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IEEE STD 1657™-2018 Recommended Practice For Personnel Qualifications For Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
IEEE STD 1657™-2018 Recommended Practice For Personnel Qualifications For Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Sponsored by the
Energy Storage and Stationary Battery Committee
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IEEE Std 1657™-2018
(Revision of IEEE Std 1657-2009)
Sponsor
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Abstract: The areas of recommended knowledge for installers and maintainers of stationary
batteries and related systems, to the extent that they affect the battery, are defined in this
recommended practice. Design of the dc system and sizing of the dc battery charger(s) are beyond
the scope of this document. Only lead-acid and nickel-cadmium battery technologies are covered
in this recommended practice. An outline (not necessarily in training order) of the items that should
be covered by training programs for stationary battery installation and maintenance personnel is
provided. Certifying trained personnel and providing its own battery technician training programs
will not be performed by IEEE.
IEEE™ and NESC® are registered trademarks in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
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Participants
At the time this IEEE recommended practice was completed, the Battery Technician Qualification Working
Group had the following membership:
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this recommended practice. Balloters
may have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
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When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this recommended practice on 15 February 2018, it had the
following membership:
*Member Emeritus
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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 1657™-2018, IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for
Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries.
Although ac and dc electricity follow the same physical laws, there are differences. Training of electricians
worldwide is fairly standardized through apprenticeship programs, classroom and self-paced training courses,
etc. Although electricians are trained on dc, they spend most of their time working on ac systems. As a result,
an electrician hired to work on dc systems (especially battery systems) may not have the expertise, training,
or experience to install or work on batteries. The Energy Storage and Stationary Battery (ESSB) committee of
the IEEE Power and Energy Society (PES) recognizes that specific training on battery system installation and
maintenance is necessary. The committee also recognizes that training of battery maintenance and installation
technicians is generally nonexistent or, at the least, nonstandard. With those concerns in mind, the committee
has written this recommended guide for training to specify the types of knowledge a battery installation
or maintenance technician should possess in order to safely and competently work on primarily stationary
standby lead-acid and nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries (although the document does give some minimal
guidance on other battery chemistries, and most of the principles herein are usually applicable to stationary
cycling applications as well).
Acknowledgments
Thanks to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for permission to reproduce information
from its International Standard IEC 60479-1 ed.4.0 (2005) in Figure C.1, Figure C.2, and Table C.1. All such
extracts are copyright of IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. Further information on the IEC is
available from www.iec.ch. IEC has no responsibility for the placement and context in which the extracts and
contents are reproduced by the author, nor is IEC in any way responsible for the other content or accuracy
therein.”
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Contents
1. Overview��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
1.1 Scope�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
1.2 Purpose����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
1.3 How to use this document������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
5. Safety�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
5.1 Work environment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 16
5.2 Personal protective equipment (PPE)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
5.3 Electrical shock hazards��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
5.4 Insulation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
5.5 Ladder safety�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
5.6 Lockout/tagout����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
5.7 Electrostatic discharge (ESD) precautions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
5.8 Ventilation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 22
5.9 Working clearances, egress paths, and task lighting��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
5.10 Battery weight concerns������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
5.11 Battery fire safety concerns��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
5.12 Safety signs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
5.13 First aid��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
5.14 Spill containment and cleanup���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
8. Documentation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 41
8.1 Applicable codes and standards���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
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8.2 Manufacturer documentation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
8.3 Reading electrical and mechanical drawings�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
8.4 Keeping records���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
8.5 Job-specific documentation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
11. Recycling������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70
11.1 Lead-acid battery recycling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
11.2 Ni-Cd battery recycling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
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IEEE Recommended Practice for
Personnel Qualifications for Installation
and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This recommended practice defines the areas of recommended knowledge for installers and maintainers of
stationary standby batteries (primarily lead-acid and Ni-Cd standby batteries) and related systems to the extent
that they affect the battery, personnel safety and reliability of any related systems. Designing the dc system
(including any connected ac inverters) and sizing of the dc battery charger(s) are beyond the scope of this
recommended practice. While some of the battery information covered by this practice applies to small off-
grid cycling applications, information relative to large energy storage cycling applications is limited.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this recommended practice is to provide an outline (curriculum) of the necessary items that
should be covered by training programs for stationary battery installation and maintenance personnel. The
order in which the items in this document are covered is at the discretion of the training developer/provider.
This recommended practice further assumes that all material covered will be tested and scored to demonstrate
the students’ grasp of the material. Such testing should utilize both written and hands-on demonstration as
appropriate for the particular skill. No test guidelines are included in this document; however, suggestions
regarding items appropriate for hands-on testing instead of written testing can be found in Annex B.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
This recommended practice is written to address multiple skill levels. These levels are explained in detail
in Clause 4. This document does not provide content for the courses as it would be impossible to cover the
material adequately in a single document. It does include references to standards and other documents that go
into great detail on their respective topics. It is assumed that the course developers and instructors will have
access to those documents (the students will need access to some, but not all, of the referenced documents).
Where information on a topic is not easily available, such information is included in this recommended
practice in an annex.
1
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex J.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
EOD end-of-discharge
EPO emergency power-off
ESD electrostatic discharge
ESSB Energy Storage and Stationary Battery (a technical committee of the IEEE PES)
ferro ferroresonant
FET field-effect transistor
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
I-t time-current
ICC International Code Council
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
IFC ®
International Fire Code2
IGBT insulated-gate bipolar transistor
IR infrared
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IT information technology
kA IC kiloamp interrupt current rating
LC inductive-capacitive (circuit)
Li lithium
Li-ion lithium-ion
LVD low-voltage disconnect
Mag Amp magnetic amplifier
MGN multigrounded neutral
MOP method of procedure
MOSFET metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
mvpc minimum voltage per cell
NEC® National Electrical Code3
NESC® National Electrical Safety Code®4
NETA InterNational Electrical Testing Association
NFPA ®
National Fire Protection Association
Ni-Cd nickel-cadmium
Ni-MH nickel-metal hydride
OCV open-circuit voltage
OJT on-the-job training
PBE plastic-bonded electrode
2
IFC® is a registered trademark of the International Code Council.
3
NEC®is a registered trademark of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
4
NESC® is a registered trademark of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Incorporated.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
4. Skill levels
4.1 General
The training outlined in this recommended practice is comprehensive and potentially time-consuming. It
may be helpful to break up the training into skill-level modules, separated by time and successful on-the-job
experience.
