of cooling tower. Within the various types in·
dicated in Section I of this manual are myriad
models, permitting a wide choice of appearances.
For a given heat load of any appreciable size, the
tower shape may range from tall and relatively nar·
row, to long and low. It may also be split up into
smaller, scattered towers, or built in a round config·
uration to present a uniform appearance from all
directions.
Physical appearance problems tend to be unique
to specific locations and invariably, are best solved
by direct contact with a full'scope cooling tower
manufacturer on an individual basis.
Cooling towers also produce a highly visible
plume (Fig. 33), the density and persistency of which
depends upon the heat load and atmospheric condi·
tions. It is visible because of its elevated tempera,
ture and moisture content relative to the surround·
ing ambient air. The visible aspect of the plume can
sometimes cause an unwarranted psychological reo
action in that the layman observer occasionally tends
Figure 100 - Extended plenum and extended stack towers to reduce ground fogging.
68
to equate it with smokestack emissions. In a more
real sense, visible plumes which are capable of reo
turning to grade level may produce a localized fog·
like condition downwind of the tower. In freezing
weather, the plume's moisture content can also
cause frost or ice crystals to form on downwind
structures.
Towers with elevated discharges inhibit a plume's
ability to return to grade level. Two such towers are
pictured in Figure 100. On the right·hand tower, the
fan cylinders were extended well beyond their nor·
mal heights, such that the plume leaves the tower at
an elevation approximately 100' above grade. The
newer, left·hand tower has an extended structure
and fan plenum to achieve the same discharge eleva·
tion , without the necessity of specialized support for
tall stacks. In both cases, the possibility of plume·
related ground fog or icing has been minimized.
Hyperbolic towers (Fig. 3), of course, accomplish
this same effect , as do the fan·assisted natural draft
towers. (Fig. 6)
Although tall stacks minimize the ground·effects
of a plume, they can do nothing about its degree of
saturation with water vapor and, therefore, can reo
duce neither its density nor its duration. The plume
will remain visible for as long as it takes this satur·
ated air stream to become sub·saturated by mixing
with ambient air, with the den sity and persistency of
the plume typically being much greater in wintertime
than in summertime.
 SECTION V
OUTLET AIR
Q) or CD
4
I
I

ct SUPER SATURATION
Q (Fog) AREA

~ IiOTWATER
~
...
iii
.....
01 MIXING AIR
C)
ABOVE TOW;0 SUPER HEAT
' INLE-rAI R _~ :E::J (Non-Fog) AREA

CD or CD ~
CD or CD J: MIXING AIR
EVAPORATIVE WITHIN TOWER
FILL
~ SECTION ...v"-
II)
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ("F)

Figure 101 - Saturation of air in a normal evaporative cooling tower.

The reason for this can be seen in the air flow dia-
gram and simplified psychrometric chart presented
in Figure 101. During summertime, ambient air en-
ters the tower at condition 3 and exits saturated at
condition 4. After leaving the tower, this saturated
air mixes with the ambient air along line 4-3, most of
which mixing occurs in the invisible region below the
saturation curve of the psychrometric chart. Pri-
marily, the only reason why summertime plumes are
visible at all is because of the time necessary for the
inner core of the plume diameter to become affected
by the ambient air. On the other hand , winter am-
bient air enters the tower at condition 1, exiting sa-
turated at condition 2 and returning to ambient con-
ditions along line 2-1. As can be seen, most of this
mixing occurs in the region of super-saturation,
which causes the visible plume to be very dense and
very perSistent.
Figure 102 indicates the arrangement and func-
tion of a Plume Abatement cooling tower, designed
to drastically reduce both the density and the persis-
tency of the plume. Incoming hot water flows first
through the dry (finned-tube coil) sections, then
through the wet (evaporative) fill section. Parallel
streams of air flow across the coil sections and
through the fill sections, leaving the coil sections at
dry condition 3, and leaving the fill sections at satur-
ated condition 2. These two separate streams of air
then mi x together going through the fan , along the
lines 3-4 and 2-4 respectively, exiting the fan cylinder
at sub-saturated condition 4. This exit air then re-
turns to ambient conditions along line 4-1 , avoiding
the region of super-saturation (and visibility) alto-
gether in most cases.

HWUi t-.-Y
SUPER SATURATION
~t r ORY SECTION (Fog) AREA
SUPER HEAT
INTERMEDIATE
WATER (IW)
t
HW. ~ HOT WAT ER
(Non-Fog) AREA
INLET

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ("F)

Figure 102 - Partial desaturation of air in a Parallel Path Plume Abatement tower.

69
 SECTION V

Obviously, the degree of plume abatement will de-
pend upon the ambient air characteristics that es-
tablish condition 1, and upon the ratio of coil sec-
tions to wet fill sections which establishes condition
4. Increasing the proportion of dry sections causes
condition 4 to move toward condition 3, decreasing
the angle formed by condition line 4-1 and improving
the pi ume abatement capabi lity of the tower. Such
Figure 103 - Crossl/ow tower with partial plume abate-
ment.
an increase in coil proportion, however, also in-
creases the cost of the tower.
Figure 103 shows two towers of seven fan-cells
each, currently in operation at a power plant. Five of
the fan-cells on each seven cell tower are equipped
wit h coil sections for plume abatement, and it is self-
evident as to which cells are plume abated and
which are not. Had this photograph been taken in the
wintertime, the difference would have been consider-
ably more dramatic. The reason why there is a small
visible plume from the abated cells is because the
wet and dry air masses tend to follow flow paths
through the fan, so that the combined flow exits the
fan cylinder in streamlines. However, as evidenced
by Figure 103, the interspersion of very dry air pro-
motes rapid desaturation.
Although desaturation of the leaving air stream
can be accomplished with a number of configura-
tions, the parallel-path air flow arrangement de-
picted in Figure 102 is best for long-term thermal per-
formance reliability. Figures 104 & 105 show series-
path arrangements wherein the warm water coils
serve to desaturate the air stream either before or
after it traverses the evaporative fill section.
However, coils arranged in close proximity to the fill
are subjected to raw water impingement, which can
result in scaling and restricted air flow.

-
~

~
SUPER SATURATION
~
Q (Fog) AREA
SUPER HEAT
.......
ai 3
HO T WATE~
(Non-Fog) AREA
a1
(!)

l INLHAIR___ 'l
,;j
~
:z:
-~ u 2
III
D-
III DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (OF)
COLDwAnR j

Figure 104 - Series path plume abatement psychrometries. (Coil before fill)

70
 SECTION V

J OUTLET AIR

-
0-
~
SUPER SATURATION

......'"
Q (Fog) AREA
iii SUPER HEAT
(Non-Fog) AREA
.t 2 3
Cl
~
::I
:z:
...
U
A.

'"
"
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ("F)
OOW."" j
Figure 105 - Series path plume abatement psychrometrics. (Coil after fill)

D_ ADIABATIC AIR PRECOOLING

Better utilization of a series-path air flow arrange-
ment is depicted in the Figure 106 cross-section,
wherein an air cooled heat exchanger with a horizon-
tal tube bundle is located atop the cooling tower, in
place of the mechanical equipment normally sup-
plied. The fans of the air cooled heat exchanger in-
duce ambient air first through the fill section of the
cooling tower, then across the tube bundle of the
heat exchanger, and the entire process heat load is
dissipated within the tube bundle.
This ADB Precooler system is designed to provide
process outlet temperatures lower than those
achievable with a standard air cooled heat exchang-
er by adiabatically precooling the ambient air to a
lower dry-bulb temperature.
With no heat added, water recirculated over the fill
section will be at a temperature essentially equal to
the wet bulb temperature of the incoming air. Refer-
ring to Figure 18, if ambient air entered the fill sec-
tion at condition 1, its sensible (dry-bulb) tempera-
ture would depress along line 1 - l' in an attempt to
reach the wet-bulb temperature at condition 1'. Al-
though time of contact with the water, among other
factors, will prevent total achievement of that goal,
75% of the difference between ambient dry-bulb and
wet-bulb temperatures would represent a typical air
temperature reduction capability.
Operation of an ADB Precooler system is similar
to that of the Water Conservation tower in that the
water circuit can be shut off during periods of re-
duced ambient. Its most effective application occurs
in areas of low relative humidity where a significant
difference exists between wet-bulb and dry-bulb tem-
peratures of the ambient air.

Figure 106 - Cross-section showing evaporative portion of a cross flow cooling tower used as adiabatic air-precooler
for an air-cooled heat exchanger.

71
SECTION V
E. ENERGY REDUCTION
In the operation of a cooling tower, energy is can·
sumed in driving the fans (unless the tower is natural
draft) and in pumping the water. Fan power can·
sumption is treated in Section III·B. Pump power
consumpt ion can be calculated by the following for·
mula:
.lg..p"m"--,x,--,T...D"H,-"x,-"s~x,,-,8,,,.3",3,-
Pump bhp = -
33,000 x Ep
And the portion of total pumping power attribut·
able to the cooling tower is determined by:
gpm x Ht x s x 8.33
bhp = 33,000 x Ep
(16)
Where bhp = Brake horsepower at the pump in·
put shaft.
gpm = Circulating water rate in gallons
per minute.
Ht = Head loss attributable to the
cooling tower; feet of water.
TDH = Total dynamic head loss in circu·
lating water system; ft. H2 0.
s = Specific gravity of fluid pumped.
(can be considered =
1 for water,
although varies slightly with tem·
perature.)
8.33 = Pounds per gallon of water.
33,000 = Foot·pounds per minute per horse·
power, by definition.
= Pump efficiency.
The portion of the total dynamic head contributed by
a cooling tower consists of the static lift measured
from the operating water level in the cold water
basin to the center of the distribution inlet header;
plus pressure required to effect proper distribution
of the water to the fill (i.e. a pressure·spray system);
plus frictional and velocity losses in the riser, header
and internal distribution system; less any recovery
that may be effected by downturned elbows or
valves.
However, the datum from which stat ic lift is mea·
sured, as well as the losses incurred in the riser are
usually in question. Typically, pump head values in·
dicated in proposals are related to the elevation of
the basin curb. To that figure , the user shou ld add
the dimension below curb level at which the normal
operating water level will be maintained. Also, the
total value indicated for cooling tower pump head
usually reflects the manufacturer's scope of supply.
if the riser is not part of the cooling tower contract,
the frictional and velocity·related losses incurred in
the riser are not normally included in the total. Static
lift , however, shou ld always be included. Since there
is room for misunderstanding in a proposal defini·
tion of pump head, the purchaser should always de·
termine the missing ingredients, if any, that would
contribute to total pump head.
Given no specification instructions regarding the
72
desirablity of reducing fan power and pump head,
the cooling tower manufacturer responding to an in·
quiry will typically offer the selection which results
in the lowest first cost. Such a selection may require
an excessively high pump head. Almost invariably, it
will reflect the highest air rate (and fan horsepower)
permitted by good engineering practice. This is be·
cause the fan systems required to produce higher air
(15) rates are less expensive than the additional struc·
ture and fill necessary to thermally compensate for a
lower air rate.
Because of the increasingly high cost of energy,
extrapolated over amortized plant life, it has become
common practice for specifiers to apply a value rep·
resenting the cost of fan operation (dollars per HP)
and pump operation (dollars per foot of pump head)
to the total first cost of an offering , in order to obtain
an "evaluated" total cost for comparison to other
bidders. (Other inputs related to total evaluation are
covered in Section VIII· D). These values require the
manufacturer to assess a number of selections in
varying pump head and fan power requirements in
an effort to determine the offering that will resu lt in
the best evaluated cost. In many cases, both the low·
est "first cost" selection and the lowest "evaluated
cost" selection will be offered for the user's choice.
The important point is that the manufacturer must
be made aware of the evaluation values for pump
head and fan power in order to arrive at the best over·
all selection.
F. ENERGY MANAGEMENT
& TEMPERATURE CONTROL
As previously seen in Figure 25, the cold water
temperature from a cooling tower reduces with any
declination in wet·bulb temperature or heat load, as·
suming continued full·fan operation and constant
pumping rate. Many processes benefit from reduced
water temperature, with product output or process
efficiency increasing with colder water tempera·
tures, offering little incentive for the user to operate
the tower at anything less than full capacity. On the
other hand , there are any number of processes
where cold water temperatures below a certain level
are either non-rewarding or, in some cases, actually
harmful to the process. Those situations offer the
opportunity for significant energy cost savings,
brought about by proper operation of the tower.
Cooling tower water distribution systems,
whether spray·type or gravity·type, are calculated to
produce maximum efficiency within a relatively nar·
row range of flow rates. Appreciably high flows pro·
duce either overpressuring of spray systems or over·
flowing of open hot water basins. Significantly lower
flows produce inadequate water coverage on the fill,
which not only disrupts heat transfer efficiency, but
also increases the work load of the fan(s). Conse·
quently, primary energy management in mechanical
draft cooling towers should be limited to air·side
control, usually accomplished by fan manipulation.
In most cases air·side control depends primarily
 SECTION V

110 110

u..
0

I
'"
:;
100
- ~~
~
u..
0

~
:>
I 100
(0) "II Ian
soli

'a;"
c.
E
90 '"
a;
c.
E
90
ns a"
Q)
f-
a; 80 / Q)
f-
a; 80 \~~~~
""",a ''3- \<:-~
,,,<:-<:-

'" ~ '" '"

,?><:-
:;: «?><:- :;: ~\
,'3-<:- a"
-0 -0 ()()\
0 70 ./ 0 ('
70
O<:-e
V
(.) (.)

~",,~
60
/ 60
30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80
Wet-Bu lb Temperature- 0 F Wet-Bulb Temperature- 0 F

Figure 107 - Typical performance curve. Single-cell Figure 109 - Typical performance curve. Three-cell
tower with single-speed motor. tower with single-speed motors.

upon the number of cell s comprising the tower, as
well as the speed-change characteristics of the
motors driving the f ans. Figure 107 defines the oper-
ati ng modes available with a single cell tower equip-
ped with a single-speed motor. In this most rudim en-
tary of cases, the fan motor can only be cycled on
and off for attempted control of the cold water tem-
perature, and great care must be exercised to pre-
vent an excessive number of starts from burning out
the motor. (Sect. IV-D)
Because of this possibility, many operators find it
necessary to incorporate a modulating hot water by-
pass system, as shown in Figure 108. With this sys-
tem, the fan is allowed to cont inue to run for a spe-
cific period of time even though the tower is produc-
ing colder water than is required by the process. At a
predetermined cold water temperature to the pro-
cess, the by-pass valve wi ll open sufficiently to intro-
duce hot water into the cold water line (or directly in-
to the cold water basin), thereby elevating the cold
wat er t emperature to a level acceptable to the
process.
It should be recognized that such by-pass systems
contribute nothing to good energy management .
They are utilized only to accomplish greater control
of col d water temperatures, and to avoid "short cyc-
ling" of single-speed motors. Furthermore, the use
of modulating by-pass systems is not recommended
for towers operated during freezing weather. In such
situations, the control flexibility afforded by multi-
cel l towers, andlor two-speed motors, should be con-
sidered a mini mum mandatory requirement.

Hot Water
I
.-
I
"
..- ..
-H'
I

"
Hot Water

'1
Cooling Tower -0

gc: . . . '"'""-~
.!!! Temperature
(with limited fan control)
Sensitive
III
Load
0
(.)

l Sub-cooled Water"
, ------~----~~
CJ
Controlled Water Temp .
}

Figure 108 - By-pass arrangement to maintain acceptable water temperature to load.

73
SECTION V

110 gy management. The technology by wh ich to ap-

proach this ideal situation currently exists in the
ns oil form of Automatic Variable-Pitch fans (Section Ill-
\0) 1'.\\ la
100 B-2 & 4) Operating at constant speed, these fans do
not threaten motor life as cycling does. Set to main-
tain a constant water temperature, they also return
90 quick energy savin gs with relatively minor reduc-
tions in wet-bulb temperatures. (Fig. 111)

80
70
60
30 40 50 60 70
Wet-Bulb Temperature- F 0
Figure 110 - Typical performance curve_ Three-ceff
tower with two-speed motors
The operating characteristics of a three cell tower
are indicated in Figures 109 and 110, equipped with
single-speed and two-speed motors respectively_
The numbers in parentheses represent the approxi-
mate percentage of total fan power consumed in
each operat ing mode. Note that the opportunity for
both temperature control and energy management is
tremendously enhanced by the use of two-speed
motors.
At any selected cold water temperature, it can be
seen that an increase in the number of fan/speed
combinations causes the operational mode lines to
become closer together. It follows, therefore, that
the capability to modu late a fan 's speed or capacity
(within the range from zero to 100 percent) would rep-
resent the ultimate in temperature control and ener-
G_ NOISE CONTROL
Sound is energy transmitted through the atmos-
phere in the form of pressure waves. The measure-
ment of these sound pressure levels (SPL or Lp) is
expressed in terms of decibels (dB). Being of a wave
form , sound also has a frequency characteristic
which is expressed in Hertz (cycles per second).
Knowing sound pressure levels and frequencies, the
80 character of a given sound may be analyzed.
For broad quantification, an "overall " sound level
that summarizes the sound pressure levels through-
out the range of frequencies may be used. This over-
all measurement is commonly converted to an
A-scale weighted level (dBA), which represents the
human ear's perception of the measured sound
level. The A-weighted sound level has been adopted
as a means of checking compliance with many ordi-
nances and regulations. Because this overall read-
ing is on ly a general description of the sound level,
however, its utility is li mited when a more detailed
analysis is required.
In order to identify and evaluate an objectionable
component of a broad band of sound, the sound
pressure levels at various frequencies must be
known. To facilitate this, the human-sensitive sound
spectrum has arbitrarily been divided into eight fre-
quency bands, called "octaves". These bands have
center frequencies of 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000,
4000, and 8000 Hertz. The instrument utilized to mea-
sure the sound pressure levels within these specific
bands is known as an Octave Band Analyzer.