This recommended practice identifies several basic skill levels for technicians. Some industries have pre-
established levels that may not correspond exactly to the levels used in this document. The “special knowledge”
items can be used to build sublevels under the main levels and/or to serve as an additional level. Higher level
technicians can supervise lower level technicians.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Installation and maintenance tasks may be performed by the same person, but the training for each may be
done separately by level because some of the skills are different (see Clause 9). “Technician” is the generic
term used in this recommended practice to apply to either installation or maintenance personnel.
Although the skill levels are noted in the text detail, the skills are not necessarily listed in priority order or
training order. A summary of tasks and levels is provided as a quicker reference guide in Annex F.
If all of the skills defined in a paragraph are related to only one level, the level is noted at the end of the
paragraph. If different skill levels are discussed in a paragraph, each level is noted at the end of the applicable
sentence. If all of the skills defined in a list are related to only one level, the level is noted at the end of the
sentence introducing the list. If different skill levels are discussed within the list, each level is noted at the end
of the applicable list item.
In some cases, laborers are called in to help with battery work. They must have at least some rudimentary
battery safety training before they begin working on or near batteries. Items they should know are identified
in the text by an “(L0)” designation. Laborers always require supervision by a Level 2 or higher technician.
4.2.2 Level 1
Level 1 battery technicians should know basic safety and additional core skills. Items they should know are
identified in the text by an “(L1)” designation. They also need to be trained on all of the laborer (L0) items.
Level 1 technicians often require higher level supervision for specific tasks.
4.2.3 Level 2
Level 2 battery technicians should know battery basics, including the basics of maintenance and installation.
Level 2 technicians should have on-the-job training (OJT) as a Level 1 (generally at least six months) or
previous experience (verified by observation by a Level 3 technician or qualified instructor) before becoming
a Level 2. Items that a Level 2 technician should know are denoted in the text by an “(L2)” designation.
Level 2 technicians sometimes require higher level supervision for specific tasks.
4.2.4 Level 3
Level 3 battery technicians should be able to perform work independently, except for areas requiring
specialized knowledge. Level 3 technicians should generally have at least one year of OJT as a Level 2 or
previous equivalent experience (verified by observation by an experienced Level 3 technician or qualified
instructor) before becoming a Level 3. Items that a Level 3 technician should know are denoted in the text by
an “(L3)” designation.
Items in the text that are application specific are denoted by an “(SK)” designation. The instructor can pick and
choose which, if any, of these subjects are covered in the curriculum, depending on the needs of the audience.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
qualified organizations. Instructors should have appropriate teaching skills, but qualification in those skills
is beyond the scope of this document. Course developers and instructors with field experience are preferred.
4.4 Accreditation
It is recommended that the training provider be accredited by an outside organization through the IEEE
Educational Activities Board (EAB), the Council of Occupational Education, or similarly recognized
accrediting organizations. The accreditation process validates the achievement of learning and program
objectives and assures that a program meets certain standards, such as the curriculum proposed in this
recommended practice.
5. Safety
5.1 Work environment
Emphasize the use of caution when working on batteries because they present multiple hazards.
Emphasize inspecting the battery room for electrical and other physical hazards. The following things should
be considered to improve the work environment in the battery room/area:
There are multiple hazards associated with batteries. The hazards include, but are not limited to, chemical,
electrical, arc flash, and thermal. When selecting PPE, all hazards should be considered and a risk assessment
should be conducted. An example of a hazard risk assessment is shown in Figure H.1. Additional guidance can
be found in NFPA 70E-2015 [B68] and in the associated handbook, NFPA70EHB-2015 [B69].
5.2.2 Eyewashes
— When permanent eyewash stations are necessary and what their size and location requirements are (see
ANSI Z358.1 [B5]) (L2)
5
Avoiding smoking and flames near batteries is critically important to know for anyone working on batteries, and thus is a Level 0 for
installers. Because there are no Level 0 maintenance technicians (maintenance technicians are not supposed to work on batteries until
they are at least Level 1 trained), this item is listed as both Level 0 and Level 1.
6
The numbers in brackets correspond to the numbers of the bibliography in Annex J.
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Why the permanent eyewash stations need to be maintained and with what frequency (L2)
— When portable eyewash bottles are appropriate and how they should be maintained (L1)
5.2.3 Gloves
Emphasize the following points relative to basic face and eye protection:
— Safety glasses with side shields are the minimum eye protection required for all battery work that does
not include the “handling” of electrolyte, per 29 CFR 1910.133 (OSHA) [B25] and NFPA 70E-2015
[B68] (L0)
— Face shields are required when “handling” electrolyte (“handling” electrolyte does not include routine
water additions and taking specific gravity readings with an electronic density meter; however, it could
include taking readings with a bulb hydrometer), per NFPA 70E-2015 [B68] (L1)
— Mandatory use of face shields when handling hazardous waste from an electrolyte spill per
IEEE Std 1578™ [B56] (L2)
— The fact that batteries are always electrically “hot,” even a disconnected, discharged, single cell (L1)
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— The level of arc-flash/flame-retardant clothing necessary based on the risk, per NFPA 70E-2015 [B68],
and the difference between arc-flash clothing and fire-resistant clothing (L2)
— Aprons (acid-resistant)
— Insulating blankets
— On-site spill kits
— Protective footwear
— Clothing (e.g., voltage levels, level of corrosive protection, the amount of arc-flash protection
provided)
— Insulated rescue hooks or other means for pulling personnel from live circuits
— Dust masks for heavy metal residue produced by abrasive action
— Proper care of PPE per manufacturer instructions and NTIS PB98-137730 [B73]
— Cleaning and washing of hands, tools, and PPE on a frequent basis
Cover the increasing dangers (e.g., direct electric shock effects, recoil effects, arc-flash burns) as voltage levels
rise. Annex C provides additional information. NFPA 70E-2015 [B68] and IEC 60479 [B35] are also helpful
as references (L2).
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Presence of voltage on the terminals of a PV array whenever any level of light (sunlight or other means
of illumination) is present
— Applicable code requirements, such as the National Electrical Code® (NEC®) (NFPA 70, 2017) Article
690 [B67]
— Isolation of the battery from the PV array by means of an appropriate disconnect switch
— Applicable standards for PV “hot” work (see the NABCEP Study Guide for Photovoltaic System
Installers [B62])
— Hybrid PV systems
5.4 Insulation
5.4.1 General
— Removal of jewelry and other conductive objects (including pens in pockets) (L0)
— Insulation of the following:
— Batteries (L1)
— Cabling (L1)
— Nearby metallic surfaces that are grounded or at a different potential (L2)
— Insulation ratings
— Inspection for insulation damage (L1)
— Abrasion and impact resistance (L2)
— Appropriate insulation voltage ratings (L2)
— Current withstand capability (L2)
— Fire resistance (L2)
— Flexibility of insulation material (L2)
— Regulations and guidelines for insulation (L2)
Cover and elaborate on the following items relative to individual insulating materials:
— Tapes
— Electrical tape characteristics
— Vinyl versus other materials (L2)
— Proper taping techniques (L2)
— Color-coding for polarity and/or voltage (L2)
— The fact that Listed tape is typically fire-retardant (L2)
— Plastic sheeting and rolled materials
— Rolled plastic sheeting used as an insulator (L1)
— Methods to properly secure (using clips, tie wraps, magnets, waxed string, etc.) insulating sheets
(L2)
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5.4.2 Tools
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Extension ladders
— Step ladders
— Fixed ladders
— Ladder materials and considerations related to the materials (L1)
— Fiberglass sides (nonconductive)
— Wood (nonconductive, but possibly flammable)
— Aluminum (conductive)
— Plastic (see ANSI A14.5 [B3]) sides (nonconductive, but possibly limited on load-bearing capacity)
— Nonconductive versus conductive rungs (safety versus load-bearing capacity)
— Safety considerations when using ladders (L1)
— Shoes, boots, gloves, etc.
— Snag hazards
— Ladder inspection prior to use
— Work area inspection for potential hazards prior to use
— Proper positioning and securing of the ladder
— Proper body position while ascending and descending
— Carrying and handling tools and materials while on a ladder
— The maximum ascension height for the individual ladder
— Maintaining 3-point contact while ascending and descending
— Ladder specifications (L2)
— Rated load capacity
— Labeling
— Categories (e.g., Types IA – III)
5.6 Lockout/tagout
5.6.1 General
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— Special precautions to be taken when working with energized systems (see NFPA 70E-2015 [B68])
(L2)
— Heightened risks associated with ESD near a battery after initial or equalize/boost charging
— Necessity of discharging one’s body (away from the battery vents) to an effectively grounded surface
before working on a battery
5.8 Ventilation
Cover the following topics relative to ventilation:
— Need for proper ventilation for battery health and installation safety (L1)
— Differing ventilation needs of vented lead-acid (VLA)7, valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA), and nickel-
cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries (see IEEE Std 1635/ASHRAE 21 [B57] for further information) (L2).
— Pre-work inspections for egress paths, trip hazards, and combustible materials (L1)
— Adequate task lighting, including the use of insulated portable sources of light (L1)
— Minimum egress aisle widths as required by OSHA (see 29 CFR 1910 and/or 29 CFR 1926 [B25]) or
other local applicable codes (L2)
— Working clearances required by the NEC [B67] or other applicable codes (L3)
— Possible arc-flash approach boundaries (see NFPA 70E-2015 [B68]) (L3)
— Proper methods for unpacking, hoisting, and securing batteries during hoisting (L0)
— Use of various types of battery hoisting equipment, along with their limitations and hazards (L0)
— Weight-bearing capacity of floors, ramps, and elevators relative to the batteries (L1)
— Floor protection before moving batteries (L1)
— Forklift operator certification (SK)
7
Vented is the term preferred by the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Energy Storage and Stationary Battery (ESSB) Committee for
batteries with non-immobilized liquid electrolyte. It is the term that will be used throughout the remainder of this document. However,
these cells are also commonly referred to as “flooded” or “wet” cells.
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Hazard potential in a battery fire, including, but not limited to, electrical shock, arc faults, stored
energy, explosive and toxic gases, corrosive liquids and gases, and reactive liquids (L1)
— Awareness of the site prior to the start of work, including a means of egress and exit locations, fire
alarm locations, emergency phone numbers, and the locations and types of fire extinguishers (L1)
— Appropriate action in the event of a fire, including notification and evacuation (L1)
— Fire suppression (including the proper suppression/control agents to use with batteries) (L3)
— Pros and cons of battery disconnects, as well as when to use them and how to operate them (L3)
— When remote controls for disconnecting means (i.e., emergency power-off [EPO] switches/buttons)
are required (L3)
— How to properly operate hand-held fire extinguishers (SK)
— Appropriate assistance to fire fighters and first responders (SK)
— Specialty PPE for fighting fires in a battery area (SK)
— Emergency response team training where required (SK)
— Specific risks associated with Li-ion batteries (SK)
— Identification of first aid kit locations before beginning work and the provision of portable ones, if
necessary (L1)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Description of the symptoms and how to provide first aid (including demonstrations that involve
the trainee) for the most common injuries that may occur from handling, servicing, and maintaining
battery systems, such as the following:
— Injuries from contact of the skin or eyes with acidic or caustic solutions (L1)
— Strains, fractures, pinches, and crushing injuries due to battery weight (L1)
— Electrical shock and arc flash/blast
— How to safely remove someone from energized contact (L1)
— Falling injuries due to recoil (L1)
— Burns [both external (L1) and internal (L2)]
— Cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation (L2)
— Respiratory arrest (L2)
— Injuries from exposure to toxic vapors (e.g., acid mists, hydrogen sulfide) (L2)
— Discussion of the legal and liability issues associated with administering first aid, especially with
respect to the use of defibrillator devices (see Lazar [B61]) (L2)
— Identification of special precautions that should be taken when treating somebody in “confined” and
unventilated spaces (SK)
Some industries may determine that all of the above items are necessary training for Level 1 technicians before
they begin working on batteries.
— Selection and use of appropriate PPE for electrolyte spill cleanup (L2)
— Spill containment methods appropriate to the battery type and size (L2)
— Safe absorption and/or neutralization and disposal techniques (L2)
— Code requirements for spill management (SK)
6. Basic dc theory
6.1 Terminology
Cover the meaning of at least the following common electrical terms:
— AC and dc (L1)
— Common electrical units (e.g., amperes, watts, volts, ohms, mhos/siemens) (L1)
— Voltage and its synonyms (i.e., potential, electromotive force [EMF]) (L2)
— Current and electron flow (L2)
— Grounding, grounded (i.e., return, common, neutral), bonding, and earth reference (L2)
— Power and energy (L3)
— Ripple current and voltage (SK)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Cover the meaning and purpose of at least the following common hardware items external to the battery:
Provide a basic understanding of rudimentary electrochemical and battery terms (including hardware
exclusive to the battery):
25
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— Separators (L2)
— Specific gravity (L2)
— State of charge (SOC) (L3)
— Strings (L1)
— Sulfation (L3)
— Thermal runaway (L3)
— Torque values (L2)
— Trickle and constant current charge regimes (SK)
— Valves (L2)
— Vented and VRLA cells (L1)
— Vents and flame arrestors (L1)
— Withdrawal tubes (L2)
Cover the meaning and purpose of at least the following electronics often connected to the dc bus: (L3)
— Rectifiers/chargers
— Inverters
— UPS
Cover the purpose of at least the following test sets/tools commonly used with batteries:
— Hydrometers (L1)
— Digital multimeters (L1)
— Internal ohmic measurement devices (L2)
Identify commonly used terms that the technician should avoid, including the following:
8
Glass jars were used as battery containers many decades ago, but plastics and metals are now used; thus, the IEEE PES ESSB committee
encourages the use of the term battery container instead of jar.