"0
i"
100
DeSign Point '"
u.
" '" no
- ,- - - -
=>
CT
a::" 80 ,~

Q; M

0
"
a. 60 :

S0 E;:: ~
c:
'c:"
LL
:
M
KM
Ol
<I)
40 • M ~~ ~ ".
"
.. ~ ~ ~ F---
KM
0
'0 ""
~~ ~ ~ ~
KM
c 20 "g
""Q;
M

,. "-..:: G: t-=:: F- " .

a. ""
0
. Decreasing
WB Temp.
Increasing
. H ., '" n.
-~ b ,-
OCTU£ IUD CUTER
,,~

F~(QU(.CIH
.- .
",.
Ie IS
~

Figure 111 - Fan power required for a constant CW Figure 112 - Noise Criterion INC) Curves
temperature in a changing ambient.
74

To evaluate information obtained with the Octave
Band Analyzer, it was necessary to develop stan-
dards for comparison purposes. These standards
are in the form of " Noise Criterion" (NC) curves (Fig .
112) and related tables (Sect. IX, Tables 5 & 6), which
establish recommended sound pressure levels for
various indoor conditions. They may be used not
only as a means of analyzing existing sound condi-
tions, but also as a datum for specifying sound pres-
sure levels for new installations.
The maintenance of low sound pressure levels is
becoming increasingly important on cooling tower
installations, particularly in the commercial field.
The establishment of suburban office complexes,
the location of shopping centers within residential
areas, and a generally increasing concern for human
comfort and well being , all contribute to the neces-
sity for providing an acceptably quiet installation.
"Noise" is objectionable sound. It is both intangi-
ble and relative. A sound pressure level that may irri-
tate one person can be quite acceptable to others.
However, as any user who has experienced a noise
complaint knows, the irritated few can become very
vociferous, and their cries are usually heard. It is
necessary for the Owner to have an awareness of
any potential noise problem if he is to prevent it from
materializing. This may require an environmental
analysis of the proposed site in order to determine
the acceptable sound pressure level at a potential
source of complaint, as well as a tower's maximum
allowable contribution to that level.
Sound generated by a cooling tower compiles
from the energies expended by the motors, the
Figure 113 - Tower equipped
with inlet and outlet
sound attenuation.
SECTION V
speed reduction or power transmission units, the
fans, and the cascading water, all of which combine
to produce a t ypical sound level of 70 dBA at a hori-
zontal distance of 50 feet from the louvered face of
the tower. This sound level is somewhat less at an
equal distance from the cased faced due to the
water noise being masked. The sound level will di-
minish with distance, losing approximately 5 dBA
each time the distance is doubled . It can also be at-
tenuated by locating the tower such that a substan-
tial structure or barrier exists between the tower and
the potential source of complaint.
Fortunately, since sound is a manifestation of
consumed energy, the same parameters that result
in an energy efficient tower also produce a tower
with reduced noise generating capability. Equipping
a tower with two-speed motors can effect a periodic
reduction in noise output for the time that the fans
are operated at half-speed. Depending upon the de-
gree to which the fans are loaded at full-speed , half-
speed operation can reduce nqise output by from 6
to 10 dBA, or more. Similarly, an oversized tower de-
signed for reduced fan speed and power will gener-
ate significantly less noise.
For extreme conditions, where a change of tower
location and/or reduced fan speed is not feasible, ex-
ternall y mounted sound attenuators can be added to
the tower. (Fig. 113) However, because such treat-
ment is very expensive, compounded by the fact that
the tower must be oversized in order to compensate
for air losses within the attenuators, all possible
consideration should first be given to other means of
solving noise problems.
75
SECTION V
H. DRIFT REDUCTION
As discussed previously (Sect. II·!), drift consti·
tutes a very small percentage of the total effluent air
stream from the tower. In most cases, the normal
amount of drift exiting modern towers is not consid·
ered to be of environmental concern , nor does it pro·
duce the aggravating housekeeping problems that
may have been encountered with towers of more an·
cient vintage.
Even this small normal amount of drift, however,
can be considered a problem under certain sensitive
circumstances. Since the coloration and chemical
content of drift droplets are the same as that of the
water circulating over the tower, long term exposure
of nearby structures or vegetation to these droplets
can have a cumulatively degenerative effect, most
predominantly in areas of limited rainfall. Also, duro
ing cold weather operation, drift droplets can contri·
bute to any icing problem that may exist downwind
of the tower.
Depending upon the size and design of the tower,
and the severity of the problem, several techniques
can be utilized to minimize drift, most of which are
typified by the Figure 114 cross·section of a round
mechanical draft, crossflow cooling tower.
- More sophisticated eliminators having increased
impingement area, greater labyrinth, and better
Distribution Distribution
Basin Flume
Figure 114
76
drainage capability can be used. (This may have
the effect of increasing fan horsepower require·
ments.)
- Structural penetration of the eliminators can be
sealed to prevent the escape of water through
random gaps. In the case of the Figure 114 tower,
structural penetration of the eliminators has been
eliminated entirely.
- Spacing between fill and eliminators can be in·
creased to allow time for the larger droplets to
" fall out" before they can impinge on the elimina·
tors. In crossflow towers, this may require an in·
crease in the overall width. In counterflow towers,
this may necessitate greater tower height.
Because of the special modifications required to
further reduce an already low drift rate, arbitrary
speCification of an unnecessarily low level of drift
should be avoided.
I. ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
" Standard" cooling towers are manufactured of a
number of base materials, with various component
materials covering virtually the full gamut of possi·
bilities. Each material must exhibit good strength
and durability characteristics under normal operat·
ing cond itions, but it should be understood that
some materials are more susceptible than others to
Drift
Eliminators
 SECTION V

the effects of high temperature, corrosive water or
atmosphere, and excessive turbidity. Those and
other conditions, along with their effects upon tower
design andlor operation , will be discussed under this
topic.
1. High water temperatures, ranging to 170'F or
more, are occasionally encountered in some pro-
cesses, particularly where batch cooling is in-
volved. At these temperature levels, virtually every
material normally used in cooling tower construc-
tion becomes adversely affected to some extent.
Wood members begin to delignify and lose struc-
tural strength, and all but the most sophisticated
reinforced plastics will become undependable.
Furthermore, because oxidation accelerates with
temperature, steel items wi ll be subjected to se-
vere corrosion.
Water temperatures, of course, diminish as the
water flows through the tower, with the hot water
distribution system, the upper portion of the fill ,
the top structure and cas ing , and portions of the
fan deck being subjected to the most critical tem-
peratures. Recognizing this, an analytical design-
er could utilize costly exotic materials in the criti-
cal temperature areas, and more standard materi-
als elsewhere, taking great care to match
strength and performance characteristics, and to
insure that dissimilar metals are insulated from
each other.
However, upon further analysis, it is very doubt-
fu l that a reputable designer would proceed on
such a piecemeal basis. Any future loss of fan
power or possible degradation of fill efficiency,
could cause the entire tower to be subjected to
potentially destructive temperatures. Therefore,
the recommendation would be to incorporate pre-
mium materials essentially throughout the tower,
making for a relatively expensive installation , and
insuring only that the high temperature effect
wou ld be retarded.
A much better way to solve the problem is to re-
duce the water temperature before it arrives at
the tower. This is accomplished by the piped by-
pass method depicted in Figure 115, wherein the
tower is designed to cool more water than the pro-
cess actually requires, with the excess cold water
being diverted back into the hot water piping in or-
der to diminish the inlet flow temperature to the
tower. The formula by which to determine the
amount of by-pass flow (" 8 " GPM) is as follows:
P x (H - C)
8= (A-C) -P (17)
Where: A = Acceptable incoming water tempera-
ture to tower. (' F)
C = Cold water temperature from tower.
('F)
H = Hot water temperature leaving pro-
cess. ('F)
P = Process Flow rate. (gpm)
For example, let us assume that a particular
process requires 1000 GPM to be cooled from
160'F to 90'F, but also that the tower is limited to
an incoming hot water temperature of 140' F. Ap-
plying these values to formula (17) we see:
1000 x (160 - 90)
8 = (140 _ 90) - 1000 = 400 GPM
Therefore, the tower would be selected to cool
1400 GPM (P+ 8) from 140'F to 90'F, and 400
GPM would be designed to by-pass the process.

) \
" P" gpm @ " H" OF "P + 8" gpm @ "A" OF

t
From Process To Tower
) )n Temperature-
'f' '~ Limited
I, Cooling Tower
-.::-It) "i"
.r; I I
3 I
...... 1:- E
@.I x c.
'"'"
~I&.
OJ

m
a.'"
;.,
I'
...J
en
<iiI x
" 0
II:il ®
I II " P" gpm @ "e" OF
..L. To Process

f---~
I

"
I

" P + '-"
8 gpm @ " C"0 F
From Tower
V
Figure 115 - Piped by-pass arrangement to control hot water temperature to tower.

77
SECTION V

II # '0 F'

'. To Process
P "'D'I------i)
...
II
=-:::=. :g·.f'\;;~,~:~~;,'.:;~·.·:~.;, :, :,:.:, . .. ;. ...... . 0-:' "

Hot
Well
-< :~:
;: - -HI-------t. :;
:~
. ~.
~..
'." ::-:'
';'::·~ ". '· l" :'~' :" .',",.,:' ... :~ -.;,;-.:: : ~"'-.;.. ,••' ...:'!.'. ....' :.:' :;' ~ ole::: :•. ;;" ;";j " :~

Figure 116 - Weir by-pass arrangement to control hot water temperature to tower.

An alternative method of accomplishing the of disaster. In its most benign form, it may only in-
same net result , occasionally utilized in conjunc- crease the frequency of required silt removal from
tion with concrete basins, is the hot well-cold the cold water basin. More agressive composi -
well, weir by-pass arrangement shown in Figure tion , however, may clog water distribution sys-
116. Although the hot and cold wells are shown tems, silt-up hot water basins, and obstruct pas-
on opposite sides of the basin for clarity, they are sages in the fill and eliminators. Some forms of
usually adjacent to each other. Hot water from turbidity (such as iron oxides and sulfurous com-
the process flows into a separate basin, or pit, pounds) may build up and solidify on any avail-
where it is mixed with a measured amount of cold able tower component and place the tower in
water from the cooling tower's basin, usually weir structural jeopardy.
controlled_ This combined flow of reduced-tem- In many cases, turbidity of the water arriving at
perature water is then delivered to the tower's the tower can be reduced by the application of a
water distribution system by means of a separate system similar to that shown in Figure 116, ex-
pump. The amount of water to be extracted from cept water by-pass from the cold water basin
the cold water basin for mixing with the process would be required only if high temperatures were
water flow is also calculable from formula (17). involved_ Water returning from the process (or
Utilizing either of these methods for limiting in- from the make-up water supply, if that is the
coming hot water temperature causes the tower's source of turbidity) would flow into one end of a
cooling "range" (Sect. I-E-4) to decrease which, in relatively large settling basin , wherein the flow
turn, causes the required cooling tower size to in- velocity would be sufficiently low to allow particu-
crease, as indicated by Figure 28. In the example late matter to settle out, encouraged by a chemi-
case, instead of being sized for a 70'F range cal precipitant if necessary. A separate pump, lo-
(160-90), the tower was sized for a range of 50' F cated at the other end of the settling basin, would
(140-90). Therefore, the tower's design range was deliver relatively clean water to the tower's water
71 % of what it would have been without by-pass, distribution system.
and Figure 28 shows that this increased the tower In the case of particulates whose tendency is
size an order of magnitude of 18%. Typically, to float , they could be skimmed off into an adja-
however, the cost impact of a somewhat larger cent basin for waste or recovery, by means of
tower is less than that produced by the combina- either an overflow weir or a floating "skimmer".
tion of premium materials, plus the long term de- Limited ground area availability, among other
grading effect of excessively high temperature considerations, often precludes the use of effec-
water. tive settling basins, requiring that the cooling
Because the piped by-pass method (Fig . 115) re- tower be designed to be as impervious as possi-
quires only one system pump, and because it af- ble to the effects of excessive turbidity. A number
fords more positive control, it is usually the sys- of such designs have been developed to solve
tem of choice where control of incoming tempera- specific problems, one of which is pictured in Fig-
ture to the tower is the primary concern. ure 117, and shown in cross-section in Figure 118.
2. High turbidity, depending upon its character and The service of this tower is blast furnace cooling
content, can cause thermal and structural prob- at a large steel mill. As can be seen, the tower is
lems in a cooling tower, occasionally to the point spray-filled only (I-B-5), and all of the structural

78

Figure 117 - Special spray-filled counterflow in "dirty
water" service.
components are either outside the casing, or are
located above the distribution system. The only
exception to this being the interior tie rods neces-
sary for accommodating wind load, on which very
little particulate matter has the opportunity to
accumulate.
Although these towers are significantly larger
than they would be if equipped with fill, it is the
very absence of fill which makes them useful to
the contaminated process.
Figure 119 - Special crossflow tower in contaminated
water service.
SECTION V
' . ~. '
Figure 118 - Cut-away of spray-filled tower in Fig. 117.
3. Bacterial slime can form rapidly on towers where
the circulating water is rich in nutrients, ultimate-
ly plugging up air passages in the fil l and drift
eliminators. This bacteriological build-up must be
removed from the tower on a regular baSiS, either
chemically, or by means of high pressure streams
of water. A type of tower developed to withstand
the effects of bacterial slime removal is sketched
in Figure 119 and cross-sectioned in Figure 120.
These towers must be of re latively rugged con-
Figure 120 - Cut-away of tower showing maximum ac-
cess for cleaning.
79
SECTION V
struction, and equipped with fill of a restrained
configuration that will not be disrupted by high
velocity streams of water. Walkway "galleries"
are provided at the various fill elevations to as·
sure complete access for cleaning of affected
areas.
A relatively deep basin is usually constructed,
both to serve as a catch basin for the removed de·
bris, and to provide sufficient working room to fa-
cilitate its ultimate disposal.
The tower pictured in Figure 119 is operating at
a large southeastern chemical plant where the
circulating water is contaminated with approxi·
mately 6% ethylene glycol. Although there are
chemical means by which to suppress slime
(Sect. \·G·4), the Owner elected to solve the prob·
lem by tower modification.
4. Salt Water Cooling by cooling towers has become
sufficiently prevalent to no longer be considered
"abnormal". However, because its potential for
corrosion suggests some deviation from standard
construction, it is treated under this topic.
Most of the construction materials utilized in
cooling towers (with the exception of metal com·
ponents) are relatively unaffected by salt water,
provided its temperature level and pH value are
acceptably maintained. Wood and plastics hold
up well, as does good quality concrete. Selected
hardware items (such as bolts, nuts & washers)
typically change from steel to silicon bronze.
Where a change from carbon steel or cast iron is
impractical, porcelainization and epoxy·coal·tar
coatings are utilized for proper erosion and corro-
sion protection.
The vapor pressure, density and specific heat
of salt water differs somewhat from those values
assigned to "fresh" water. Although the differ·
ences tend to be offsetting with respect to their
effect upon thermal performance, salt water
towers can be expected to be from 1% to 4%
larger than fresh water towers, depending upon
the operating temperature levels involved.
5. Ammonia stripping by circulating ammonia-laden
water over a cooling tower for aeration is not rec-
ommended. Successful stripping requires an abo
normally high pH, which promotes plugging of the
fill and eliminators. Furthermore, very little heat
load is normally applied, which can lead to
destructive ice formations in cold weat her
operation.
6. Fatty acids in the circulating water build up rapid·
lyon cooling tower fill and drift eliminators, reo
quiring that the tower be frequently cleaned. In
addition, the presence of fatty acid increases the
potential for corrosion and, depending upon its
concentration, can adversely affect the tower's
thermal performance.
A number of cooling towers are operating suc·
cessfully on fatty acid service, the majority of
which are equipped with wide spaced, well·sup-
ported plastic splash type fill and premium hard-
80
ware. Steel towers are normally avoided.
7. Foodstuffs: Because of the extensive use of baro·
metric condensers in the food processing indus·
try, various form of nutritive compounds find their
way into the cooling water system; among which
are sugars, starches, organic acids, alcohols, and
edible oils.
Upset conditions can produce very low pH lev·
els, which accelerate corrosion. These nutrients
(particularly sugars, starches and alcohols) pro·
mote bacterial growth in the tower, and sugars
have been found to attack concrete. The presence
of edible oils adversely affects heat transfer and,
if routinely antiCipated, should be taken into ac-
count in sizing the tower.
To the degree that the nutritive contaminants
are coagulatory or slime·producing, the cooling
tower should be designed to facilitate and with·
stand frequent cleaning. The use of close·spaced
film type fill susceptible to clogging should be
avoided, and premium hardware is recommended.
Steel towers should not be used.
8. Hydrocarbons: In various refining processes, oils,
aromatics, and chlorinated hydrocarbons are oc·
casionally leaked into the circulating water sys·
tem. In many cases they tend to volatilize within
the tower, greatly increasing the possibility of
fire. Their presence can also affect thermal per·
formance; attack plastiC components; accelerate
corrosion; and promote bacterial growth within
the tower.
The use of wood towers predominates in the re-
fining industries. Since the introduction of hydro-
carbons into the circulating water is not normally
antiCipated, refinery cooling towers are not usual-
ly oversized to compensate for reduced thermal
performance. In many cases, however, premium
hardware is evaluated and given serious consider·
ation.
9. Paper Processing can produce much the same reo
suits as food processing in that the wood fibers
carried over into the circulating water have nutri·
tive value. Foaming is common, as is the growth
of bacteria. Reduced pH is very possible, result·
ing in accelerated corrosion. The fibrous content
promotes clogging of nozzles, fill and eliminator
passages, and screens.
Wood crossflow (open distribution basin) cool·
ing towers are normally utilized, equipped with
wide·spaced, splash type, cleanable fill, and pre-
mium hardware.
10. Summary: Of the primary materials from which
cooling towers are currently constructed, treated
wood has historically proven to be most forg iving
of the effects of "bad" water. As projects become
larger, however, concrete construction might be
expected to come into significant use.
Where contaminants are coagulatory, sedi-
ment·forming, fibrous, or slime-producing in na·
ture, crossflow towers with splash type fill are
recommended. The cleanability afforded by open

distribution basins, plus the crossflow's adapta-
bility to various types of wide-spaced fill arrange-
ments, make them invaluable in dirty water ser-
vice. Close-spaced, film-type fill must never be
used for such applications.
Whether or not chemical water treatment is
planned in order to combat the effects of various
contaminants, the tower should be designed to
facilitate and accept the rigors 01 cleaning, as
well as to withstand the impact 01 corrosion. Both
of which features would be required in a system-
upset condition, or at the unforeseen loss of treat-
ment capability.
J _ VIBRATION ISOLATION
The vibration characteristics of a cooling tower
are, for the most part, of the simple harmonic wave
form since they are derived from the operation of ro-
tating equipment. (Fig. 121) The energy level im-
parted to the cooling tower and its components by
the forces of vibration must be limited by the manu-
facturer to that which will not adversely affect the
operating life of the equipment.
Amplitude Q)
:0
::>
o c.
o E
One Cycle
Figure 121 - Displacement vs time in simple harmonic
motion.
Allowable energy levels are usually established by
determining a safe allowable double amplitude (Ad)
of vibration at some common fundamental frequen-
cy (f), and applying it in the following formula for
peak velocity (energy) in simple harmonic motion:
v = 2 xlrx f x Ad x sin90· =lr x f x Ad
2
Where: v = Maximum allowable velocity (energy
level). Unit: in per sec.
I = Number of cycles per unit time. Unit:
cycles per sec. (cps)
Ad = Double amplitude of vibration. Unit:
in per cycle.
Customarily, a reference frequency (f) of 30 cps
(typical of an 1800 rpm motor operating at nominal
speed) is chosen, at which point an allowable double
amplitude of vibration (Ad) of 0.005 inches (5 mils)
might be found to be acceptable. Applying these val-
ues in Formula (18) establishes the basic allowable
maximum velocity of vibration to be 3.1416 x 30 x
0.005 = 0.471 inches per second.
SECTION V
Having established an acceptable maximum ve-
locity (energy), Formula (18) can be transposed to
solve for allowable double amplitudes at other fre-
quencies found in the normal mechanical equipment
of a cooling tower, as follows:
Ad = 0.471 = 0.150 (19)
lr x f
For an eight-bladed fan turning at 120 rpm, lor ex-
ample, the blade passing frequency would be 120/60
x 8 = 16 cps. At that frequency, the maximum al-
lowable velocity of vibration would not be exceeded
il the double amplitude (Ad) were 0.150/16 = 0.009
inches (9 mils), and the energy level imparted to the
cooling tower would be no greater than that repre-
sented by a double amplitude of 5 mils at 30 cps.
This is not to say that one should expect a vibra-
tion amplitude of 9 mils at the fan blade passing fre-
quency. Normal fan balance usually limits amplitude
to about half that amount. On the other hand, one
should not be shocked by such a fan-created ampli-
tude but should be able to recognize it as low-fre-
quency-related and, therefore, non-contributory to a
potentially reduced service life.
The effect of vibratory forces on anticipated ser-
vice life notwithstanding , the transmission 01 vibra-
tion, either potential or actual, can be of concern in
Q)
certain critical situations. Where these situations
"
exist, transmitted vibration can be reduced to accep-
~ table levels by the installation of vibration isolation
equipment.
<{ A number of devices and materials are available
for use in isolating vibration. Most used for cooling
tower applications are springs and synthetic rubber,
quite often in combination. Springs offer a wide
range of deflection capability, rubber considerably
less.
(18)
Figure 122 - Tower supported on springs.
81
SECTION V