9
While truly “sealed” batteries do exist in other chemistries, they do not exist for lead-acid cells, and the use of this term to describe
any lead-acid cell or battery is discouraged by the IEEE PES ESSB committee. The term SLA or sealed is often used to describe what is
actually a VRLA battery (see Annex I). However, VRLA batteries do have one-way pressure relief valves; therefore, they are not sealed.
10
A so-called “maintenance-free” battery is one that does not require (nor does it usually accept) water additions during its useful lifetime
(this term may refer to vented/flooded cells that are designed with an initial overfill of water or to VRLA batteries). Note that the IEEE
PES ESSB committee discourages the use of this term because all batteries require maintenance above and beyond water additions.
26
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— Resistors
— Standard resistors (L2)
— Precision resistors
— Shunts (L2)
— Small wattage precision resistors on circuit boards (L3)
— Variable resistors (L3)
— Adjustment potentiometers
— Large variacs
— Resistor power ratings (in watts) (L3)
— Protectors
— Uses of fuses (L2)
— Uses of breakers (L2)
— Protector coordination using time-current (I-t) curves (see IEEE Std 1375 [B52]) (L3)
— Capacitors
— Types of capacitors
— Electrolytic capacitors (L2)
— Electric/electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), i.e., supercapacitors (SK)
— Use of capacitors to absorb voltage variations (L2)
— Methods of discharging capacitors to maximize safety (L3)
— Need to precharge some capacitors in some rectifiers (L3)
— Inductors (L3)
— Basics of magnetic fields and induction
— Choking function of inductors for high-frequency currents
— Semiconductors (L3)
— Diodes
— Used for rectification
— Used to block dc current flow in one direction
— Used to provide a dc voltage offset in an ORing circuit
— Transistors (especially when used as switching or current control devices)
— Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) in inverters and chargers
— Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in inverters and chargers
— Thyristors
— Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
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Verify that the technicians have sufficient proficiency in basic mathematics to manipulate formulas, including
the following:
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Cover LC filtering as used on the output stages of rectifiers to limit ripple voltage and current. (L2)
Cover the fact that the amount of filtering provided (which directly influences the amplitude of the ripple) is
dependent on the application and industry: (SK)
— The fact that batteries may be required in a dc circuit to act as a filter by the dc plant and/or rectifier
manufacturer or the equipment being served
— The fact that lead-acid and Ni-Cd batteries function as an extra filter for ripple and spikes on the dc bus
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— The terminology of battery eliminators or batteryless plants as applied to rectifiers that can feed a load
without the need of a battery acting as a noise/ripple filter (due to their output filtering ability)
Cover the following components typically used for disconnects and overcurrent protection:
— Fuses
— Fast-acting (L2)
— Time-delay (sometimes known as slow-blow) (L2)
— Solid-state switches acting as fuses (SK)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Circuit breakers
— As a protector and/or switch (L1)
— Magnetic breakers (L3)
— Thermal breakers (L3)
— Thermal-magnetic breakers (L3)
— Instantaneous trip breakers (L3)
— Breaker mountings (e.g., bullet, snap-in, bolt-in, connection kits) (L2)
— Auxiliary contacts to notify a system of the breaker status (L3)
— Battery disconnects
— Use and placement of battery disconnects (L1)
— Battery disconnects doubling as circuit protection (L2)
— Switches used as battery disconnects (sometimes protected by a fuse) (L2)
— Use of battery disconnects for string sectionalizing to limit voltage exposure (L2)
— Undervoltage disconnect methods (L2)
— Shunt-trip battery disconnects (L2)
— Battery disconnects as part of an NEC-required EPO system [B67] (SK)
Cover the meaning of the following terms (details can be found in The IEEE Standards Dictionary Online11)
(L2):
11
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online is available at: http://dictionary.ieee.org.
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— Grounded system
— Ungrounded system
— System ground
— Equipment ground
Cover why a battery system would be designed as a grounded system or ungrounded system, including the
following concepts:
— Safety of grounded versus ungrounded battery systems with respect to system voltage (L1)
— Sources of ground (L3)
— Consequences of an unintentional ground occurring on a grounded or ungrounded system (L3)
— Typical applications that utilize grounded systems by design
— Telecommunications
— Common –48 V and 24 V systems (L3)
— Differences between positive and negative grounded systems (L3)
— Specialized older telecommunications battery plant voltages (e.g., 130 V, 140 V) (SK)
— Stationary engine start batteries (e.g., 32 V, 24 V, 12 V) (L3)
— Applications that utilize ungrounded systems by design (L3)
— Switchgear and control
— UPS
The technician should understand how ground(s) can be present on a UPS battery when the UPS phase-
controlled rectifier is supplied through a grounded neutral ac supply (SK). See Annex D for further information.
The technician should understand field testing techniques to determine whether a battery system is grounded
and where it is grounded, including the following: (L2)
The course may cover specialized ground detection systems (such as the types mentioned in the list below),
how they operate, and how they apply to ungrounded battery systems: (SK)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Cover the personnel and equipment safety and operability concerns attributed to unintentional grounds,
including the precautions that should be taken: (L1)
Cover the following different battery types, including their common uses, as well as advantages and
disadvantages:
Cover the following topics relative to emerging stationary battery types: (SK)
— Newer battery technologies (such as nickel-metal hydride [Ni-MH] and lithium-ion [Li-ion]) are being
introduced, packaged, and optimized for stationary power applications.
— Newer battery technologies in stationary applications often require electronic battery management
systems for safe and/or efficient operation.
— Training requirements for newer battery technologies in stationary applications are emerging;
therefore, at present, training requirements should be obtained from the battery manufacturer.
7.2.3 Applications
Cover the following applications and the different battery designs for each: (L2)
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A qualified individual should understand cell construction basics. The course should cover the following:
The various plate constructions, alloys used, and other internal elements should be introduced, including their
characteristics (where the plate type is specific to a chemistry, but not obvious, it is so noted in the list below):
35
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Cover the following topics relative to battery racks and cabinets: (L2)
Cover the following topics relative to normal aging and temperature effects: (L2)
Cover the following root causes of failure common to both Ni-Cd and lead-acid batteries:
— Adverse effects of vibration and impacts on a cell during its installation and maintenance (L1)
— Use of regular tap water rather than distilled or deionized water (L2)
— Case/container cracking/crazing and/or leakage (L2)
— Overcharge (L2)
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Cover the following additional root causes of failure common to all lead-acid batteries:
— Float current
— Gassing
— Frequency and quantity of water additions
— Life
— Potential for thermal runaway
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— Dryout (L3)
— Loss of compression (L2)
— Lack of negative plate polarization leading to sulfation (L3)
— Lack of temperature compensation (L2)
— Thermal runaway (L2)
— Dendritic shorts from overdischarge, especially in AGM VRLA (L2)
— Valve failure (L3)
— Poor recombination (SK)
Cover the following items that may lead to poor performance of Ni-Cd cells:
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7.5.2 Discharge
12
Depending on the load type, the current drawn from the battery may be proportional to the battery voltage (resistive or linear load),
or it may be constant during battery discharge (often used for battery sizing), or it will increase with the voltage drop in order to deliver
constant power to the load. In the real world, the load is seldom only one of these types of current. It is rather the combination of all three
types.
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— Cell capacity calculations (see IEEE Std 485™ [B40] or IEEE Std 1115™ [B46] for further detail)
— Using rate tables (L3)
— Using S curves (L3)
— Using manufacturer cell selection software (SK)
— Using IEEE Std 1013™ [B44] for PV applications (SK)
7.5.3 Charge
7.5.3.1 General
Cover the following facts relative to factory charging and shipping: (L3)
— Some cells/units are fully charged at the factory before shipping while others are shipped discharged
— Some plates are fully formed at the factory while, in other cases, the initial charge in the field finishes
plate formation
— Most cells are shipped filled with electrolyte while a few are shipped “dry” (i.e., without electrolyte,
and the electrolyte is added on-site after shipping13)
The technician should understand the following topics relative to cell voltages:
— Relationship between EMF or OCV of a lead-acid battery cell and the concentration of the sulfuric
acid (specific gravity) contained in the cell (see E.3) (L3)
13
When a battery is shipped dry, it can be vented or sealed during shipping (depending on the manufacturer and model), with
corresponding ramifications for shelf life. A dry-shipped battery has the longest shelf life if it is filled with a non-oxidizing gas (typically
argon or nitrogen), and then sealed prior to shipping. Dry-shipped batteries that are not sealed will experience some oxidation of the
plates before the electrolyte is added (which can be overcome if the storage interval has not been excessive, by an initial charge to “re-
form” the plates).
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The technician should also be able to define and differentiate between the following terms relative to battery
voltages:
— How charger output voltage affects the characteristics and capabilities of the battery (L1)
— Differences between float and equalize operating modes (L1)
— Effects of battery terminal voltage on the operation of a low-voltage disconnect (LVD) (L3)
— Effects of battery terminal voltage on over- and undervoltage relays and alarms (L2)
— The gravity of the electrolyte does not change appreciably with the state of charge of Ni-Cd cells. (L2)
— The electrolyte is not part of the charge/discharge reactions of the battery. (L2)
— Different gravity electrolytes are provided for different temperature environments and for cycling.
(L3)
— The specific gravity of electrolyte does not affect the performance or the life of a Ni-Cd battery. (L2)
— The nominal or OCV is not affected by the specific gravity of the electrolyte. (L2)
8. Documentation
8.1 Applicable codes and standards
8.1.1 General
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— The codes, regulations, and standards that apply to any given situation are often jurisdiction dependent.
— Some codes, regulations, and standards are more widely accepted, enforced, and adopted.
Electrical code [B67] references with which the battery technician in the United States should be familiar are
as follows:
Some other countries also adopt the NEC, but many countries have their own electrical code, which will have
requirements and sections similar to those noted above.
Lockout/tagout rules in the United States are covered in 29 CFR 1910.147 (OSHA) [B25] and in
NFPA 70E-2015 [B68]. The European Union (EU) has similar rules for voltages above their low-voltage
threshold. (L1)
Hazardous material handling, disposal, and reporting requirements in the United States are addressed in
40 CFR 68, 40 CFR 260, 40 CFR 261, 40 CFR 266, 40 CFR 273, 40 CFR 302, 40 CFR 355, 40 CFR 370, and
40 CFR 372 [issued by the US. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)] [B26] as well as parts of 42 CFR
[issued by the US. Health and Human Services (HHS)] [B27]. (L3)
Technicians in the United States involved with transporting batteries (new or used) or packaging them for
transportation should be familiar with 49 CFR 107, 49 CFR 172, 49 CFR 177, and 49 CFR 397 [issued by
US. Department of Transportation (DOT)] [B28]. Similar International Standards Organization (ISO) or EU
standards apply in other parts of the world. (L3)
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Although seismic design is the responsibility of the building engineer, battery installation technicians should
be at least familiar with the differences in seismic zones and seismically qualified battery racks and anchors/
supports. The following documents are useful references: (L3)
8.1.8.1 General
Outside of codes, international standards provide excellent guidelines for installation, sizing, and maintenance.
Although sizing is not generally under the purview of an installation or maintenance technician, it can often
be helpful for technicians to know the best practices as a check against the engineering or to be able to inform
engineering of the need for more or larger batteries due to load growth. (L3)
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Because a technician may be required to follow electrical and mechanical drawings while installing,
maintaining, and removing battery systems, the course should cover such drawings (L2). Note that drawing
symbols for both electrical and mechanical drawings vary depending on adopted standards within a given
company (L2). When interfacing with different departments or companies, a broader knowledge of drawing
symbols may be required (L3).
8.3.2.1 General
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Two handy references for electrical device designations are the following: (L3)
— IEEE Std C37.2™ [B60]
— IEC 60417/ISO 7000 (formerly IEC 417) [B34]
Figure 1 and Figure 2 give a small example of electrical symbol differences in drawings.
NOTE—There is controversy about whether the “normal” state of a switch or relay is its energized (nonalarmed) condition
or is its nonenergized (alarmed) condition. The preceding figures do not address this issue, but simply show examples
found in some drawings.14
Cover the following information related to mechanical drawings for battery areas:
Notes in text, tables, and figures are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement the recommended
14
practice.
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Scheduling with and informing alarm centers before performing activities that may cause alarms (L1)
— Replacing any insulating covers that are removed during the course of maintenance (L1)
— Being aware of the fragility of container-to-cover and post seals and highlighting why the battery is not
a step (L1)
9.1.3.1 Devices
9.1.3.1.1 Hardware
Basic computer literacy is required to perform some battery testing and maintenance functions (L2).