Isolators can either be installed under the tower

3
(Fig . 122) or between the mechanical equipment uni-
tized support and the tower structural framework.
The former is the preferred method, serving to iso-
\ \
late vibration originating throughout the cooling \ \\ \
tower structure, whereas the latter method tends to
isolate only the vibration occurring at tower mechan-
ical equipment operating frequencies _ When isola-
\\ \
\\\ \
ting the entire tower, all pipe, conduits, and other
components sOlidly connected to the tower must
have vibration damping capability_
Vibration isolation systems are rated in terms of
7

8
\ \ .~
'" "" ~
- i'-
........

~ --------
~.<r...",

efficiency or transmissibility. Efficiency is the per-

centage of the vibration force prevented from being
transmitted. (Fig . 123) Transmissibility is the percen-
tage actually transmitted. For a specific isolation
system and deflection, iso lation efficiency in-
creases with the frequency of the disturbance_Thu s,
if the vibration isolation system for a given machine
is designed for the lowest disturbing frequency at an
acceptable efficiency, the isolation efficiency for
higher speed elements in the same machine will be
greater.
In a cooling tower, disturbing frequencies can ex-
ist due to the motor speed, drive shaft speed, fan
speed , blade passing frequency, and their respective
harmonics. Generally speaking, an isolation efficien-
cy of 80% at motor rotation frequency will provide
an acceptable degree of isolation in critical situa-
tions.
The need for vibration isolation is not governed by
any precise criteria for determining " critical"areas.
Roof installations on office buildings, hospitals,
laboratories, hotels, apartment buildings, and studios
\ ,~
~~
"-..~~ ~
---1-
1
o 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
STATI C DEFLECTION (INCHES)
Figure 123 - Effect of spring deflection on isolation
efficiency at various fan speeds_
all require a careful study relative to their proximity
to occupied space. Under certain conditions, any of
these may be classified as criti cal areas. Converse-
ly, towers installed at grade or in industrial areas are
seldom candidates for isolation.
Good judgement is required on the part of the
Owner/engineer in evaluating the potential for vibra-
tion annoyance. Tower placement in a " non-critical"
area is the obvious answer. Circumstances pre-
venting this, vibration isolation should be specified
at the minimum efficiency to accomplish the desired
results.

82
 SECTION V

K. FREE COOLING The temperatures to and from the load, indicated

All air conditioning systems, and many processes, for the chilled water circuit, are typical of those reo
require much colder water than a cooling tower is quired in order to achieve both cooling and dehumid·
capable of producing at summertime design atmos· ification in an air conditioning system operating in
pheric conditions. In those cases, a chiller of some the summertime. Cold water temperatures required
type is designed into the cooling water circuit to pro· for a process are normally expected to be somewhat
vide water at an acceptably depressed temperature. higher, more on the order of 60 ' F to 75'F. The reo
Shown in Figure 124 are the typical water circuits quired cold water temperature level takes on signifi·
for a tower·chiller·load combination. In the diagram· cant importance in the proper application of a tower
med case, the load is assumed to be air condition· on a "free cooling" cycle.
ing. Note that the chilled water pump (CHWP) circuit The opportunity for free cooling begins to occur in
delivers water to the "load" at a temperature un· the fall of the year, carrying through to spring. It oc·
achievable by the cooling tower under summertime curs because of the normal reduction in a cooling
conditions. The chilled water, somewhat elevated in tower's cold water temperature brought about by a
temperature, then returns to the chiller where its depression in wet·bulb temperature andlor load. (Fig.
load is transferred to the condenser water pump 25 or 107) In most localities, there will come a period
(CWP) circuit. during the course of the year when the ambient wet·
Note also that the load delivered to the condenser bulb temperature will have sufficiently depressed to
water circuit and cooling tower is somewhat higher permit the cooling tower to produce a cold water
than the actual load imposed by the air conditioning temperature previously achievable only by the chil·
system or process. This is because of the added ler. With a properly arranged system , the cooling
work necessary to achieve the chilling process. In tower water can then be re·circuited to directly serve
the case of the refrigerant compression system the load; thereby obviating the use of the most ener·
shown, the load is increased by a factor of 1.25 gy·intensive piece of equipment in the cooling water
(15000/12000 Btu/hr/ton), representing the added system - the chiller.
heat of compression. If the chiller were of the abo Several arrangements by which free cooling can
sorption type, the load would be increased by a fac· be accomplished are possible, all of which are well
tor of 2.5, representing the added heat of steam documented in manufacturer's literature. The two
condensing. most basic methods will be discussed herein, as
follows:

~ Cooling Tower 1
Two·Speed Motor ,u.
or AVP Fan
(Recommended) '"'" Operation at Full Load
(temperatures typical)
....... '.,;' :: ' ';'' .: . •.' ;~ ~. ,!, :i".'" . . ...".. .... . . .. . .' .~ . ". ", -. .-. ";':.,,: '.' : ' ~. : . ' . . .• ".. !'. ~. : ... ' ';. ..'. :. ' .: .
:,' ' . ~. -~ :' : ; ;
.-
2.4 gpmlton I
'--.,
•

- ----J
i 55'F

_ .......
C C
0
:;; r-- ::;
0
'EO 'EO
,u. .c <I)
c ci <ii ,f:
"3 ::; :J "0
'"
co iii '"c
"0
E
0 a. iii '0"
...J
U
u r-- w'"
0 0
•• 0
0
0 > 0
0
N
'"
~

r- - ~
-r-

r-
CWP CHWP
3 gpml ton 45 ' F
'----L-J V
Figure 124 - Schematic of water circuitry in typical air conditioning system.

83
SECTION V

r Cooling Tower
., • ..
Two-Speed Motor
or AVP Fan u.
0
<D
(Recommended) on Operation at 75 % Load
(----ti [-< (temperatures typical)

.•--
...: .-' ~ . •.::-. • ?~ .";':": ' . :' 0: :~' • . ~ . ~ --.:;~ '::'.... ~.: .
•: • •
:, ' ~ " .. -.
~ • 0 ,
. " .- -- . --.. ,..... ,-..
• . .,
. ' , ', ;:", ;. : ~ ~ ,: '. ' :~\~ :.. '<." -.: ~ . ; ! ~ . ~: , ~:. ":. ' ," '1.~ . ': :~ ,~:: . ~/:\ " '~ ~ '. ~ :..~ /

('-,---)

1-+
J'' O--i' 'O= Fi lter

Heater ~}-
I
,
I .T.
~f
12000 Btulhrlton

I I
u.
0
0
on r--
U. "0
• ~ U.
0 '"0
...J

r--
Full-Flow Filter
(Optional) I I
~

'---a- ~ '1
I I
I I
I I I
I I CHWP I
CWP

+ I
I )
3 gpmlton
a- - ~
I

Figure 125 - Schematic of water circuitry in "direct" free cooling system.

1. Direct Free Cooling: By adding valved by-passes cooling load , and will do so at a temperature
and interconnecting piping to the basic system much more compatible w ith Ihe heating re -
indicated in Figure 124, the system shown in Fig- quired in many zones of the building.
ure 125 is achieved. Water from the cooling tower c. The water temperature ri se across th e load
flows directly to the load and back to the tower, has redu ced. This happens for two basic rea·
by-passing the chi l ler completely. Several notable sons: 1) The cooling load will have redu ced due
pOints, which may require some explanation, are to seasonal factors, and 2) the in creased quan-
apparenl in this diagram: tity of water delivered to the load by virtue of
a. Since the previous two water circuits are now utilizing the condenser water pump permits
common, one of the circulating water pumps less temperture rise. (In a process application,
must be by-passed. Although good energy the level of relative water temperat ures might
management would seem to suggest use of be expected to remain somewhat more con-
the typi cally lower power chi l led water pump, stant year-round.)
proper winter operation of the cooling to wer d. The percent of total load normal ly contributed
(Sect. I-H) dictates that the higher flow capabil- by the chiller (compressor) is no longer im-
ity of the condenser water pump be utilized. posed upon the tower.
b. The water temperature going to the load has e. The use of some means of filtration is sugges-
increased considerably becoming more in line ted. This is because the raw cooling tower
with the temperalure that might be expected water circuit is now in a position to "contamin-
for a process. This is because off-season air ate" the relatively "clean" chilled waler circuit.
conditioning loads include drastical ly less de- Because of its ablity to defeat con1am ination
humidification than is required in summer- at th e cooling to wer basin , which is the pri -
time. Furthermore, the higher temperature mary source, by-pass filtration is recom mend-
water wil l easi ly accommodate any residua l ed. (Sect. VI-E)

84
 SECTION V

Cooling Tower
Two-Speed Motor 'r-
or AVP Fan
•"-
M
(Recommended) on Operation at 75 % Load
(temperatures typical)

. : ~-U-1 Heater
~-~--l-,-{-
L~. Tl4---"--,-----l".w--- ~I-----.
I
I
• "r'
I
57.5· F

c
o
'i:
.c
"- "3 u
"-
o iil
o .3'"
o
o
'"

--l--l~
I

CWP 3 gpmlton i
,j, CHWP
~C?~--~----~~~.--~--~)
2.4 gpml ton

Figure 126 - Schem atic of water circuitry in "indirect" fre e cooling sys tem utilizing plate-type heat exchanger.

f. To prevent basin freez ing durin g periods of
winler sh uldown , some means of basin heal -
ing is suggested . (Sect. VI-O-5)
g. Either two-speed cooling tower fan motors or
AVP fan s are recommended. Not on ly does
this assist in the prevention of freezing during
wintertime operation (Sect.I-F-1), but it also af-
ford s a means of improving energy use and
con trollin g cold wat er temperatures (Sect. V-F)
as ambien t reduces.
2. !!,_dJr.e.!'!..f!-"-,,.Co()IJ!',r By th e incl usion of a simple
plate-type heal exchanger, free cooling can be ac-
compl ished wilh total separation of Ihe Iwo waler
circuils (Fig . 126), which precludes Iho waler qual-
ity conl rol problems inherent in a direct-con·
nected syst em and is seen ~'!l0st operators as a
distln~! a d va n tag~. Offselting Ihi s is the disad-
vantage of fewer avai lable hours 01 operat ion on
the free cooling cyc le during the co urse of a year.
Thi s is becau se of th e need for a reasonable t em-
perature differenti al between the in coming coo l-
in g tower water and th e leavin g "chill ed" water at
t he heat exchanger. Si nce th e cooling tower must
produce colder wal er, it must wait for a furlh er-re-
duced wet-bulb temperature, and Ihe t ime interval
can sometimes represent a signi ficant number of
operat in g hours.

85
SECTION V

l. HELPER TOWERS " Once-through" utilization of river water is sche-

Were it not for environmental regulations which matically presented in Figure 127 wherein water ex-
prevent the discharge of elevated-temperature water tracted from the river absorbs heat from the process
into natural tributaries in certain localities, plants lo- and returns to the river (at an elevated temperature)
cated near such bodies of water would utilize them downstream of its point of extraction. The tempera-
as a natural heat sink on a "once-through" baSiS, ture rise (OF) of this side-stream of cooling water is
thereby avoiding the cost of owning and operating a equivalent to "range", calculable from a simple
cooling tower. transposition of Formula (1), page 22.
Because of the existence of restrictive regulations
(both qualitative and quantitative) regarding natural
water use, most plants will make use of a "closed-
circuit" cooling tower system as portrayed in Figure
128. In this case, the cooling tower is properly sized
to dissipate the entire heat load year-round. The sys-
tem's dependence upon the river is limited to the re-
quirement for a supply of make-up water (11-0-4) and
J. 1. .1 .1 River Temperature as a paint of discharge of blowdown (I -G-1).
In many cases, more analytical operators will util-

C Load

Hil'
ize the "helper tower" system depicted in Figure 129.
In this arrangement , the cooling tower is sized only
large enough to reduce the process cooling water ef-
'"" ~'""~
'0 "
~ fluent temperature to a level acceptable for dis-
> (~ charge into the river. In areas of less stringent con-

~!
cern , this usually results in a cooling tower much
smaller than would be required to di ss ipate the full

River ==- - -- heat load. Furthermore, under certain combinations

-~ of heat load and river temperature, the process cool-
-E -.= Flow -
- ing water effluent temperature may be acceptable to
the river, in which case the tower may be shut down
and its operating cost avoided . Figure 49 is a photo-
Figure 127 - "Once-through" system_ (Entire heat load graph of a helper tower whose basin discharges
transfered to river) directly into an adjacent tributary.

Heated Water Cooling Heated Water

Tower
Load River
Temperature
-+-,-C_o(' led I
BIOWdOW~ Water Make-up
from Tower _ _ to Tower
( - - - -River =- - -== ---=-: f---..="
-= Flow =-=- -~ - - -

Figure 128 - "Closed circuit" system_ (Entire heat load Figure 129 - "Helper tower" system . (Tower removes
dissipated by cooling tower) part of heat load before water returns to
river)

86

AUXILIARY COMPONENTS
A. GENERAL
Various devices exist whose purpose is either to
protect the cooling tower, or to facilitate its opera·
tion, maintenance and repair. Although many of
these auxiliary components may be successfully
added at a later date, their incorporation at the initial
design stage reflects best engineering practice, per·
mitting the designer to include them in a manner
most conducive to proper tower operation.
For example, although strategically located walk·
ways, ladders and handrails are normally included
on cooling towers of any appreciable size (Fig. 130),
their scope and location usually reflects the manu·
facturer's experience regarding where they are most·
needed or most·utilized , and may not totally accom·
modate the Owner's desires. Specifications should
be clear not only as to the required location for walk·
ways, but also as to the reason for them being there.
Occasionally, the manufacturer will discourage a
particular walkway location because of its potential
to adversely affect operation of the tower.
One such area of concern is within the plenum
space below the fan, Geareducer, and driveshaft of
the tower. Without doubt, a permanently installed
walkway in that location would greatly simplify
maintenance and repair of those components. In most
cases, however, the air entrance losses to the fan
created by such a structure wou ld result in an intoler·
SECTION VI
able reduction in the tower's thermal performance.
Similarly, knowledge at the specificat ion stage of
the requirement for any auxiliary component insures
its thoughtful incorporation into the overall cooling
tower design.
B. EXTENDED OIL FILL & GAUGE LINES
Most Geareducers are designed such that they
can be equipped with an oi l fill line extending to the
outside of the fan cylinder, terminating with an oil
level measuring device, conveniently located near
the motor. (Fig. 87) The measuring device may can·
sist of either a dip stick, or a sight glass enclosed
within a brass body.
On smaller installations, where the Geareducer is
reasonably accessible from inside the tower, oil fill
and gauge lines are normally offered as optional
equipment. Larger towers incorporate them within
their standard design, and will also include provision
for draining of the Geareducer at the same terminal
location.
Specifications which call for a drain line to be ex·
tended downward and to the outside of the tower,
terminating near its base, are discouraged because
any moisture that may find its way into the system
will ultimately congregate at that terminal fitting,
where either corrosion or freezing can cause failure.
Figure 130 - Ladders, handrails, and
access ways on a crossl/ow cool-
ing tower. Note wood stave pipe
header.
87
SECTION VI

C. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT REMOVAL DEVICES

On many large tower installations, light cranes or
"cherry pickers" are either not readily available to
the Owner, or the space around the tower is too con·
gested to permit their use for the removal and reo
placement of such relatively heavy components as
motors and Geareducers. In recognition of this, man·
ufacturers offer systems similar to the swivel hOist,
track and dolly arrangement indicated in Figure 131,
whereby the Geareducer can be removed to the fan
deck level through a large access door in the fan cyl·
inder. Figure 132 also shows this basic system being
utilized to remove a motor.
The removed component can be doll ied to the end
of the fan deck, and lowered by means of a properly
designed hoisting structure. This structure may con·
sist of an endwall derrick (Fig. 133) or an endwall
davit (Fig. 134), depending upon the magnitude of
load to be hoisted. These structures are also very
useful for hoisting drums of oil and other mainte·
Figure 131 - Diagram of typical mechanical equipment
nance materials.
removal system.