Briefly cover the application and use of the following tools and permanently installed monitoring devices (see
IEEE Std 1491™ [B53]) as they relate to battery work:
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— Voltage readings
— Resistance readings
— Series current readings
— Hand tools
— Insulated tools (L1)
— Torque wrenches (L1): For countries not using SI unit torque wrenches (which are rated in Newton-
meters) note the difference between torque wrenches rated in in-lbs (these are what are used on
battery terminals and typical values range from 7 to 17 N-m [60–150 in-lbs]) versus heavier-duty
torque wrenches rated in ft-lbs (these are what are typically used for rack/stand bolting, and typical
values range from 68 to 136 N-m [50–100 ft-lbs])
— Nonsparking tools (L2)
— Current measurement instruments
— DC clamp-on ammeters (L2)
— AC clamp-on ammeters (L2)
— High-resolution (low-current) dc clamp-on ammeters (SK)
— Shunts (L2)
— Hall-effect devices (SK)
— Specialized ohmmeters
— Microohmmeters (L2)
— Megohmmeters (L3)
— Ohmic test sets (L2)
— Internal impedance test sets
— Internal conductance test sets
— Internal resistance test sets
— Hydrometers (L3)
— Hydraulic float hydrometers
— Electronic hydrometers
— Temperature measurement tools
— Thermometers (L1)
— Thermocouples (L3)
— Thermistors (L3)
— Thermal guns (L3)
— Thermal cameras (SK)
— Chargers (L2)
— Whole string chargers
— Single-cell chargers
— Ground-fault detection equipment (L2)
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— Load banks
— Whole string load banks (L3)
— Carbon pile/pot load banks (SK)
— Data loggers (L3)
— Oscilloscopes (SK)
— Recharge modules (SK)
Emphasize that test equipment, while typically designed to hold up to field conditions, is still subject to damage
and loss of accuracy when subjected to harsh treatment. Items that should be stressed include the following:
The battery technician should be trained to demonstrate proficiency in the operation of the various types of test
equipment required for the skill level (L2). The training record should identify the types of test equipment the
technician is trained and/or certified to operate.
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9.1.3.3.1 General
A battery load test may be accomplished with a resistor bank and digital volt-ohmmeter, or it may be
accomplished with an automatic battery capacity test set. Certain principles apply regardless of the method
used. Therefore, familiarize the technician with the following: (L3)
Batteries can be load tested online or off-line. Include the following key features of these two methods:
— Off-line testing
— Is accomplished with the battery disconnected from the charger and from the normal dc loads (L2)
— Is accomplished with the battery isolated from the system; therefore, any critical loads may need to
be supplied by a temporary source (L3)
— Is the most accurate method of load testing (L2)
— On-line testing
— Is accomplished with the battery disconnected from the charger but still connected to the normal dc
loads (L2)
— May be accomplished with resistor banks connected in parallel with the normal loads so that total
discharge current is the sum of these two loads (L3)
— Is accurate when the battery is connected to a steady state load (L2)
— Breaker operations and motor operation can impose loads on the battery that are not
accounted for in the capacity calculation.
— Battery current should be monitored at a point that includes all of the loads that are applied
to the battery (i.e., the technician may use a clamp-on ammeter across the cables at the
center-most point of the battery).
— May be done for PV systems at an unknown SOC and into the existing load (see IEEE Std 937
[B42] for further information) (SK)
— Requires monitoring of LVDs and alarms to ensure that equipment is not adversely affected (L3)
Teach the technicians to monitor the chargers (during recharge after testing) to ensure they are set up properly
and do not trip. (L3)
— Temperature measurements of battery connection during load testing or bulk recharge (L2)
— Diminished usefulness of battery connection temperatures during float operation (L2)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Cover the proper types and uses of load banks for the specific purpose intended. Give specific attention to
safety and proper utilization of the test equipment, including the following:
— Proper connection, disconnection, and isolation under load of the testing equipment (L3)
— Constant adjustment of manual load banks to ensure a constant current or power load (L2)
— Circumstances when an ac load bank may/should be used instead of a dc load bank (L3)
— Some dc systems are not connected to ground; therefore, they often contain a ground-monitoring
system to indicate the presence of an unintentional ground. (L1)
— If there is a grounded charger, ground-fault detection may consist of a pair of lights on the charger; in
such instances, for any grounded battery system, the grounds should probably be removed prior to a
load test. (L3)
9.1.4 Connections
9.1.4.1 General
Battery connections vary by construction material, shape, size, and type of hardware. Cover all types of battery
connections. Each connector type has certain requirements based on the design. (L2)
— Bolts and nuts (stainless steel, lead-plated, brass, or brass with cast on head)
— Washers (plate/flat, lock, Belleville [i.e., conical spring], and spade lug tab)
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Also cover the differences in hardware grades, e.g., some Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) grades are
less susceptible to corrosive action. (L3)
Note that loads tapped at some partial string point (for example, a nominal 12 V load tapped 1/3 of the way into
a nominal 36 V string) will lead to more than normal capacity differences, water consumption, etc. of cells/
blocs within the string, and potentially lead to undercapacity and/or premature failure. (L3)
Ensure that the battery technician is aware of the following topics relative to connection preparation: (L1)
— Recommended procedures for preparing various connector designs for installation, including the
following:
— Removal of oxidation without removal of protective plating
— Avoidance of improper cleaners or scrubbers
— The need to clean, neutralize, and dry some battery posts before the applications of corrosion inhibitors
Cover recommended compounds used for connections, such as antioxidant grease, and how to apply such
compounds thinly. (L1)
Cover the proper methodologies for taking intercell connection resistance measurements (L2). An informative
annex in IEEE Std 450 [B38] contains examples of how to take these measurements for a variety of available
battery designs. Other battery designs and methods for taking resistance measurements are also used but not
specified in that annex. It is important that the battery technician select the best method for a particular battery
design and use the same method consistently for trending purposes.
Cover the following topics relative to automated monitoring and control equipment:
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Manual monitoring provides less frequent data collection than automated monitoring (which may be sufficient
in many cases), but ensures that data are reviewed by at least the person performing the measurements. Most
of the items that can be measured with manual monitoring are found in the following subclause, which covers
both manual and automatic monitoring. Further detail on manual monitoring and measuring procedures is
found for vented batteries in IEEE Std 450 [B38], for VRLA batteries in IEEE Std 1188 [B49], and for Ni-Cd
batteries in IEEE Std 1106 [B45].
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— Issues associated with relying on baseline data from the battery manufacturer (L3)
— Variability that may be introduced by changing devices for ohmic measurements (L3)
— Trending over time and comparison to baseline values, including methods to record and compare
(L3)
— Inspect incoming battery shipments and hardware for damage, leaking, and material shortages (L1)
— Ensure that a safety data sheet (SDS15, formerly known as an MSDS) accompanies battery shipments,
and file it correctly (L1)
— Read bills of material (BOMs), parts lists, and other manufacturer documents to count received parts
(L2)
— Test and store ohmic values of incoming batteries to ensure no gross factory mistakes (L2)
— File damage reports and complaints (L2)
9.2.1.2 Storage
— What to do if batteries are or are not going to be placed in service within a few weeks after receipt
— Battery self-discharge characteristics
— Proper storage conditions
— How to keep a stored battery in good condition
— Freshening charge requirements and methods
— Record keeping necessary for warranty validation
Cover multiple rack/stand/tray configurations available from most manufacturers for vented and VRLA
batteries, including the following:
In some regions, SDS are reserved for chemicals, and the battery hazard information is found on what is called a “battery information
15
sheet.”
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— Need to closely follow the manufacturer’s documentation for the specific stand being installed (L1)
— Importance of using the proper number and type of anchors specified by the rack manufacturer and/or
design engineer (L1)
— Possible use of tie-downs with VRLA monoblocs in seismic installations (L1)
— Ensuring that the modular VRLA racking is designed for seismic zones when necessary (L2)
— Extra material (e.g., more side rails, cross-braces, foam spacers) found in seismic racks (L2)
— Seismic racking design per the ICC IBC [B31] and ICBO UBC [B30] (L3)
— Location and configuration considerations for seismic racking and mounting (L3)
9.2.2.3 Placement/location
— Locating the batteries in a cool, clean, dry area so they are not adversely affected by thermal sources
— Ensuring that ventilation is sufficient so that gas evolved from the batteries quickly disperses
— Ensuring sufficient ventilation to minimize temperature differentials between tiers/rows of batteries
— Locating the batteries in a relatively flat area that can support the weight of the battery
— Locating the battery stand in an area that meets all requirements for working clearances (see 5.9)
— Ensuring that battery racks/cells maintain a minimum clearance from walls or other equipment,
dependent on manufacturer requirements, or other applicable local or national codes or standards
(for example, most battery manufacturers specify that seismically-rated racks must have a minimum
clearance of approximately 100 mm from walls in order to meet the seismic requirements of relevant
Building Codes)
— Ensuring that space is left to allow access to cells for maintenance, repair, and replacement
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Verifying received material (check received material against the packing list, supplier documentation,
and drawings) (L1)
— Determining the location of the rack(s) (L1)
— Ensuring that the required tools are available:
— Torque wrenches (L2)
— Tape measures (L1)
— Shims (L1)
— Socket sets and wrenches (L1)
— A level (L1)
— Drills and hammer drills (L2)
— An ohmmeter (L1)
— Installing the base components of the racking system and pretorquing the assembled hardware (L1)
— Installing support rails or shelving as required and torquing per the manufacturer’s specifications (L2)
— Leveling and shimming (L1)
— Securing frames or modules to the floor (L2)
— Securing frames or modules to the walls (if required) (L2)
— Finishing the installation of final racking components and torquing them per the manufacturer’s
specifications (L1)
— Grounding the battery rack/stand/module as required (L2)
— Installing spill containment, if required (see 9.2.4) (L2)
— Installing battery cells (see 9.2.3) (L2)
9.2.2.5 Grounding
— Check applicable codes and with the end user to determine whether grounding is required. (L2)
— Follow the appropriate grounding rules in NEC Article 250 [B67] and/or local codes when grounding
is required. (L2)
— Select the proper cable size per code and/or end user requirements. (L2)
— Route the grounding conductor from the battery rack to the facility grounding point. (L1)
— Lug each end of the cable. (L2)
— Attach the cable to the battery rack/stand per the manufacturer’s specifications. (L2)
— Attach the grounding conductor to the facility ground per all applicable installation codes and the end
user’s requirements. (L2)
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
— Clean the surface before placing batteries because battery weight can cause grit abrasion to the case.
(L1)
— Never use any petroleum-based products for installation or maintenance (and explain why). (L1)
— Never use bug sprays on battery containers (and explain why). (L1)
— Consult the manufacturer or its documentation prior to using any lubricant to move cells. (L1)
— Use a thin coat of talcum powder (if necessary) if the manufacturer does not recommend a lubricant.
(L2)
Teach the battery installers how to do the following tasks relative to rack/stand installation:
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— Install any rails, tie-downs, rail insulators, etc. while ensuring that spacing and clearances are proper.
(L2)
Teach the installers how to do the following tasks relative to battery installation:
— Place cells on the stand in accordance with the design drawing. (L2)
— Ensure proper plate orientation (parallel or perpendicular to rack rails) for rectangular vented cells.
(L1)
— Ensure cell polarities are correct for each rack section. (L1)
— Remove the shipping plugs, and install the flame arrestors in vented cells after they are all set. (L1)
— Clean and prepare the connectors and posts for connection. (L1)
— Apply a thin coat of antioxidant to cell posts and intercell connectors to prevent corrosion. (L1)
— Ensure that connections are made positive to negative (or vice versa) for series cells in a string. (L1)
— Ensure proper washer orientation. (L2)
— Torque the connections in accordance with the manufacturer’s requirements. (L2)
— Check intercell resistances using a digital low-resistance ohmmeter (DLRO) to ensure they are within
required parameters (see IEEE Std 450 [B38]). (L3)
9.2.4.1 General
— Individual rack containment systems, i.e., a barrier around the perimeter of a battery rack, beyond the
drip line (L2)
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— Using battery room walls (sealed to a certain height) as part of the containment (L2)
— Raised doors
— Use of portable (or permanent) ramps to enter this type of room
— Dikes/barriers for area containment and the use of ramps to get batteries into and out of them (L2)
— Methods of installation for floor sealants (see 9.2.4.6 for further information), including the following:
— Floor preparation (L3)
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One relatively rare method of controlling an electrolyte spill is to channel the liquid into a chemical waste
processing system or a controlled drainage system. These systems are designed into the building infrastructure.
Discuss the special circumstances where this type of installation may exist. (SK).