Figure 133 - Endwall derrick used to transport large

mechanical equipment between top of
tower and grade level.

Figure 132 - Specially designed hoist can be used at

both motor and fan locations to facilitate
service and maintenance.

Figure 134 - Towers of intermediate size use endwall

davit for servicing and handling mechani·
cal equipment.

88

D. PREVENTION OF BASIN FREEZING
Cooling towers are routinely operated year·round
on industrial process applications, requiring only
sensible vigilance on the part of the operator to pre·
vent the formation of unacceptable ice. (Sect. I·H)
Many of these installations, however, go through
periods of shutdown (nighttime, weekends, holidays,
interims of scheduled or unscheduled maintenance,
etc.) during cold weather, at which time the water in
the cold water basin , as well as in all exposed pip·
ing, becomes subject to freezing.
This situation is particularly prevalent on cooling
towers applied to year·round air conditioning or reo
frigeration loads and, with ever greater utilization of
the "free cooling" concept (Sect. V·K), the need to
prevent freezing during periods of shutdown is
increasing.
The rate at which heat will be lost from the cold
water basin of an inoperative tower is the summa·
tion of total losses at the water surface, and through
the basin bottom and sides, as calculable from Table
7. Basin heat losses are affected by the following:
1. The plan dimensions of the basin. This is used to
calculate the water surface, and the areas appli·
cable to basin bottom and sides as well. (Assume
a water level the height of the overflow to deter·
mine side losses.)
2. Basin type and exposure. Obviously, an elevated
steel basin will lose heat faster than will a con·
crete basin depressed in grade.
3. Basin water temperature to be maintained. (Con·
trol temperature should not be set below 40' F.)
4. The ambient air temperature. (The deSign temper·
ature chosen should be within the lowest 1%
level of winter temperatures p<e9a:rent at site.)
5. Average wind velocity. The higher the wind veloc·
ity, the faster heat will be lost from the basin. (The
values indicated in Table 7 assume an average
wind velocity of 15 mph. Although this directly af·
fects bottom and side exposed areas, it is recog·
nized that the internal structure, fill, partitions,
etc., will have a dampening effect upon the wind.
Therefore, water surface losses are based upon
an effective wind velocity of 5 mph.)
Except for the fact that there would be no surface
exposure, water contained within exposed piping is
affected similarly. Table 8 indicates heat loss values
for pipes of various diameters, on the assumption
that they would be protected by at least 1" of good
insulation.
Several effective methods are utilized to prevent
freezing during shutdown , among which are the
following:
1. System Draining
This would seem suffiCiently obvious to require
no further discussion. However, the Owner should
be cautioned against relying upon the ability of
an operator to antiCipate a "cold snap", and to re-
member to drain the system.
Usually, complete system drainage is limited to
very small installations, particularly those on
which the cooling tower represents the highest
SECTION VI
point of the Circulating water system. Tempera-
ture-actuated automatic valves at the point where
supply and return lines have entered a heated
space could be controlled to drain those lines
(thereby the cooling tower basin as well) at a cold
water temperature of 40'F. On systems where
water will freely back-flow through the pump, only
a valve in the cold water line returning from the
tower is necessary. The differential head caused
by draining the return line should cause the water
in the supply line to depress to the level of the
drain valve. If there is any question as to this
back-flow capability, however, two valves should
be used .
Furthermore, the supply line for make-up water
to the tower should be similarly valved to prevent
flow to the tower when the basin water level is
lost , and the exposed portion of the make-up line
must be either drained , or traced with electric
heating cable.
2. Indoor Tank Method
This method, sometimes referred to as "dry
basin operation", allows water in the tower's cold
water basin to drain continuously into an indoor
storage tank, as depicted in Figure 135. The small
by-pass drain line connecting the main supply
and return lines, just below the "roof" level , is
there to insure drainage of the tower supply line
at the time of pump shutdown . This by-pass line
may be equipped with an automatic valve de-
signed to open on pump shutdown, or it may
merely be a relatively small open line that would
allow a limited amount of warm water to continu-
ously bleed into the tank.
Thi s type of system necessitates a somewhat
larger pump th an would be required if suction
were being taken from the tower's cold water
basin. This is because the static lift has in-
creased by an amount equal to the vertical dimen-
sion from the top of the tower's cold water basin
to the operating water level in the indoor tank.
3. Electric Immersion Heater Method
Figure 136 depi cts the method most utilized on
air conditioning, refrigeration , and light industrial
installations, whereby an electric heater immersed
in the cold water basin replenishes heat lost to
ambient. Such systems may be purchased from
the cooli ng tower manufacturer, engineered to
suit the specific tower model; or they may be added
at some later date by the user. In any case, the
system is made up of the following components:
a. Electric Immersion Heater: Two types of im-
mersion heater are used. Where factory prep-
aration is involved, thru-the-side type heaters
are normally provided, complete with mount-
ing flanges and gaskets. Add-on installers may
also use this type or, if clearances permit, may
choose to utilize an over-the-side type to avoid
penetration of the basin. Metal bracket sup-
ports, resting on the floor of the basin, are nec-
essary in order to keep the unsupported length
of the heater element under 30 inches.
89
SECTION VI
Heat Load ~
~ ~
Figure 135 - Use of indoor storage tank simplifies wintertime freeze protection.
Figure 136 - Electric immersion heater system to pre-
vent basin freezing.
b. Thermostat: An adjustable thermostat , com-
plete with bulb and capi llary, energizes the
contactor for the heater element(s) to maintain
no less than 40'F bas in water temperature.
c. Float switch: Since heater elements operate at
about 1520'F in the open air, (at which temper-
90
Cool ing
Tower
Indoor
Tank
Drain
ature they are capable of initiating fire), it is
necessary to assure that they cannot energize
with less than adequate water coverage. A
float switch wired into the control circuit
serves this purpose. An electric probe and
relay (Fig. 66) can also be uti lized , in lieu of a
float switch.
d. Circuit Breaker: Necessary to disconnect the
main power supply in case of excessive cu r-
rent draw. This could be caused by a short to
ground somewhere in the heater, the heater
controls, or the wiring.
e. Contactor: Magnetic contactor is used to turn
heater(s) on and off (Thermostat and float
switch are used to control contactor.)
f. Control Transformer: Necessary where 120
volts for control circuit is desired, or required
by electrical safety code. Circu it breaker, con-
tactor, and control transformer are usually in-
stalled in a weatherproof NEMA 3 enclosure
attached to the casing of the tower.
Once having determined the potent ial heat
loss from the basin, the proper size of the elec-
tric immersion heater may be calculated from
the following formula:
Heat Loss (Btu/hr)
Heater kw = (20)
34 12 (Btu/hr per kwhr)
Although the normal convection currents initi-
ated by a heater will protect a square or rectangu-
lar area of approximately 300 sq ft, elements
 SECTION VI

should be located in reasonable proximity to the 4. Steam Heating Method

sump or outflow region to assure an ice-free con-
dition at start-up_ For basins of larger size, multi-
ple heaters may be strategically located to oper-
ate in parallel. Basins separated by a partition ,
however, must be equipped with separate heaters
and controls to prevent the possibility of water
freezing, or a heater element operating in too little
water. Where the cold water basins of several
cells are connected with flumes, and one contac-
tor-circuit breaker is controlling heaters in all
basins, thermostats in outboard cells and alter-
nate intermediate cells should be wired in parallel
to control the contact or.
Since the heat added by an immersion heater is
local to the cooling tower basin, connected piping
which is exposed to outside ambient tempera-
tures must be protected by electric tracer cable
and insulation.
20.~-r~-rr--rrT-r~~rT'
Steam, if available, may be utilized to supply
heat to an inoperative basin. It may be injected di-
rectly into the basin water through a commercial-
ly available steam "muffler", allowing conden-
sate to mix with the basin water, or the conden-
sate may be recovered by the use of a closed pipe
"loop" installed in the basin.
Figure 137 indicates the proper pipe factors to
be used in the following formula to determine the
length of a closed circuit pipe loop:
Heat loss (Btu/hr)
Ft of pipe = 10000 x Pipe Factor (21)
,
The pipe loop should be situated to afford prop-
er protection to the sump or outflow region , and
the loop should be slightly sloped to allow con-
densate drainage_ External exposed water piping
must be insulated and traced with a source of
heat.

-tr-l-t - F+i=triit
..j. . J._ - ! r.
~+ I -+ . l-f ..j. .•
tf
18 1\ i 1-1-· Water +-
I" I I ;
,-t II I~ ,Stea';' l-
I

Solid lines = Sched _40 Steel Pipe

Broken lines = "K" Copper

Steam Pressure - psi

75 100
12

0
ti
'"
u. 10
Q)
c.
a::
8

1..).
t

200 250 300 350

Temperature- · F
Figure 137 - Pipe factors for basin heating with hot water or steam coifs.

91
SECTION VI

5. By-Pass Circulation Method
The by-pass circulation method of cold weather
basin protection is one of the better schemes for
any installation, regardless of size, because it
protects not only the cooling tower basin, but the
exposed piping as well. Figure 138 shows the nec-
essary components and their relative positions in
the system.
tower suction to the tower return, thus by-passing
the main pump-process system. This line in-
cludes a small auxiliary pump (A) complete with
magnetic starter (S); a small instantaneous water
heater (H) with a globe-valved (V 3) by-pass; a gate
valve (V,) preceding, and a check valve (C,) follow-
ing the auxiliary pump.
The remaining components consist of an im-
mersion thermostat (T), preferably located in the
basin or suction line near the sump; a thermostat

I I
(T,) and heating cable system to protect the
make-up line; and a globe valve (V 2) at the dis-
charge point of the interior by-pass.
Cooling Tower When winter operation begins, gate valves Vo &

l'i V" and the globe valve V2 are fully opened by the
tower operator. These valves remain open
throughout the winter season, and should be
closed only at the beginning of warm weather.
The immersion thermostat is set to start the auxil-
iary pump, and energize the heater, at some tem-
perature between 40'F and 45'F. Proper design
provides for the water passing through the heater
to pick up heat at a rate equivalent to that which
is lost by the cold water basin and exposed piping.
C:i The flow rate of the auxiliary pump should be
V2

,[I
sufficient to induce reasonable circulation in the
cooling tower basin. Usually, this will be about
5% of the main pumping rate. The by-pass line
from the riser to the cold water basin should be
~ I H I
sized to allow that flow without causing an appre-
.J
_T.
V, A
C, I Primary
Heat Load
I ciable head of water to stand in the riser. Since
the static lift and pipe losses are almost negligi-
ble in this system , primary head on the auxiliary
~
pump will be contributed mainly by the losses in
the instantaneous heater_ The temperature rise
(R) through the heater can be calculated by the
following transposition of Formula (1):
Figure 138 - By-pass circulation through heater for Heat Loss (Btulhr) ,
prevention of basin freezing. R = GPM x 500 = F (22)

Two by-pass lines are utilized to create a circu-
lation loop independent of both the main pump
and the cooling tower water distribution system.
One by-passes the cooling tower riser, diverting
flow directly into the cold water basin. The other
line is installed in a warm area and connects the
Steam-to-water heaters predominate where low
pressure steam is available, and where severe
weather prevails during the winter. Electric heat-
ers are most utilized on smaller installations, and
where milder winters require less frequent system
operation_

92

E. FILTERING SYSTEMS
Seclion I, Article G of this text described the pro·
cess by which airborne contaminants and total dis·
solved solids become concentrated in the cooling
tower water circu lating system. In like manner, un·
dissolved solids (particulates or turbidity: See V·H·2)
tend to become concentrated. At best , these particu,
lates will tend to settle out in low velocity areas of
the water system (such as the cooling tower basin)
where they can become a breeding ground for bac·
teria, requiring frequent cleaning and flushing of the
basin. At worst, they can degrade system heat trans·
fer efficiency and, by their very presence, drastically
increase the cost of chemicals for water treatment.
An increasing number of users are utilizing filtra·
tion systems, similar to that shown in Figure 139, to
control particulate levels and thus maintain cleanli·
ness of the tower and overall water circu lation sys·
tem. Typically, these systems are sized to continuo
Figure 139 - Efficient use of "side stream " filtration keeps cooling tower basin clean.
SECTION VI
ously filter the cooling tower basin water inventory
at a rate equivalent to about 5% of the total circula·
tion rate over the tower, depending upon the rate at
which particu lates are re·introduced into the system .
In many cases, the filtration rate may need to be in
excess of 10% of main flow.
Although fi ltration could be accomplished at al·
most any section of the water circulation system by
means of a by· pass ("side stream" ) arrangement, 10'
cation such that on ly the basin water inventory is fil·
tered has proven very satisfactory. This is because
the filtered return stream into the basin can be di·
rected, through perforated piping or commercially
available nozzles, to " sweep" collected sediment
toward the filter's sump connection.
In processes where water passages are sufficient·
Iy small to be susceptible to clogging , filtration can
be an invaluable asset .
93
SECTION VI
F. FAN BRAKES AND BACKSTOPS
When the fan motor of an induced draft cooling
tower is de·energized, the fan may tend to "wind·
mill" in either the forward or reverse direction, de·
pending upon the velocity and direction of any natur·
al air current through the fan cylinder. On towers
where cells are separated by partitions, inoperative
fans will usually tend to continue to rotate in the for·
ward direction as long as the cells served by those
fans are subjected to a water·side heat load. This is
because of the natural upward movement of air in·
duced by the warm water.
On towers where several fans operate over a com·
mon plenum , an inoperative fan will always rotate in
the reverse direction because of the downdraft in·
duced in its cylinder by the remaining operative fans.
(The sequence ot starting and stopping fans should
always follow manufacturer's recommendations.)
There are several reasons why free windmilling of
fans should be restricted, not the least of which is
the desire to prolong mechancial equipment service
life. When fans are re-started in a direction opposite
to free rotation, all components of the mechanical
equipment train are placed under abnormal mechan·
ical and torsional stresses. Furthermore, motor wind-
ings are subjected to extended starting currents.
A number of devices are available to control wind-
milling. Sprag-type backstops can be mounted on
the front shaft extension of a double·shafted motor
to prevent reverse rotation, leaving fans free to oper·
ate or windmill in the forward direction. These back·
stops are usually oil lubricated.
Electro-mechanical brakes are also designed for
use with double·shafted motors. The electrical por·
tion of the brake is wired into the motor leads in
such a way as to mechanically energize the brake
when the motor is electrically de-energized. A time
delay is advisable to prevent the brake from energiz·
ing before the fan has lost its major momentum. This
scheme effectively prevents windmilling in either
direction.
Dynamic braking is a purely electrical system
which retards windmilling in both directions. The dy·
namic braking package is installed as a portion of
the motor's electrical controls. A very low DC voltage
is applied to two phases of a three phase motor
stator. If the motor starts to rotate, it is opposed by
the DC field limiting motor speed to less than 10
rpm. Dynamic braking is relatively maintenance free
and, since the components are located in a motor
control center enclosure, corrosion does npt present
the potential problems inherent in a system located
on the cooling tower.
Both electro·mechanical and dynamic braking
allow full operation in either the forward or the re-
verse direction. This flexibility may be required for
tower de·icing in extremely cold climates.
G. AIR INLET SCREENS
In areas where leaves and debris can be blown or
induced into the air inlet openings and, thereby, into
the cold water basin to potentially foul the sump
94
screens, it is sometimes advisable to equip the
tower with air inlet screens. Usually, the screening
consists of V,' opening, galvanized wire mesh. On
counterflow towers, 'as well as many crossflow
towers, screening can be affixed to the air inlet
structure in a relatively inexpensive fashion. The ac·
cess demands of many towers, however, require that
the screens be mounted in separate, removable
panels. Although this arrangement is significantly
more expensive, it is usually more attractive to the
Owner/operator.
H. DISTRIBUTION BASIN COVERS
Similarly, on crossflow towers located in heavily
wooded areas, leaves and debris can find their way
into hot water distribution basins. Although the open
nature of these distribution basins enables them to
be easily cleaned, the user may prefer to equip these
basins with removable cover panels to reduce main-
tenance frequency, particularly in the fall of the year.
In larger towers, this same effect is achieved byex-
tending the elevated fan deck laterally to cover the
hot water basins.
Distribution basin covers also protect the hot
water from exposure to direct sunlight, thereby re-
ducing the potential for algae formation. In many
cases, this is the primary reason for their use.
I. VIBRATION LIMIT SWITCH
A fan which continues to operate after having lost
a blade is not only capable of doing tremendous
damage to the mechanical equipment region of a
cooling tower, but also jeopardizes the safety of
nearby equipment and personnel. If a driveshaft con-
tinues to operate after partial failure of a flexible
coupling , complete driveshaft failure is almost cer·
tainly assured, with the potential for even greater
destruction.
A vibration limit switch is a vibration·sensitive de-
vice that protects the tower from damage that can
result from mechanical equipment malfunction or
failure. (Fig. 140) The switch functions when a pre·
determined vibration level is exceeded, causing
power to be removed from the fan motor. Single and
double·pole, double·throw switches are available to
make an alarm circuit as well as remove motor
power.
There are many types available, most of which
have a mass that is displaced on excessive vibra·
tion , operating a switch. Some switches are held
closed electrically during a starting cycle to avoid
false shutdown. Electronic·type vibration switches
are available to monitor the vibration level; and to
sound an alarm at one vibration level-and turn off
the fan motor power at a higher vibration level.
Installation of the switch is normally outside the
fan cylinder, near the motor. On larger towers, it is
mounted on the motor end of the unitized support to
sense vibration of the mechanical equipment as a
whole. (Fig. 141) Since the switch is exposed to the
elements, it must be weatherproof and corrosion reo
sistant .

J. FIRE PROTECTION, PREVENTION & CONTROL
Figure 140 - "Ball-and-pedestal" type vibration limit
switch is simple and effective.
Figure 141 - Vibration limit switch mounted to react to
mechanical equipment vibration.
SECTION VI
Although concrete and steel cooling tower struc-
tures will not burn, they can be rendered useless by
significant exposure to a very hot fire. If their con-
tents (fill, drift eliminators, etc .) are combustible,
therefore, they can be placed in a high-risk category
by fire Insurance underwriters. However, with the ad-
vent of PVC fill and eliminators, insurers have begun
to reassess the risk factors and, in many such cases,
have permitted installation without a fire protection
sprinkler system, and with no increase in premium.
Obviously, wood towers are more susceptible to
fire, particularly after they have remained inopera-
tive for a period of time sufficient to allow them to
dry out. The use of PVC (or other materials formu-
lated for fire-retardant characteristics) for fill and
eliminators in wood-framed towers also has a risk·
reducing effect , although not usually to the same ex·
tent as occurs in concrete or steel framed towers.
Depending upon the criticality of the process being
served by the tower, or the severity of local fire
codes, insurance carriers may insist upon a simple
wet·down system, at least, or may require a full
fledged fire protection sprinkler system.
Wet·Down Systems are simple piping and nozzling
arrangements designed to deliver a relatively small
continuous flow of water to the top regions of the
tower by means of a pump that takes suction from
the tower's cold water basin. Flow in such a system
needs be no more than that required to maintain
dampness in the primary wood components; and
system sophistication is usually limited to an inter·
lock that starts the wet·down system pump on main
pump shutdown and a sensor that will prevent opera·
tion of the wet·down pump at air temperatures below
about 35°F. It is important that the flow through
such a system be continuous, because alternate
wetting and drying of the wood can degrade its ser-
vice life.
Periodic operation of the main pumps will serve to
keep specific areas of the tower wet, but may leave
certain critical areas unaffected. Circulating water
over a crossflow tower, for example, will moisten the
distribution baSins, fill , major outboard structure
and louver areas but, without air flow, will accom-
plish no appreciable moistening effect on the fan
deck, drift eliminator, and plenum areas. Similarly,
Intermittent pump operation on a counterflow tower
will moisten the fill and lower structure, but will
leave the drift eliminators and entire upper areas rel-
atively dry.
Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems for cooling
towers are defined and governed by National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) Bulletin 214 (latest
revision). The system normally consists of a rather
intricate arrangement of piping, nozzles, valves, and
sensors or fusible heads which cause the tower to
be automatically deluged with water soon after the
start of a fire. Piping within the tower is usually free
of water, to prevent freezing. Water at a prescribed
residual pressure is available at an automatic valve,
located within a nearby heated space. Operation of
95
SECTION VI
the valve is initiated either by thermostatic type sen-
sors which react to an abnormal rate of temperature
rise, or by fusible heads which cause pressure loss
within a pneumatic control system.
In many cases, insurance underwriters for a plant
will alter premium values in recognition of thoughtful
modifications made to the cooling tower, whether or
not it is equipped with a fire protection sprinkler sys-
tem. Among those modifications are the following:
a. Where plastic items of significant scope are utilized
in the tower, they may be formulated to retard or re-
sist fire. Primary areas of concern would be casings,
louvers, fan cylinders, fill and drift eliminators.
b. Selected top areas of the tower (notably fan decks)
may be covered by a specified thickness of FRC
(fiber-cement board), or similar fireproof material.
96
c. Partition walls between cells of a rectilinear tower
may be designed to act as “fire walls” to prevent or
delay the spread of fire. Typically, a 1/2" thickness of
either treated Douglas Fir plywood or FRC (fiber-ce-
ment board on both sides of the transverse column
line that constitutes a partition bent is recognized as
a 20 minute barrier to the spread of fire. Fire walls of
increased rating are accomplished by increasing the
thickness of the material utilized.
Depending upon the scope of required modifica-
tions, their cost should be evaluated against the cost
of a fire protection sprinkler system and/or the benefit
of reduced insurance premiums.

THERMAL PERFORMANCE TESTING
A_ GENERAL
The actual performance level of an operating cool-
ing tower can be accurately determined only by ther-
mally testing the tower. The accuracy of testing is in-
fluenced by many variables, some controllable-
some not. This fact normally precludes testing at the
specific design conditions. However, the limits es-
tablished by the appropriate ASME (American Socie-
ty of Mechanical Engineers) or CTI (Cooling Tower
Institute) Test Codes provide for testing within a rel-
atively broad variability range.
The ASME Power Test Code for Atmospheric
Water Cooling Equipment (PTC-23) and the CTI Ac-
ceptance Test Code for Water Cooling Towers
(ATC-105) provide complete details for tower prepar-
ation, instrumentation, testing procedures, and com-
putation of test results. These codes grant that pro-
cedures may be modified by mutual agreement
whenever necessary to meet any specific contractu-
al obligation, or to compensate for unusual condi-
tions imposed by a particular installation. However,
they stress the importance of conducting the test
only during a period when tower operation and at-
mospheric conditions are stable.
Obtaining accurate data is the most difficult part
of the test. Once the average test values have been
established, the comparison with design capability
is relatively easy_ Both codes state that the measure
of thermal capability of the cooling tower shall be
the ratio of the test water circulating rate to the cir-
culating water rate predicted by the manufacturer's
Measure wind speed and
direction upwind of tower
in unobstructed area.
Measure gpm at
appropriately located pitot
tube taps.
Measure cold water --'~""';;;;
temperature at pump
discharge.
Figure 142 - Typical sketch of test instrument locations.
SECTION VII
performance curves. In addition, the CTI Code pro-
vides an alternate method for evaluating capability,
whereby the "characteristic curve" is used in con-
junction with basic theoretical data.
B _TOWER PREPARATION FOR TEST
Prior to the test, the physical condition of the
tower must be made to conform to the following:
1. The water distribution system must be free of for-
eign materials, and must be regulated to effect
uniform water distribution in individual cells as
well as between cells on multi-cell towers.
2. Fill and distribution systems must be level and
free of foreign material.
3. Drift eliminators must be clean .
4. Positioning of instruments for obtaining tempera-
ture and water flow measurements must be so es-
tablished as to reflect the true tower capability.
(See appropriate Test Code.)
5. All test variables should be adjusted, if possible,
to within the limitations imposed by the applic-
able Test Code_
C_ INSTRUMENTATION FOR TEST (Fig_ 142)
Test data required for the performance evaluation
of a mechanical draft cooling tower includes the
water flow rate, the hot and cold water temperatures,
the wet-bulb temperature, and the fan horsepower.
The testing of a natural draft tower must also in-
clude the dry-bulb temperature but, of course, omits
the need for fan power data. Make-up and blowdown
Measure bhp at motor
starter with wattmeter.
Factor for line loss.
Measure entering water
temperature at flow
control valve exit, or at
thermometer well in inlet
piping.
97
SECTION VII
water quantities and temperatures, as well as any
miscellaneous water sources, may need to be mea-
sured, depending upon their effect upon the afore·
mentioned primary variables.
1. Water flow rate to the cooling tower can be deter·
mined by several means. Most commonly used is
the pitot tube traverse method. It is both practical
and accurate, provided laboratory calibration has
been made. Other acceptable means include the
orifice plate, venturi tube, and flow nozzle, all of
which also require laboratory calibration. Tracer
methods, as well as acoustic methods, have been
developed (usually dilution techniques) and are
being refined. Occasionally, pump curves are
used to approximate the flow. Distribution basin
nozzle curves (gpm vs depth of water over nozzle)
are frequently used as a check method and, in the
absence of other methods, may be used to mea·
sure flow directly.
The water flow rate is generally the initial test
measurement made, so that any necessary ad·
justments may be made before the thermal data
is obtained. The constancy of the water rate duro
ing the thermal test run may be checked by ob-
serving the Pitot tube center'point reading, circu·
lating pump discharge pressure, or other accept·
able means.
2. Water temperatures should be obtained with cali·
brated mercury-in·glass thermometers or resis·
tance·type sensors (RTD's, thermistors, etc.),
either used in direct contact with the flowing
water or inserted in thermometer wells. These in-
struments must reflect the true average tempera·
ture to and from the tower. The return (hot) water
temperature to the tower is usually well mixed,
and a single point of measurement will normally
suffice. However, cold water temperatures from
the tower can vary considerably throughout the
collection basin. Therefore, care must be taken to
select a point of measurement where thorough
mixing has occurred. The pump discharge is gen·
erally considered to be a satisfactory location.
3. Air temperatures include both the wet·bulb and
dry·bulb temperatures. Wet·bulb temperatures
should be measured with mechanicallY'aspirated
psychrometers whenever feasible, although sling
psychrometers are occasionally used and do af·
ford an alternate and accurate means of measur·
ing this variable. (Figs. 19,20 & 21)
All precautions required by the ASME or CTI
Test Codes regarding the measurement of wet·
bulb temperature should be exercised. Tempera·
ture sensitive elements should, of course, be la·
boratory·calibrated if a high degree of accuracy is
desired. Representative temperatures are ob·
tained if the air flow induced across the thermo·
meter bulb is approximately 1000 fpm, and dis·
tilled water is used to wet the wick. Generally, the
average of three readings taken in rapid succes·
sion (10 seconds apart), after equilibrium is
98
reached, will indicate the true wet·bulb tempera,
ture at anyone point.
The location of wet·bulb temperature measure·
ment stations will depend on the contract guaran·
tee. That is, whether the guarantee basis is ~
bient or entering wet·bulb temperature. (Sect. I·E·1)
Reference should be made to the appropriate test
code for exact locations of instruments. Any ef·
fect on wet·bulb thermometers from extraneous
sources of heat must be taken into account when
data evaluation is made.
Dry·bulb temperatures must also be measured
with laboratory·calibrated instruments at loca·
tions called out by the appropriate test code. The
measurement of dry·bulb temperature is confined
primarily to natural draft towers.
4. Brake horsepower refers to the output of the fan
prime mover, which is usually an electric motor.
Thermal performance guarantees are based on a
specific brake horsepower at the design thermal
conditions, which establish a design air density.
Fans should be adjusted prior to a scheduled test
so that the horsepower is within 10% of the de·
sign value, after corrections to design air density
have been made. Since input electric power is us·
ually measured , the brake or output power must
be computed by multiplying the input power by
the motor efficiency. The efficiency and power
factor are obtained from the motor manufacturer.
The preferred instrument for power determina·
tion is a wattmeter. Power may also be obtained
with a volt·ammeter, but power factor as well as
efficiency must be applied as multipliers to deter·
mine the brake horsepower. Line losses from the
pOint of measurement to the fan motor must be
considered when the power is remotely measured.
5. Tower pumping head is the total dynamic head of
water at the centerline of the circulating water in·
let to the COOling tower, with equalized flow to all
sections, and referred to the tower basin curb as
a datum. It is the sum of the static pressure at the
inlet centerline, the velocity pressure at that
pOint, and the vertical distance between that
point and the top of the basin curb. The tower
pumping head does not normally include the fric·
tion loss in the riser. The static pressure is sel·
dom measured directly at the inlet centerline be·
cause of the unsuitability of this location. It is us·
ually measured at some point in the tower riser by
using either a differential manometer or a cali·
brated pressure gauge. Pitot tube tap locations
are usually suitable for this measurement.
The measured static pressure must be con·
vertea to the equivalent pressure at the centerline
of the inlet. The velocity pressure at inlet center·
line is calculated from the measured water flow
rate and the flow area of the conduit at that point.
The vertical distance from the inlet centerline to
the top of the basin curb is obtained by direct
measurement.

D. OPERATING CONDITIONS DURING TEST
Current ASME and CTI Test Codes suggest the fol·
lowing limitations to variations from design to be
observed during testing:
Water Rate ............ . ....... :t 10% of design.
Cooling Range ................. :t 20% of design.
Heat Load ..................... :t 20% of design.
Wet·Bulb Temperature" ......... :t 10· F of design.
Wet·BulbTemperature·· .. +5·F, -15·Fofdesign.
Dry·Bulb Temperature" ......... :t 20· F of design.
Wind Velocity ......... generally less than 10 mph.
Fan Power ............... ... .. :t 10% of design.
·CTI Test Code
." ASME Test Code
There will be times when operating or atmospheric
conditions will not permit a test to be performed
within the above limits. However, testing can pro·
ceed by mutual agreement among responsible test·
ing parties, provided test conditions are covered by
the manufacturer's performance curves.
E. CONDUCTING THE TEST
The accuracy of the test depends upon stable op·
erating and atmospheric conditions. Those condi·
tions which are subject to control should be closely
regulated. For conditions that cannot be controlled
(such as wet·bulb temperatures and wind velocity),
tests should be confined to time periods when mini·
mum variances occur. The duration of any test peri·
od should not be less than one hour after steady·
state conditions have been established.
A test schedule should be established, and a suffi·
cient number of qualified or competent observers
provided, to obtain the necessary simu ltaneous
readings at the required time intervals. The normally
recommended number and interval of readings are
as follows:
Water Flow (measured previously) ......... 3 check
readings per hour.
7£0 '}!10 zf'
~ 30r-~I~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Irl1~
w
(!)
Z
<l:
a: 20 f7£:A-r-7'F-Y~"";.f'S".g..r-r:...t'7i'fu~b-IT1i-Q;;f-"fi+±;?H7:<-b~ 1(1'
10~~~ilmI_
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
RATING FACTOR
60° WET BULB
Figure 143
SECTION VII
Hot Water Temperature .............. 12 per hour.
Cold Water Temperature ...... .. ..... 12 per hour.
Wet·Bulb Temperature ..... 36 per hour per station.
(12 recordings)
Dry·Bulb Temperature ...... 36 per hour per station.
(12 recordings)
Wind Velocity ...................... 12 per hour.
Fan Power (measured previously) . . ....... 4 check
readings per hour or continuously recorded .
F. EVALUATION OF TEST DATA
Arithmetical averages are developed for all tem·
peratures, and water flow rates as well as fan power
are calculated at the conclusion of data collection.
The test analysis of data should follow the ASME or
CTI Test Code methods for evaluation of tower cap·
ability. If the manufacturer's performance curves are
not available to the Owner, the following method will
afford a reasonably accurate means of evaluating
the thermal performance of a tower:
For every gpm of water cooled by a tower, the cool·
ing range and the approach temperature (Fig. 26), rei·
ative to a given wet·bulb temperature, establishes
the degree of thermal capability or "Rating Factor".
Rating Factors for various combinations of range
and approach (at indicated wet·bulb temperatures)
are shown in Figures 143 thru 147. " Capacity Units"
are then established as the product of the Rating
Factor and the water rate in accordance with the fol·
lowing formula:
Capacity Units = gpm x Rating Factor (23)
The capacity Units reqUired to meet the design
thermal conditions are calculated from Formula
(23). The available Capacity Units are also deter·
mined from Formula (23). In general , the tower
capability is the ratio of the Capacity Units avail·
able to the Capacity Units required, as follows:
Capacity Units avail.
Tower Capability = C . U't x 100 (24)
apaclty nI s req.
21° Zlo 1if' 18" 17° 18"
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
99
SECTION VII

,,0

10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~un~
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.8
RATING FACTOR

Figure 144 70° WET BULB

APPROACH
40
gO

u. 30
sa
0
W jJ.
-,f-tT
(!l
Z 70
«
0:: 20 6
0

10.~~.
+ ".
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
RATING FACTOR
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Figure 145 74° WET BULB

10 ~.
L IflIfIItillfl
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
RATING FACTOR

Figure 146 78° WET BULB

100
 SECTION VII

APPROACH aP1g01ff1f'1ff'1'if' 14° 13° 11' ,,0 10" gO SO

40
:1: f'

u. 30 If'
0
W
(!)
Z
<t 'if'
a: 20 ,
I'

10
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
RATING FACTOR

Figure 147 80 0 WET BULB

However, because tests are seldom conducted culated as the product of the adjusted test water
with the fans operating exactly at the design fan rate (gpm) and the test Rating Factor. Tower capabil-
brake horsepower, an adjustment must be made to ity (Formula (24) must then incorporate a fan power
account for the variation in test thermal perfor- correction whenever required. The following exam·
mance caused by this variation in air flow (or fan pie typifies the evaluation of test data:
power). Since air rate varies directly as water rate Design Test
and also as the cube root of fan power (at constant Water Rate (gpm): 10,000 10,830
hot water, cold water, and wet·bulb temperatures) Hot Water Temperature (0F): 105.0 99.2
the adjustment is applied directly to the test water Cold Water Temperature (0 F): 85.0 81.1
rate as follows: Wet.Bulb Temperature (0 F): 78.0 72.2
Adj . test gpm = test gpm x ~esign fan bhp (25) Range (OF): 20.0 18.1
test fan bhp Approach (0 F): 7.0 8.9
The available "Capacity Units" must then be cal· Fan Horsepower (bhp): 75.0 71.2

+
T
E
I.
l,-
I· ![ ±
L.

70
"'.8 D·9 I.'" /.( I·t 1.3 I.~ I.s
R4TIN'G F",CTOR.

Figure 148 - Curve plotted to bracket specifiC test region.

101
SECTION VII

Required Capacity: The Rating Factor correspond- , , , r ,,

10 I ,x , , I ,
, ,
I
,, ,
; ; 1
ing to 20'F range and 7' F approach , from the 78'F
wet-bulb curve shown in Figure 146, is 1.41 . Substitu·
' X , , ...~ , 1
: y L ,mL I
ting in Formula (23), " . I
, I

• ",, ; ,
1.41 x 10,000 gpm = 14,100 Capacity Units required. i : , ,
.
I I I I I
Available Capacity: Testing was conducted at 71 .2 il :l I I t:
, ;
fan bhp, so the adjusted test gpm at 75 fan bhp (de, .
,1 1"\ I
"\ I '
f ~
, ,: : , ,
sign) must be calculated , using Formu la (25). : , ; , i i !,
, ," I I I
Adjusted test gpm = 10,830 x ~
71.2
= 11 ,019 gpm
;
,
,, ,
;" ,
, I
;
;

I I ,
I ; I I ; ,
,,
;
Because the test was conducted at 72.2' F wet ; 1
, ;,: I 1 I
bu lb and 8.9' F approach, a double interpolation is ; , ;

required to obtain the corresponding test Rating

I
,
"\ 1
, , 1 I 1
:
,; , ; ,,I ,
I
I I X.
,
Factor.
Rating Factors I
,
I
1
I
_1
,
,
;
;
;
,
.," ,
"lI. '
' I
I
,
,
; I
for 18.1'F Range ,I , ; , ; , ,
,
@8'A @9' A @10'A : ; ; , , ;

Fig. 144-70' wet-bulb 1.520 1.370 1.250

8
Fig. 145-74' wet-bulb 1.335 1.205 1.100 1,/ /.2 1.3 /.4 1.5
Fig. 146-78' wet·bulb 1.190 1.080 0.985
The Rating Factors for each approach are plotted
against wet-bulb temperature as shown in Figure
148. The Rating Factors for 72.2'F wet bulb and 8' ,
9' & 10'F approach are read from this curve as Figure 149 - Curve plotted to identify specific test
1.414, 1.276 & 1.162 respectively. These factors are paint.
then plotted in Figure 149, and 1.29 is seen to be the
Rating Factor unique to an 8.9' F approach, an
18.1'F range, and a 72.2'F wet·bulb temperature.

Substituting calcu lated values in Formula (23):
Capacity Units available - 1.29 x 11 ,019 (ad·
justed test gpm) = 14,215
Substituting the available and required Capacity
Units in Formula (24):
Tower Capability = 14,215 x 100 = 1008%
14,100 .
The test indicates that the tower will cool 100.8%
of the design water rate, or that it has 100.8 % of the
required capability. Thi s is well within recognized test
tolerances of ± 2% , under stable te sting conditions.

102

OWNER RESPONSIBILITIES
A. GENERAL
Cooling tower manufacturers design for success·
ful performance when the tower is operating under a
given set of conditions. If the information establish·
ing those conditions is accurate, then the cooling
tower shou ld perform properly and it is the responsi·
bility of the manufacturer to assure that it does so.
Given fallacious or poorly defined conditions
against which to design, however, the probabil ity of
arriving at a properly sized cool ing tower of the ap·
propriate type is remote.
At various places throughout this text , certain de·
terminations fundamental to the proper selection of
a cooling tower, as well as its operational success,
are ind icated to be the responsibility of the Owner or
specifying engineer, as the case may be. Those
pOints are herewith reiterated for emphasis, along
with numerous other inputs and actions which are
pertinent to a cooling tower 's design, installation
and operation, and which are the Owner's responsi·
bility to acertain and perform .
B. COVERING SPECIFICATIONS
In order to promote receipt of the most competi·
tive bid offerings, the description of the cooling
tower required, and it s intended service, must be suf·
ficiently inclusive to assure a fair comparison of all
bids received. However, specifications should not be
so rigid as to rule out new techniques or approaches,
but should cover base requirements dictated by the
project, with possible alternatives suggested by bid-
ders reviewed for acceptance or rejection.
Beyond those basic consideration s, the wise Own-
er wi ll avoid becoming overly specific. Restrictive
specifications usually favor but one bidder, and are
discouraging to most others. They also produce very
little incentive for the preferred bidder to make his
best offering. It is much better to be "specific" with
respect to the problem, and "general" with respect
to the tower. This allows the manufacturers to offer
their best solutions, and usually works to the benefit
of the Owner.
The following minimum information must be reo
lated, with appropriate addit ions inserted where
project peculiarities dictate, or strong preferences
exist:
1. Type of Tower Preferred: Prior to writing the spec·
ifications, a prudent Owner will have discussed
the project requirements with one or more reput-
able manufacturers, and wil l have determined at
least the basic type and configuration of cooling
tower best suited to the specific need. For exam-
ple, he may have found that consideration of na·
tural draft, or any of the "special ized " towers
(Sect. V), is unwarranted. He may also have deter·
mined that the available space (particularly in the
SECTION VIII
light of future planning) best lends itself to a par·
ticular shape (i.e. round or rectilinear).
If there are overriding reasons for having cho·
sen a particular type, configuration, or basic con·
struction material, an explanatory paragraph ear·
Iy in the specifications shows courtesy to the pro·
spective bidders, and usually forestalls unneces-
sary discussion.
2. Type of service: Specific information not only as
to the basic industry, but also with respect to the
particular process within that industry will tend to
work to the Owner's advantage. Some manufac-
turers, having provided cooling towers for similar
situations, may offer features or accessories
known to be beneficial to the operation or effi·
ciency of the process.
3. Tower Heat Load: (Sect. I-E-3) Since it governs
the size of the cooling tower, the total heat load to
be rejected to the circulating water system must
be accurately determined and stated.
4. Heat Load Configuration: (Sect. I·E·4) Indicate
the circulating water rate (gpm), incoming hot
water temperature, and desired cold water tem·
perature at design conditions.
5. Design Wet·Bulb Temperature: (Section I-E·1) Be
clear as to whether this is to be treated as "enter·
ing" or "ambient" in the design of the tower.
6. Dry-Bulb and/or Relative Humidity: (Sect. I-E-2)
Although knowledge of these values is critical
only on certain types of towers, it is good practice
to establish them on every project as a basis for
possible future evaporation rate determination or
plume behavior studies.
7. Water Quality: (Sect. I-G) A tabulated analysis of
the qualities of both the make·up water and the
circulating water (at the intended number of con-
centrations) must be included. Values for the cir·
culating water should also include any antici·
pated effect of atmospheric pollution.
B. Materials of Construction: (Sect. I·F et al) Own·
ers who have had considerable experience in the
purchase and operation of cooling towers usually
tend to write specificat ions which are quite ex·
plicit in their identification of the material to be
used in each of the tower's components. In many
cases, however, such specifications are a reflec-
tion of the materials utilized in the last tower pur·
chased and, if taken literally, may prec lude utili·
zation of better material concepts developed in
the interim.
Generally speaking, the basic material descrip-
tion of a cooling tower (i.e. "a wood tower"; " a
steel tower"; "a concrete tower"; etc.) refers to
the material with which the tower is structurall y
framed, and establishes the primary intent as to
103
SECTION VllI
the type of materials required in the tower's re-
maining components_ This is not to say that mere
specification of framework material will assure
an Owner's total satisfaction with the various ma-
terials offered by bidders for the tower's remain-
ing components, but it will set a standard by
which a bidder can interpret his alternatives_
Ideally, an explicit component material specifi-
cation will be written, modified by the indicated
understanding that an equal or better material
will be considered for acceptance. Although such
indications occasionally tend to complicate the
Owner's decision making process, a correct deci-
sion at to what constitutes "current best technol-
ogy" will produce overriding benefits. Further-
more, the Owner will normally be able to draw upon
experience reported in various other industries.
A description of the primary structural and me-
chanical components is covered in Sections II
and III. The purchaser's intention regarding their
construction and design should be covered in the
specifications, augmented by requirements for
appropriate auxiliary devices from Section VI, or
elsewhere.
9_ Structural Loading: To the greatest degree possi-
ble, standard design criteria promulgated by rec-
ognized sources (such as those mentioned in Sec-
tion II, Article C) should be specified. Wind and
earthquake loads specified should be commen-
surate with geographical data, unless site-related
peculiarities dictate otherwise. (It is wise to relate
the reason for any specific deviation , in order to
avoid confusion _)
The responsibility for provision of the cold
water basin (Sect. II-B) should be made clear and,
where applicable, its material specified.
The foundation itself, as well as the capability
of the soil and foundation to withstand the dead
and dynamic loads generated as a result of the
cooling tower (with little or no differential settle-
ment) is the responsibility of the Owner.
C_ TOWER ORIENTATION AND SITE SERVICES
A site plan drawing should be included with the
specifications showing the intended location of the
cooling tower, as well as any anticipated future
towers. This drawing should indicate the elevations
of all primary site structures. It should also include a
rose of average annual winds, emphasizing the wind
force and direction coincident with the design wet-
bulb temperature_
On projects where the installation of the cooling
tower will involve a significant amount of site con-
struction effort, the drawings should include topo-
graphical features in sufficient detail to enable the
bidder to pre-plan the storage of material and the
movement of equipment.
Provision for construction power and water adja-
cent to the tower location should be made and their
terminal pOints identified on the drawings. Specifi-
cations should clearly define site entry require-
104
ments, freedom of access both to work areas and
comfort facilities, and work rules. Project agree-
ments affecting labor relations must be explicitly
stated.
D_ ECONOMIC EVALUATION PARAMETERS
Readers to this point in the text will have gathered
that a multitude of different cooling tower types, de-
signs, and configurations stand ready to dissipate a
given heat load. As various physical and environ-
mental qualifications are added to the base require-
ment, however, large groups of possibilities begin to
fall out of consideration until, after some ultimate
refinement, only a manageable dozen or so candi-
dates remain.
The winner is usually chosen by a process of eco-
nomic evaluation, wherein the cost impact of all op-
erational and peripheral factors are added to the
base cost of the cooling tower to obtain a "total eval-
uated cost"_ Among the factors which may be con-
sidered are the following:
1. Pump Head Evaluation: (Sect. V-E) The head loss
attributable to the cooling tower causes pump en-
ergy to be expended for the period of time under
evaluation (plant life, amortization period, etc.),
the cost of which is usually brought to present
worth and expressed as dollars per foot of head.
2. Fan Power Evaluation : (Sect. V-F) On mechanical
draft cooling towers, a similar evaluation of the
extrapolated cost of fan operation should be con-
sidered. Unlike pump power evaluation, however,
fan usage should be factored to reflect the reduc-
tion in total fan operation that will be produced by
annual variations in wet-bulb temperature. Fan
power evaluation may be expressed as dollars per
horsepower or dollars per kw_
3. Basin Evaluation: Real estate is utilized by a cool-
ing tower and becomes unavailable for other use.
Costs are also incurred in excavation and in the
provision of unique foundations, such as pilings
or caissons. Except in those cases where the
basin is included within the cooling tower manu-
facturer's scope of work, the cost of basin instal-
lation is usually evaluated_ Applicable costs are
expressed as dollars per sq. ft. of basin area.
4_ Electrical and Wiring Evaluation: (Sect. IV) Cool-
ing tower motors are individually wired and con-
trolled. Therefore, a portion of the Owner's overall
electrical installation cost will vary directly with
the number of fans with which the tower is
equipped _ This evaluated cost is expressed as
dollars per fan.
5. Piping Evaluation: Variations in cooling tower
configuration and placement (Fig. 39) can result
in significantly different amounts of piping re-
quired. Piping required beyond a specified point
should be evaluated in terms of dollars per foot.
6. Capital Cost Evaluation: The long-term cost of fi-
nancing the purchase of equipment should be
eval uated and expressed as a factor to be appl ied
to the base cost.

A detailed description of the Owner's inten·
tions with respect to evaluation will enable the
bidder to apply those parameters to various selec·
tions, resulting in an offering of best advantage to
the purchaser.
E. CONTRACTUAL INFORMATION
The following pOints, among others, will form the
basis for an ultimate contract, and maximum atten·
tion to clarity will result in the greatest understand·
ing between parties:
1. Scope of Work: Of vital importance to the bidder
is a thorough understanding of where his scope
of endeavor begins and ends. Planned terminal
points of supply and return piping, for example,
should be well defined.
Assignment of work functions that fall outside
the bidder's normal expertise should be avoided.
This would include soil analysis and foundation
requirements, piping external to the tower, and
electrical work. Also, except in the case of con·
crete towers, the design and installation of a con·
crete collection basin is considered the user's
responsibility.
2. Contract and Construction Timing: Accurate knowl·
edge of planned milestone dates is of prime im·
portance to the bidder in the preparation of his
proposal. Those of main concern are: 1) date pro·
posal is to be submitted; 2) date contract will be
signed; 3) date site will be ready for start of con·
struction; 4) date construction is required to be
complete; and 5) date of final payment.
The time interval between receipt of inquiry and
proposal submission should be sufficient to allow
the bidder's investigation of several alternatives,
out of which will come his best offering. Adequate
time for the preparation of a comprehensive pro·
posal may vary from as little as two weeks for the
pre·designed towers utilized on smaller applica·
tions to as much as ten weeks for the custom·
designed larger towers of greater specialization.
The length of time that a bidder is able to main·
tain validity of his proposal pricing is usually are·
flection of the cost stability of those commodities
from which the major cooling tower components
are manufactured. Therefore, he seeks a contract
date that is within the time limitation imposed by
his suppliers. Periods of validity usually vary from
.30 days on smaller projects to as much as 90 days
on projects of larger size. In situations of unpre·
dictable contract dates, or significantly volatile
cost excursions, bidders may have no choice but
to reserve the right to adjust base pricing at the
time of contract.
Although procurement and preparation of de·
sign drawings usually begins soon after contract
signing, the dates of site readiness and required
completion establish the interval of time allowed
the bidder for on·site construction activities. In
the case of a factory·assembled tower, of course,
only a required shipping date would be needed.
SECTION VIII
Larger towers, involving appreciable manufactur·
ing and construction effort, may require a mini·
mum interval from date of contract to date of
completion of about one year for towers of wood
construction , and approximately two years for
concrete towers.
Knowledge of the anticipated date that final
payment will be received is vital to the manufac·
turer's planned cash flow. Delays in the receipt of
final payment factor into an extended borrowing
period, the cost of which must be covered by con·
tract pricing. The Owner's best combination of
protection and cost usually occurs when the ne·
gotiation of a final payment date takes the reputa·
tion of the manufacturer into consideration.
3. Insurance Requirements: The type and limits of
insurance that will be required by the contract
should be clearly defined in the inquiry. If the
Owner intends to carry "wrap·up" insurance on
the entire project, full disclosure of its nature will
enable the manufacturer to evaluate cost reduc·
tions to be reflected in the proposal pricing.
4. Performance Test Requirements: If a thermal per·
formance test is desired, the specifications
should identify the code (ASME or CTI) under
which the test will be conducted; should indicate
whether or not the cost of the test is to be includ·
ed in the cooling tower proposal; and should es·
tablish a limiting date for the test. Usually, tests
are conducted during the first summer of tower
operation. All thermometer wells and pitot·tube
taps necessary to facilitate test readings must be
procured and installed by the Owner.
Although thermal testing establishes the actu·
al performance level of a cooling tower, relative to
design requirements, the value of such a test
must ultimately be weighed against its cost. On
relatively small projects, the cost of a thermal per·
formance test can amount to a substantial por·
tion of the total cooling tower contract. A knowl·
edgeable Owner may choose to include a speci·
fied performance test as a contract option to be
exercised only if his own in·house test (Sect. VII)
reveals an apparent performance deficiency.
5. Terms of Payment: Even in "lump sum" cooling
tower construction contracts, portions applicable
to materials and labor are customarily identified
to facilitate separate modes of invoicing. Materi·
als, for example, are normally invoiced progreso
sively as materials are shipped to the site (PAMS),
whereas field labor is invoiced monthly as work
progresses (MAWP). Occasionally, the engineer·
ing portion of large jobs (usually incorporated as
a component of the Materials contract) will be
identified for invoicing and payment during an ap·
propriate early phase of the contract.
Inquiry documents should define the Owner's
plan for payment of invoices. The amount of "re·
tention" should also be clearly stated, as well as
the aforementioned date of final payment. Unrea·
sonable requirements, of course, represent costs
105
SECTION VIII
which usually reflect themselves in the total contract
price.
6 . Provision for Escalation: Except on short-term, quick
shipment type contracts, typical of those involving
factory-assembled towers, historical fluctuations in
component costs have made "firm price" contracts
of little advantage to either the Owner or the manu-
facturer. Parity normally requires that the quoted
price of a cooling tower be based upon known costs
at the time of proposal, subject to escalation (up-
ward or downward) corresponding to the relative
level of acceptable escalator indices at the time of
a material or labor event.
Materials contracts, for example, are usually ap-
portioned into values assignable to various Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS) commodity indices, with
the ultimate value of a shipment established by the
level of the appropriate BLS index at time of ship-
ment, co mpared to its level at time of proposal.
Labor contracts are apportioned to variou s craft
functions, with progressive invoicing reflecting the
change in craft costs at the time of actual usage.
F. COMPARING CAPABILITY OF PROPOSED TOWERS
On the strength of the thermal performance of all
offerings being "guaranteed", many Owners will pur-
chase the tower whose total evaluated cost (Art. D of
this Section) is lowest, without reservation. Those who
do so are often disappointed to discover that the tower
purchased does not perform as it sho uld, and are
stunned to find out the additional costs involved in
improving its performance.
Standard industry thermal performance guarantees
provide for the following typical steps toward the rem-
edy of a performance deficiency: 1) the manufacturer
will make alterations to the tower in an effort to im-
prove performance; and 2) the manufacturer will either
install additional cooling tower capacity, or will refund
a percentage of the contract price proportional to the
performance deficiency.
In either case, the additional materials and/or labor
required of the manufacturer to effect performance im-
provement is limited to the scope of the original con-
tract. Therefore, the cost of any additional foundation,
basin, piping, electrical wiring, or control mechanisms
required would be to the purchaser's account.
Although these potential costs are obvious, and sig-
nificant, they seldom represent the total impact upon
the Owner who has purchased a deficient tower. In
many cases, any alteration made to the tower may re-
quire an increase in fan power, the additional cost of
wh ich accrues throughout the operating life of the cool-
ing tower.
Occasionally, errors in calculation on the part of a
bidder may result in a quoted fan horsepower that is
sufficiently low to cause the ultimate purchase of his
offering. After installation and testing, a simple
repitching of the fan blades may solve the problem of
performance deficiency-but the additional longterm
cost of fan power becomes the Owner's problem.
It is incumbent upon the owner, therefore, to ascer-
tain both the capability and reputation of the apparent
w inning bidder to the placement of an order.
G. CLEANING AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Cooling towers must be cleaned on a regular basis
to minimize the growth of bacteria, including Legionella
Pneumophila (which causes Legionnaires' Disease) and
avoid the risk of sickness or death . Cooling tower op-
erators should always follow maintenance procedures
which reduce, to a minimum , the opportunity for bac-
terial contamination.
Regular cleaning procedures are a particular con -
cern for cooling towers in commercial HVAC service.
Because they are often close to the public, the risk of
infection from poorly maintained coo ling towers is el-
evated. Visual inspection of these towers should take
place week ly when the towers are operating. Flushing
and cleaning should be performed before and after each
coo ling season, t wice per year is the preferred fre-
quency.
A reliable water treatment program should be in-
stalled and maintained. Filtration devices may be em-
ployed to reduce the suspended solids concentration,
thus increasing the effectiveness of the water treatment
program.
Operators should use the following disinfection pro-
cedure when starting a cooling tower that has been
out of service for an extended period of time.
Drain down the water system if possible. Clean all
debris, such as leaves and dirt from the tower. Fill the
system with water. While operating the cooling water
pump(s) and prior to operating the cooling tower fan,
execute one of the two alternate biocidal treatment pro-
grams described below:
• Resume treatment with the biocide which had
been used prior to shutdown. Utilize the services of
the water treatment supplier. Maintain the maximum
recommended biocide residual (for the specific biocide)
for a sufficient period of time (residual and time will
vary with the biocide) to bring the system under good
biological control. - or-
• Treat the system with sodium hypochlorite to a
level of 4 to 5 mg/L (ppm) free ch lorine residual at a
pH of 7.0 to 7.6. The ch lorine residual must be held at
4 to 5 mg/L (ppm) for six hours, measurable with stan-
dard commercial water test kits.
Once one of these two biocidal treatments has been
successfully completed, the fan can be turned on and
the system returned to service. Resume the standard
water treatment program, (including biocidal treatment).
If the cooling tower is not drained prior to startup,
the operator should perform one of the two previous
biocidal treatments directly to the cooling water stor-
age vessel (cooling tower sump, drain down tank, etc.)
without circulating stagnant water over the cooling
tower fill or operating the cooling tower fan.
After biocidal pretreatment is comp leted, cooling
water may be circulated over the tower fill with the fan
off. After biocidal treatment has been maintained for at
least six hours, the fan may be operated and the sys-
tem returned to service.
 SECTION IX

TABLES

Table 1 - Heat absorbed by Cooling Water for Various Types of Equipment.

'COOLING
RANGE
EQUIPMENT Btu GPM (0 F)

Air Conditioning or Refrigeration Per Ton Per Ton

Electric motor driven compressor 250/min. 1.5-3 10-20
Engine driven compressor 300 + Imin. 3-3.6 10-12
Steam turbine driven compressor 500 + Imin. 2-3 20-30
Absorption machine 500 + Imin. 3-4 15-20
Steam jet refrigeration, 100 psi steam
pressure, 2" Hg vacuum 800 + Imin. 4-6 16-24

Steam Condensing (Power Plant) Per I b. steam Per kw

Fossil fuel, surface condenser 1000+ .3-.7 14-30
B.W. nuclear fuel surface condenser 1000+ .5-.7 20-30

Diesel Engine Jacket Water & Lube Oil Per bhp Per bhp
Four-cycle, supercharged 2600/hr. .26 20
Four-cycle, non-supercharged 3000/hr. .30 20
Two-cycle, scavenging large unit 2500/hr. .25 20
Two-cycle, scavenging high speed 2200/hr. .22 20

Natural Gas Eng. Jacket Water & Lube Oil Per bhp Per bhp
Four-cycle engine 4500/hr. .45 20
Two-cycle engine 4000/hr. .40 20

Electric Motor Driven Air Compressors Per bhp Per bhp

Single stage 380/hr. .076 10
Single stage, with aftercooler 2545/hr. .51 10
Two-stage, with intercooler 1530/hr. .31 10
Two-stage, with inter & after cooler 2545/hr. .51 10
NOTE: For engine or steam turbine drive,
add jacket water or steam condens-
ing load.

Plastic Injection Machines PER OZ. CAPACITY

125/min. 1.5 10
Hydraulic Oil Cooling 2545/h r.lbh P .51/bhp 10
Welding Tip Cooling 84/min . (avg.) 1.0 10
Electric Furnace Cooling 200/hr.lkw .02/kw 20
Quench Oil Cooling Load = Specific heat x Ibs. x temperature cooled

'When possible, secure actual heat load and water quantity to be circulated, and apply in Formula (1) (pg. 22)
SECTION IX

Table 2 - Data for Rapid Calculation of Saturation & Table 3 - Water Properties at Saturation.
Stability Indexes (Based on Langelier for·
mulas, Larson-Buswell residue, tempera· Temp. Density Weight Enthalpy
ture adjustments & arranged by Eskel ...r£L (Ib/cu It) (Ib/gal) (Btu /lb
Nordell). 39 62.43' 8.35 7.04
41 62.43 8.35 9.05
43 62.42 8.34 11.05
A B 45 62.42 8.34 13.06
Total Solids Temperature 47 62.42 8.34 15.06
(~~m) A (F.) B 49 62.41 8.34 17.07
50-300 0.1 32-34 2.6 51 62.41 8.34 19.07
400-1000 0.2 36-42 2.5 53 62.40 8.34 21.07
44-48 2.4 55 62.39 8.34 23.08
50-56 2.3 57 62.38 8.34 25.08
58-62 2.2 59 62.37 8.34 27.08
64-70 2.1 61 62.37 8.34 29.08
72-80 2.0 63 62.36 8.34 31.08
82-88 1.9 65 62.34 8.33 33.08
90-98 1.8 67 62.33 8.33 35.07
100-110 1.7 69 62.31 8.33 37.07
112-122 1.6 71 62.31 8.33 39.07
124-132 1.5 73 62.28 8.33 41.07
134-146 1.4 75 62.27 8.32 43.06
148-160 1.3 77 62.25 8.32 45.06
162-178 1.2 79 62.23 8.32 47.06
81 62.21 8.32 49.05
83 62.19 8.31 51.05
C 0 85 62 .17 8.31 53.05
Calcium M.O. 87 62.15 8.31 55.04
Hardness Alkalinity 89 62.13 8.31 57.04
(ppm or CaC0 3) C (ppm or CaC0 3) 0 91 62 .11 8.30 59.03
93 62.08 8.30 61 .03
10-11 0.6 10-11 1.0 95 62.06 8.30 63.03
12·13 0.7 12·13 1.1 97 62.04 8.29 65.02
14·17 0.8 14-17 1.2 99 62.01 8.29 67.02
18-22 0.9 18-22 1.3 101 61.98 8.29 69.01
23-27 1.0 23-27 1.4 103 61.95 8.28 71.01
28-34 1.1 28-34 1.5 105 61.92 8.28 73.01
35-43 1.2 35-43 1.6 107 61.89 8.27 75.00
44·55 1.3 44-55 1.7 109 61.86 8.27 77.00
56-69 1.4 56-69 1.8 111 61.83 8.27 79.00
70-87 1.5 70-87 1.9 113 61.87 8.27 80.99
88-110 1.6 88·110 2.0 115 61.79 8.26 82.99
111-138 1.7 111·138 2.1 117 61 .76 8.26 84.99
139-174 1.8 139·174 2.2 119 61.74 8.25 86.98
175-220 1.9 175·220 2.3 121 61.71 8.25 88.98
230·270 2.0 230·270 2.4 123 61 .67 8.24 90.98
280-340 2.1 280·340 2.5 125 61.64 8.24 92.98
350-430 2.2 350-430 2.6 127 61.60 8.23 94.97
440-550 2.3 440-550 2.7
560-690 2.4 560-690 2.8 'Maximum water density occurs at 39.2' F.
700-870 2.5 700-870 2.9
880-1000 2.6 880-1000 3.0 NOTES:
1. Absolute constants (U.S. Units) are 231 cu in =
1 gal;
Saturation Index =
pH (actual) - (9.3 + A + B) + (C + 0) and 7.4805 gal =1 cu ft.
Stability Index =
2 [(9.3 + A + B) - (C + 0)] - pH (actual) 2. Unless accurate scientific treatment demands other·
wise, arbitrary constants utilized in the cooling tower
industry are:
-Water density = 62.34 Ib/c u ft.
-Water weight = 8 ';' Ib/gal.
-2.31 It of water column = 1 Ib/sq in pressure.

108
 SECTION IX

Table 4 - THE PROPERTIES OF SATUR ATED AIR

TEMP. = temperature, of
The wet cooling tower effluent is assumed
to be at satu ration (100% relative humidi· ENTHALPY = Btu/lb. of dry air
SP. VO L. D.A. = Specific Vo lume, ft.3l1b. of dry air
ty) for all normally expected operating
VO L. MIX. = Volume, ft.3/lb. mixture
heat loads. Therefore previous refer-
DENSITY MIX. = lb. of d.a. per ft.3 of mixture
ences to exit wet- bulbs also relate numer-
SP. HUMID. = Specific Humidity, l b. water/lb. d.a.
ica lly to exi t dry-bulbs.

Sp. Vol Vol Densit y Sp. Sp. Vo l Vol Density Sp.

Teme· Enthalpl D.A. Mix. Mix. Humid. Tem e· Enthalpy D.A. Mix. Mix. Humid.
25.0 8.933 12.276 12.243 0.08167 0.00273 76.0 39.577 13.930 13.663 0.07318 0.01948
26.0 9.316 12.304 12.269 0.08 150 0.00286 77.0 40.569 13.970 13.694 0.07302 0.02016
27.0 9.706 12.332 12.295 0.08132 0.00300 78.0 41.585 14.011 13.725 0.07285 0.Q2086
28.0 10.102 12.36 1 12.322 0.081 15 0.00314 79.0 42.626 14.053 13.756 0.07269 0.02158
29.0 10.505 12.389 12.348 0.08098 0.00329 80.0 43.692 14.095 13.788 0.07252 0.02232
30.0 10.915 12.417 12.375 0.08080 0.00345 81.0 44.785 14.138 13.819 0.07236 0.02309
31.0 11.333 12.446 12.401 0.08063 0.0036 1 82.0 45.904 14.182 13.85 1 0.07219 0.02389
32.0 11.758 12.475 12.428 0.08046 0.00378 83.0 47.051 14.226 13.883 0.07202 0.02470
33.0 12.169 12.503 12.454 0.08029 0.00394 84.0 48.227 14.271 13.915 0.07186 0.02555
34.0 12.586 12.532 12.480 0.08012 0.00410 85.0 49.433 14.316 13.947 0.07169 0.02641
35.0 13.009 12.560 12.507 0.07995 0.00427 86.0 50.669 14.362 13.980 0.07 152 0.02731
36.0 13.439 12.589 12.533 0.07978 0.00444 87.0 51.936 14.408 14.013 0.07 136 0.02823
37.0 13.876 12.618 12.560 0.07961 0.00463 88.0 53.235 14.456 14.046 0.07 11 9 0.02919
38.0 14.320 12.647 12.587 0.07944 0.00481 89.0 54.568 14.504 14.079 0.07102 0.03017
39.0 14.772 12.677 12.614 0.07927 0.00501 90.0 55.935 14.553 14.11 3 0.07085 0.03118
40.0 15.231 12.706 12.640 0.07910 0.00521 91.0 57.337 14.602 14.147 0.07068 0.03222
41.0 15.698 12.736 12.667 0.07894 0.00542 92.0 58.775 14.653 14.181 0.07051 0.03330
42.0 16.173 12.766 12.694 0.07877 0.00563 93.0 60.251 14.704 14.215 0.07034 0.03441
43.0 16.657 12.796 12.72 1 0.07860 0.00586 94.0 61.765 14.756 14.250 0.07017 0.03555
44.0 17.150 12.826 12.748 0.07844 0.00609 95.0 63.319 14.809 14.284 0.07000 0.03673
45.0 17.651 12.856 12.775 0.07827 0.00633 96.0 64.914 14.863 14.320 0.06983 0.03794
46.0 18.162 12.887 12.802 0.07810 0.00657 97.0 66.551 14.918 14.355 0.06965 0.03919
47.0 18.682 12.917 12.830 0.07794 0.00683 98.0 68.231 14.974 14.39 1 0.06948 0.04048
48.0 19.213 12.948 12.857 0.07777 0.00709 99.0 69.957 15.030 14.427 0.06931 0.04181
49.0 19.753 12.979 12.884 0.07761 0.00737 100.0 71.728 15.088 14.464 0.06913 0.04318
50.0 20.304 13.01 1 12.912 0.07744 0.00765 101.0 73.547 15.147 14.500 0.06896 0.04459
51.0 20.865 13.042 12.939 0.07728 0.00795 102.0 75.416 15.207 14.537 0.06878 0.04605
52.0 21.438 13.074 12.967 0.0771 1 0.00825 103.0 77.335 15.268 14.575 0.06860 0.04755
53.0 22.022 13.106 12.995 0.07695 0.00856 104.0 79.306 15.330 14.613 0.06843 0.04910
54.0 22.618 13.138 13.022 0.07678 0.00889 105.0 81.331 15.394 14.651 0.06825 0.05069
55.0 23.227 13.1 71 13050 0.07662 0.00922 106.0 83.412 15.458 14.690 0.06807 0.05233
56.0 23.847 13.204 13.078 0.07645 0.00957 107.0 85.550 15.524 14.729 0.06789 0.05403
57.0 24.481 13.237 13.106 0.07629 0.00993 108.0 87.745 15.592 14.768 0.06771 0.05577
58.0 25. 128 13.270 13.135 0.07613 0.01030 109.0 90.005 15.660 14.808 0.06753 0.05757
59.0 25.789 13.304 13.163 0.07596 0.01068 11 0.0 92.327 15.730 14.848 0.06734 0.05943
60.0 26.464 13.338 13. 191 0.07580 0.01108 111 .0 94.714 15.802 14.889 0.067 16 0.06134
61.0 27.154 13.372 13.220 0.07564 0.01149 11 2.0 97.168 15.875 14.930 0.06697 0.06331
62.0 27.858 13.406 13.249 0.07547 0.01191 113.0 99.692 15.950 14.971 0.06679 0.06534
63.0 28.578 13.441 13.277 0.07531 0.01234 114.0 102.288 16.026 15.013 0.06660 0.06744
64.0 29.314 13.476 13.306 0.07515 0.01279 115.0 104.958 16.104 15.056 0.06641 0.06960
65.0 30.067 13.512 13.335 0.07498 0.01326 116.0 107.705 16.183 15.099 0.06622 0.07 183
66.0 30.836 13.548 13.364 0.07482 0.01374 117.0 110.53 1 16.265 15.142 0.06603 0.07413
67.0 31.623 13.584 13.394 0.07466 0.0 1424 118.0 113.439 16.348 15.186 0.06584 0.07650
68.0 32.427 13.62 1 13.423 0.07449 0.0 1475 119.0 116.433 16.433 15.231 0.06565 0.07894
69.0 33. 250 13.658 13.452 0.07433 0.0 1528 120.0 119.514 16.521 15.276 0.06545 0.08147
70.0 34.092 13.695 13.482 0.07416 0.01582 121 .0 122.687 16.610 15.322 0.06526 0.08407
71.0 34.954 13.733 13.512 0.07400 0.01638 122.0 125.953 16.701 15.368 0.06506 0.08675
72.0 35.836 13.772 13.542 0.07384 0.01696 123.0 129.318 16.795 15.415 0.06487 0.08952
73.0 36.738 13.810 13.572 0.07367 0.01756 124.0 132.783 16.891 15.462 0.06467 0.09238
74.0 37 .662 13.850 13.602 0.07351 0.01818 125.0 136.353 16.989 15.510 0.06447 0.09533
75.0 38.608 13.889 13.633 0.07335 0.01882

109
SECTION IX

Table 5 - Recommended Noise Criteria for Offices Table 6 - Recommended Noise Criteria for Rooms

NC Curve Recommmended NC
of Fig. 112 Communication Type of Space Curve of Fig. 112
NC units Environment Typical Applications NC units
20-30 Very quiet office; tele- Executive offices and Broadcast studios 15-20
phone use satisfac- conference rooms for Concert halls 15-20
tory; suitable for large 50 people. Legitimate theaters (500 seats,
conferences_ no amplification) 20-25
30-50 "Quiet" office; satis- Private or semi-private Musicrooms 25
factory for confer- offices, reception Schoolrooms (no amplification) 25
ences at a 15 ft. table; rooms and small Television studios 25
normal voice 10 to 30 conference rooms for Apartments and hotel s 25-30
ft.; telephone use sat- 20 people. Assembl y halls (amplification) 25-35
isfactory. Homes (sleeping areas) 25-35
35-40 Satisfactory for con- Medium-sized offices Motion-picture theaters 30
ferences at a 6 to 8 ft. and industrial busi- Hospitals 30
table; telephone use ness offices. Churches (no amplification) 25
satisfactory; normal Courtrooms (no amplification) 25
voice 6 to 12 ft. Libraries 30
40-50 Satisfactory for con- Large engineering and Restaurants 45
ferences at a 4 to 5 ft. drafting rooms, etc. Coliseums for sports only
table; telephone use (amplification) 50
occasionally slightly
difficult; normal voice NOTE: Noise levels are to be measured in unoccupied
3 to 6 ft.; raised voice rooms. Each noise criterion curve is a code for specify-
6tol2ft. ing permissible sound-pressure levels in eight octave
50-55 Unsatisfactory for Secretarial areas (typ- bands. It is intended that in no one frequency band
conferences of more ing), accounting areas should the specified level be exceeded. Ventilating sys-
than two or three peo- (business machines), tems should be operating, and outside noise sources,
ple; telephone use blueprint rooms, etc. traffic conditions, etc., should be normal when mea-
slightly difficult; nor- surements are made. By permiSSion from "Noise Reduc-
mal voice 1 to 2 ft.; tion" by L.L. Beranek. Copyright 1960. McGraw-Hili
raised voice 3-6 ft. Book Co.
Above "Very noisy"; office Not recommended for
55 environment unsatis- any type of office.
factory; telephone use
difficult.

NOTE: Noise measurements made for the purpose of

judging the acceptability of the noise in an office by
comparison with these criteria should be performed
with the office in normal operation but with no one talk-
Ing at the particular desk or conference table where
speech communication is desired (i.e., where the mea-
surement is being made). By permission from "Noise
Reduction" by L.L. Beranek. Copyright 1960. McGraw-
Hill Book Co.

110
 SECTION IX

Table 7 - Factors for Calculating Cold Water Basin Heat Loss.

Heat Loss From

Exposed Basin Sides & Bottom Concrete Basin Sides & Bottom
Ambient Water Btu/hr/sq . ft. Below Grade (Btu/hr/sq. ft.)
Temp. Surface Plain Insulated Concrete 2' 4' 6'
"F Btu/hr/s q. ft. Steel Steel Wood 8" Thi ck Depth Depth Depth
+30 48 20 2 8 12 0.5 0.3 0.2
+20 78 40 4 16 23 1.0 0.5 0.3
+10 106 60 6 24 35 2.0 1.3 0.8
0 133 80 8 32 47 3.0 2.0 1.3
-10 159 100 10 40 58 4.0 3.0 2.0
- 20 185 120 12 48 70 5.0 4.0 3.0
-30 210 140 14 56 82 6.0 5.0 4.0

NOTES: 1. Water surface loss is based on 5 mph wind over water surface under fill. Exposed side and
bottom losses assume a 15 mph wind, and are weighted by orientation of basin surfaces and
test experience.
2. Losses for in sulated steel assume at least 1" thick outdoor grade insulation with K = 0.30
Btu/hr/sq ftI"Flin .
3. Water temperature assumed to be 40 " F.

Table 8 - Heat Loss From In sulated Pipe

_u. BTU PER HR. PER LINEAR FOOT OF INSULATED PIPE

c"
"
-- ci.
.Q
E
NOMINAL IRON PIPE SIZE, INCHES
'h 3/4 1 1% 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
«E ...."
+10 3.8 4.7 4.8 6.4 7.3 10.1 12.0 14.7 17.4 21 .2 26.0 30.4
0 5.1 6.2 6.4 8.5 9.8 13.4 16.0 19.6 23.3 28.3 34.6 40.4
-1 0 6.3 7.8 8.0 10.7 12.4 16.8 20.0 24.5 29.1 35.3 43.2 50.6
-20 7.6 9.3 9.6 12.8 14.7 20.2 24.0 29.4 34.9 42.4 51 .9 60.7
-30 8.9 10.9 11.2 14.9 17.1 23.5 27.9 34.2 40.6 49.4 60.5 70.8

NOTES: 1. 15 mph wind across insulated pipe

2. Water in pipe at 40 " F
3. Rigid pipe insulation, 1" nominal thickness K = 0.30 Btu /hr/lt2/" F/in.
4. Estimate heat loss with thicker insulation by reducing table values for 1" thick in direct propor·
tion to increase in thickness (e.g., for 2" use 'h x table, for 3" use Y, x table)

111
SECTION IX

Table 9 - Commonly Used Conversion Factors.

Length or Distance
Inches Feet Miles Centimeter Meter Kilometer
(in) (It) (mi) (cm) (m) (km)
1 0.0833333 0.0000158 2.54 0.0254 0.0000254
12 1 0.0001894 30.48 0.3048 0.0003048
63360 5280 1 160934.4 1609.344 1.609344
0.3937008 0.0328084 0.0000062 1 0.01 0.00001
39.370079 3.2808399 0.0006214 100 1 0.001
39370.079 3280.8399 0.6213712 100000 1000 1

Area
Square Square Square Square
Inches Feet Centimeters Meters
(in') (It') (cm,) (m')
1 0.0069444 6.4516 0.0006452
144 1 929.0304 0.092903
0.1550003 0.0010764 1 0.0001
1550.0031 10.763910 10000 1

Volume
Gallons Cubic Cubic Liters Cubic Cubic
(US) Inches Feet Centimeters Meters
(gal) (in 3) (It') (I) (cm 3) (m')
1 231 0.1336806 3.7854118 3785.4118 0.0037854
0.0043290 1 0.0005787 0.0163871 16.387064 0.0000164
7.4805195 1728 1 28.316847 28316.847 0.0283168
0.2641721 61 .023744 0.0353147 1 1000 0.001
0.0002642 0.0610237 0.0000353 0.001 1 0.000001
264.17205 61023.744 35.314667 1000 1000000 1

Velocity
Feet per Feet per Miles per Centimeters per Meters per Kilometers per
Second Minute Hour Second Second Hour
(ft/sec) (ft/min) (mi/hr) (cm/sec) (m/sec) (km/hr)
1 60 0.6818182 30.48 0.3048 1.09728
0.0166667 1 0.0113636 0.508 0.00508 0.018288
1.4666667 88 1 44.704 0.44704 1.609344
0.0328084 1.9685039 0.0223694 1 0.01 0.036
3.2808399 196.85039 2.2369363 100 1 3.6
0.9113444 54.680665 0.6213712 27.777778 0.2777778 1

Mass
Ounce Pound
(Avoir) (Avoir) Gram Kilogram
(oz) (Ib) (g) (kg)
1 0.0759549 28.349523 0.0283495
16 1 453.59237 0.4535924
0.035274 0.0022046 1 0.001
35.273962 2.2046226 1000 1

112
 SECTION IX

Volumetric Flow
Cubic Cubic Gallons liters Cubic Cubic
Feet per Feet per (US) per per Meters per Meters per
Second Minute Minute Second Minute Hour
(It '/sec) (It'/min) (gal/min) (i/sec) (m'/min) (m'/hr)
1 60 448.83117 28.316847 1.6990108 101.94065
0.0166667 1 7.4805195 0.4719474 0.0283168 1.699008
0.0022280 0.1336806 1 0.0630902 0.0037854 0.227124
0.0353147 2.118880 15.850323 1 0.06 3.6
0.5885778 35.314667 264.17205 16.666667 1 60
0.0098096 0.5885778 4.4028675 0.2777778 0.0166667 1

Mass Flow
Pounds Pounds Kilograms Kilograms
per per per per
Minute Hour Minute Hour
(Ib/min) (Ib/hr) (kg/min) (kg/hr)
1 60 0.4535924 27.215544
0.0166667 1 0.0075599 0.4535924
2.2046226 132.27736 1 60
0.0367437 2.2046226 0.0166667 1

Pressure
Pounds Pounds Feet Kilograms Pascals Meters
per Square per Square of per Square of
Inch Foot Water Centimeter Water
(Ib/in') (Ib/ft,) (It-H 2O) (kg/cm,) (Pa) (m-H 2O)
1 144 2.306723 0.0703070 6894.7573 0.7030892
0.0069444 1 0.0160189 0.0004882 47.880259 0.0048826
0.4335154 62.42621 1 0.0304792 2988.983 0.3048
14.223343 2048.1614 32.80932 1 98066.5 10.000281
0.0001450 0.0208854 0.0003346 0.0000102 1 0.000102
1.4222946 204.8104 3.2808399 0.0999974 9806.3747 1

Work or Energy
British Kilowatt- Horsepower- Foot- Kilo- Kilogram-
Thermal Hours Hours Pounds Calories Meters
Units
(Btu) (kwhr) (hp-hr) (ft-Ib) (kcal) (kg-m)
1 0.0002929 0.0003928 777.64885 0.2519958 107.51381
3414.4251 1 1.3410221 2655223.7 860.42065 367097.84
2546.1364 0.7456999 1 1980000 641 .61557 273744.81
0.0012859 3.77 x 10" 5.0505051 1 0.0003240 0.1382550
3.9683207 0.0011622 0.0015586 3085.960 1 426.64926
0.0093011 0.0000027 0.0000037 7.2330139 0.0023438 1

Temperature Actual Degrees of Range or Approach

F=(9/5 x C)+32 F=9/5xC
C = 5/9 x (F - 32) C=5/9xF

113
SECTION X

INDEX

Applicable Applicable
Subject Pages of Interest or Discussion Figures Formulas

Access ...............•.•.. 26,37,40,47, 52,80,87,104 .......... . 49, 50, 64, 78,

119,120, 130
Air Quality ...... . .•.•.•.•.. 30,31,33
Air Velocity .........•.•.•. . 9,24,25,26,33,53,55,56,89,94,99 .. 34,36 ..... (9), (10)
Algae ..............•. • . • .. 10,32,33,43,94
Aluminum ........•.•. • .... 29, 49, 53
Appearance ........•.•.... 26,68 ............ .. • ............ 75
Approach ...... . •.•.•. ... .. 14,22,23,24 .... . . . . .... .. . . . . . . . ..•... 26, 27, 143, 144,
145, 146, 147,
148, 149
Atmospheric Towers ....... . 8,14 .. ...... .... ... ............. •..... 2, 3a, 3b
Blowdown ................ . 14,30,31,32,33,46,65,66,86 .....•.•..... 40,128 ..... .. . (2), (5)
British Thermal Unit (Btu) ... . 14,18,19,77 .......................... . 115 .......... . (1)
Bronze . .................. . 29, 80
By-Pass .................. . 29,35,36,46,66,73,77,78,84,85,89,92, ... 43,108,115, .... (17)
93 116,125,126,
135, 138, 139
Capacity Control ........ . . . 33, 34, 55, 64, 72, 73, 74, 84 ............. . 107, 108, 109,
110,111
Capacity Degradation ...... . 23,24,25,26,28,30,32, 33,47,48,49,77, .... 37, 38
78, 79, 80, 87, 93
Capacity (thermal) ........ . 14,19,20,21,22,23,55,99,101,102 ... 143,144,145, ... (23), (24), (25)
146, 147, 148,
149
Casing ................... . 14,30,51 , 77, 96 ....................... . 49, 75
Cast Iron ................. . 29, 45, 54, 58, 80 . .. ...... . ............. . 86, 94
Circulating Water Rate (gpm) . 14,22,23,31,33,35,36,72,75,77,78,84, ... . 28,142 ....... . (1), (3), (15), (16),
99, 103 (17), (25)
Codes of Construction ..... . 29,30,37,38,41,52,57,61,95,99, 104,
105
Cold Water Temp ........... . 14,67,72,73,74,77,83,89,99,103 ........ . 25,107,108, .... (17)
109,110,111,
115,116,124,
125, 126
Collection Basin ........•... 14, 29,37,38,39,46, 78, 89, 90,91,92, 93, .... 44, 49
104
Concentrations (TDS) ... . .. . 30,31,32,33,103 ...................... . 40 .......... .. (2), (5), (6), (7), (8)
Concrete ...... . 30,37,38,39,40,41,42,45, 47, 48, 51 , 80, ... . 44, 46, 50, 53,
95, 103 54, 55, 56a, 56b,
62
Copper................ . ... 29
Counterflow........ .. ..... 10,14,36,43,45,49,51,52, 59,76,78,79, .... 3a, 4, 8, 16, 41a,
95 42a, 57
Crossflow ....... ... . . .. . .. 10,14,28,36,43,44,45,49,51,52,59,76, ... . 3b, 5, 6, 7, 9,
80,81,95 41 b, 42b, 58, 59,
60,61 , 114,120
Distribution System......... 10,11,14,28,33, 35,42,43,47,48,52,53, .... 56b, 57, 61, 62,
59, 72, 77, 78 63,64,94
Double-flow............ 11 , 14 ................................ . 5, 9
Drift .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . 14,26,31,33,46,50,51,65, 66, 76 . . .. .. ... . 40, 114
Drift Eliminators............ 14,30,50,51,53,76,78,80,95,96 ..... • .... 72, 73, 74
Driveshafts . . . . . . . . . • . • . • . . 29,58,59,60 .. . ..................... . . . 90,91,92, 93

114
 SECTION X

Applicable Applicable
SUbject Pages 01 Interest or Discussion Figures Formulas

Dry·Bu lb Temperature .. 14,19, 20,22, 66,67, 71,99,103

Dry Towers ............... . 13,22,67 ................ . ..... . 98, 99
Electrical Wiring . .......... . 26, 104
Energy ............•. • .•... 9,10,14, 34, 47,53,55, 56, 72, 73, 74, 83, .. 107, 109, 110, ... (12), (13), (14),
84, 85,99, 101 , 104 111 , 124, 125, (15), (16), (25)
126
Enthalpy ...... . ...•... . . .. 18,19 ................................ . 18
Evaluation ................ . 15,72,104
Evaporation ........... . .. . 7,15,17,18,19,22,30,31,46,65,66,103 ... . 18, 40 ..... (2), (3), (5)
Factory·Assembled ........ . 11,39,41,51 .. .................... .... . 11,12,51
Fan·Assisted N.D.......... . 10, 22 .............................. . . . 6, 7
Fan Control ........... . . . . . See Capacity Control
Fan Cylinders ........•... .. 15,16,26,30,47,53,55,56,60,96 ......... . 67,68,95 ... . . . (11)
Fans ..... ..... ...•. . ... .... 14,15,29,30,47, 48,53,54,55,56,74,75, . .. . 68,79,80,81, .. . (9), (10), (11),
94 82,83,84, 85 (12), (13), (14)
Fats ... . ...... . . • . • .• .. ... 33, 80
Field·Erected ...... .. ..... . 11 , 37,41,51,104 ................. ..... . 3a, 3b, 6, 13, 32,
33, 44
Fill ......... . . . .... .. ... . . 15, 16,17,30,48,49,50,51,52,53,77,78, .... 17, 70a, 70b, 71,
80,81,95,96 74
Filtration ........ . ........ . 33, 40, 84, 93 ... ... .................. .. . 125, 139
Fire Protection .... .. . .... . . 29, 33, 39, 49,51 , 52, 80, 95,96
Fogging .................. . 10, 15,26,68
Forced Draft ..... . . ...•. • .. 8,9,15,26 ...................... ...... . 4, 36
Foundation .............•.. 37,38,39, 104 .. ....................... . 47
Free Air Flow ...........•.. 26, 37, 48, 50
Freezing in Operation .. .. •.. 9, 33, 34, 35, 36, 51 , 68, 73, 76, 80, 84,87 .. ... 41a, 41b, 42a,
42b, 43
Freezing at Shutdown .... •.. 84,87,89,90, 91,92,95 .................. . 66,125,135, ... (20), (21), (22)
136,137,138
Handrai ls .. ... ... ... . . .•.. 29,52,87 ............................. . 78, 130
Heat Load .... ......•.•.... 7,15,22,33,77,84,103 . . ..... .... .. .. ... . 26,115 ....... . (1)
Hot Water Temp .....•...... 15,29,30,32,34,35, 77, 80, 86, 99,103 ..... . 115, 116, 127, .. . (6), (7), (8), (17)
129
Induced Draft .... . .. . ..... . 8,9,15 ............................... . Many
Interference ........•...... 15,23,26,28,47 ... ......... ... ........ . 29, 30, 37, 38
Ladders .. ...... . .•... . . . .. 29,52,87 ... ............ . ............. . 78, 130
UG Ratio .......•.......... 15, 19
Louvers . ................. . 15,30,36, 51 , 52, 96 .. . ................. . 41 b, 42b, 49, 76,
77
Lubrication ... ......•. • .... 57,58,87 ........... . ......• .. . ..• .•... 87
Make·Up .... .. ........... . 15,30,31,39,46,60,78, 86 ... .•.•.....•... 65,66, 128
Mechanical Draft .. ....... . . 8,15,33 .... ... . .................. . ... . Many
Natural Draft ...... .. ...... . 8, 16, 22, 30, 33, 52 ... ....... .... •.•.•... 3a, 3b
Noise ....... . .... . . . . . . . . . 26, 53, 55, 56, 61, 74, 75 ...... .. • •.. . . . .... 112,113
Nozzles .. . ...... . ........ . 16,30, 43 ............................. . 56b, 57,63, 64
Oils ....... ... ........... . 33, 80
Overflow .. ..... . ......• . .. 46 ............................... . ... . 50
Owner Responsibility ...... . 26, 37, 40, 43, 62, 63, 72, 103, 104, 105, 106
pH ................. .. •... 16, 30, 32, 33, 80 ....................... . (6), (7), (8)
Piping ...... .. ..... ... •... 16,26,28,30, 43,44, 45, 46, 82,89,91,92, ... . 39, 58, 59, 60,
104 63, 64, 130, 137
Plastics ...... . .. • .•.•.. . .. 30,37,41,45,46,47,49,50,51,53,54, 58, .... 52, 63, 64, 70b,
77, 80, 95, 96 71,73, 74,81,
92, 93
Plume Abatement .... . . . . .. . 13, 22, 69,70 . . ........ .... ............ . 101 ,1 02, 103,
104, 105
PI ume Behavior ....... .. .. . 15, 25, 26, 68, 69, 103 ................... . 32, 33, 34
Plume Management ........ . 10,47,68 . ..... ........ .. . • .•. •. .. .. •.. 3a, 3b, 6, 100

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SECTION X

Applicable Applicable
Subject Pages of Interest or Discussion Figures Formulas

Professional Help ......... . 3, 20,21 ,22, 26,28,32,36, 46, 68, 103

Protective Coati ngs ........ . 29,38,39,45, 48, 49,51, 54,55, 58, 80
Psychrometer ........ .. ... . 16, 20 .............................. . 19, 20, 21
Pump head ............ • ... 10, 16, 43,72, 89, 92, 104 ................. . (15), (16)
Range .......... . .. . . . . .. . 16,22, 23, 31 ,78, 86, 99 ..... . . . . . . . . . .•... 26, 28, 143, 144, . (1), (3), (17)
145, 146, 147,
148, 149
Recirc ulation . ....... • . .. .. 9, 11, 12, 16, 19,24,25,26,28,47 ..... 30, 31 , 34, 35,
36, 37, 38
Rectilinear ...... • ... . ..... 12, 24, 25, 26, 28 ... .. ..... .. ..... . Many
Round Towers .... •......... 12, 24, 25, 28, 45 ... . . • ..............•... 14, 15,32,35,
39
Safety .... . .... . ......... . 47,52,60 ... . . .... . .•. . ... . ............ 78,90,91,95
Salt Water Service ......... . 29, 80
Sing le·Flow ......... .. .... . 11 ,26, 52 ........................... .. . 10, 120
Slime ............... .. . . . . 32, 33, 79, 80 ........... .... . . .. . . . . • . .. 119, 120
Speed Reducers ........... . 16,29, 56, 57, 58,75, 87 ................ . 86, 88
Spray· Filled .... . . ... ... . .. . 11 , 16, 17,78,79 ....................... . 2, 16,117, 118
Stairways ..... . ... . . ..... . 52 .. . ...... . ......................... . Many
Steel .................... . 29, 30,37,38,39, 40,41,45, 46, 47,48,49,
51,54, 55, 58, 77,80,95, 103
Structural Connecto rs ..... . . 30,41 . ............................... . 52
Sumps ................... . 16, 38, 39, 40, 46 ....................•... 45, 50
System Design Concept .... . 48, 53, 56
To wer Orientation .. . ...... . 25, 26, 28, 75, 82, 104 ................... . 37, 38, 39
Tower Test ing ............. . 21,24,25,97, 98,99,100, 101 , 102, 105 .. ... . 142,143, 144, ... (23), (24), (25)
145, 146, 147,
148, 149
Turbidity .. .. . ............ . 78, 93 ... .......... . ..... .. ....... .... . 117,118
Two·Speed Motors .. . . . .... . 34,61,73,74,75, 84, 85 .................. . 110, 125, 126
(See " Capacity Control" also)
Vibration ............. . . . . . 26,53, 59, 81 , 82, 94, 95 ... ... ........ .• ... 121 , 122,123, ... (18), (19)
140, 141
Water Conservation . ..... . . . 3, 13,22, 65, 66 ........................ . 96,97 et al
Water Qualit y ............. . 29, 30,31,32,39,,50,76,84, 85, 93, 103 ..... . (6), (7), (8)
Wet·Bulb Temperature ...... . 14, 15, 16, 17,19,20,21,22,23, 24, 26,28, ... . 22, 23, 24, 25,
72, 83, 99, 103, 104 26, 30, 107, 109,
110,111 , 143,
144, 145, 146,
147, 148, 149
Windage... . ..... .. . . . .. .. 17
Wood . ................... . 29,30,33,37,38,39,40, 41 , 45,47, 49,50, .... 44, 45, 48, 51,
51 , 77, 80, 95, 96, 103 52,72, 130
Wood Treatment . . . . . . . . . • . . 29, 38, 49, 51 , 80

116