Most codes require a liquid-tight floor and barrier. Cover the following topics relative to sealing a spill
containment area: (SK)
— Epoxy coatings
— Potentially hazardous fumes from curing and the possible need for respiratory protection
— Skin protection during application
— Flexible material liners
— Acid-resistant vinyl flooring materials with thermally welded seams
— Resealants and methods to use if holes are drilled or barriers are temporarily removed
— Potentially hazardous fumes from curing and the possible need for respiratory protection
— Skin protection during application
9.2.5.1 General
Batteries are generally shipped in a charged condition but lose some charge when in transit and storage. The
technician should be taught how to do the following tasks relative to initial charging:
— Apply an initial or freshening charge (which varies by battery technology and manufacturer
recommendation). (L2)
— Methods of initial charge for many vented cells to finish plate formation
— Voltage settings for the technology per the manufacturer’s instructions
— Calculate the appropriate time duration for the charge (if not given by the battery manufacturer). (L2)
— Determine the size of the charger needed.
— Determine the length of the charge based on the manufacturing date or last freshening charge.
— Compensate for storage temperature.
— Balance the electrolyte level after the initial charge (add water before the initial charge only if the level
is well below the level line, near the top of the plates). (L1)
Cover awareness, mitigation, and protection techniques for the following items:
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— Exposure to electrolyte, including misting of vented cells during heavy charging (L1)
— Off-gassing of flammable and/or toxic gases (see 5.7 on ventilation for further direction) (L2)
— Electric shock and/or arc-flash burns during installation and maintenance activities (L1)
Teach technicians how to do the following tasks relative to initial charge records: (L2)
9.2.6.1 General
Cover the following topics relative to when paralleling battery strings where the bus being directly connected
to a battery is energized: (L3)
— Proper methods for handling energized conductors, including work area and cable insulating, and PPE
— Necessity of matching voltages between battery and bus where possible
— Techniques for voltage matching prior to connection
— Techniques for gradual load sharing after connection
Explain the use of an installation checklist (see NETA ATS [B63] for an example) to
— Ensure that the charging system is properly set up (e.g., for voltage and current levels, alarming) (L2)
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Cover the following items specifically related to installation of battery-monitoring units: (SK)
— Types of safety signs that should be posted for new (and possibly for modified) battery installations
— Codes and/or regulatory organizations setting rules for signage (e.g., 29 CFR 1910 and/or 29 CFR
1926 (OSHA) [B24], fire codes [B31], [B66])
Cover the importance of inspecting the container and its cover, including the following:
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Teach the technician how to do the following tasks relative to inspecting posts:
Explain the necessity for a clean and low-resistance connection (L1). (Torquing and microohmmeter
measurements are the ways to check these connections and are covered in 6.1, 9.1.3.1.1, 9.1.4.4, 9.1.4.5,
9.2.3.4, and 9.2.7.
Cover the visual inspection of VLA battery plates and separators and the methods to evaluate and correct any
problems, including how to look for the following: (L2)
— Sulfation
— Crystals
— Cracks
— Flaking
— Plate deformation (e.g., warping, bowing)
— Separator degradation
— Discoloration
— Hydration
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Cover the following safety-related issues associated with the rack, cabinet, and trays:
— Structural integrity and bracing, including cleanup/repair of any electrolyte leakage that has made it
onto the rack (L1)
— Anchoring (L1)
— Leveling (lack of which may be a sign of weight stress) (L1)
— Grounding and/or bonding (L2)
— Signs or placards, on or near the racks, warning of electrolyte and other hazards (L2)
— Proper clearances (L2)
— Proper operation of battery heater pads where used (L2)
The technician should be able to do the following tasks relative to battery cleaning:
— Explain the dangers of using a dry cloth on vented batteries due to the possibility of ESD (L1)
— Demonstrate proper battery cleaning procedures (L1)
— Select and use the appropriate cleaning agent
— Tell which types of agents should be avoided (L1)
— Explain why different solutions are required for different battery types (L2)
The technician should be able to do the following tasks relative to connection repair:
9.3.3 Watering
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Cover the following topics relative to specific-gravity measurements (see IEEE Std 450 [B38] for details):
(L3)
Cover the following topics relative to internal ohmic measurements (see IEEE Std 1188 [B49] for detailed
information):
— Purpose for the different ohmic methodologies and how each is applied (L1)
— How to use the different types of equipment and understand the differences in the results (L2)
— Potential difficulties that occur in special applications, such as probe placement in tight spaces (L2)
— How to calculate the internal dc resistance of a cell (L3)
Cover the following topics relative to the effects of paralleled cells and strings:
Discuss the following topics relative to bypassing and replacing individual cells and modules:
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
Cover the following topics relative to maintenance record keeping and data collection:
Cover the following topics relative to maintenance record keeping and data collection:
— Determine the appropriate testing methods for the application: constant power, constant current, rate-
adjusted, time-adjusted (L3)
— Establish pre-test requirements for the battery (L3), as applicable, and verify that they are met (L2)
— Establish proper safety and PPE requirements (L1)
— Determine the appropriate type of testing to be performed, in accordance with IEEE Std 450 [B38],
IEEE Std 1106 [B45], or IEEE Std 1188 [B49]
— Acceptance (L2)
— Performance (L2)
— Modified Performance (SK)
— Service (SK)
— If needed (depending on the equipment connected to the load) and they do not already exist in written
form, develop (L3) switching/isolation procedures (e.g., bypass) to isolate critical loads, and review
(L2) such procedures
— Rectifiers
— UPS
— Inverters
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— AC switchgear
— Establish (if needed) and review battery size/test parameters (L2)
— kW/Ah rating
— Specified test time
— System final/end-of-discharge (EOD) voltage, and end voltage per cell
— Temperature considerations
— Perform the calculations (if needed) and setting of the load bank current/wattage for the test (L2)
— Perform the initial battery cell measurements and verify connection integrity to determine if there are
gross flaws in the battery health before beginning the test (L1)
— Provide direction for or set up any electronic data logger to capture battery data during the test (L3)
— Additional test equipment to take system measurements during the discharge test
— Establish the test equipment required and assign a timekeeper if an electronic data logger will not
be utilized
— Establish a process to utilize permanently-installed metering and how data can be retrieved from it
— Connecting the load bank to the battery/UPS (L3)
— Establish criteria for aborting the capacity test (L2)
— Real-time analysis of test data to determine a failed battery or cell(s) (L3)
— Rising temperatures
— Initial and increasing temperature throughout the duration of the test
— Thermal imaging equipment and guidelines if required or utilized
— Cell voltage
— Significant deviations in cell voltage
— Cell reversal
— Analysis of test data for individual cell/unit problems, and overall capacity calculations (L2)
— Report development (L3)
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— Cable types most frequently used for dc and battery applications (L2)
— Fire-retardant cable insulation and its appropriate selection and use (L2)
— Listing of cables (L2)
— Cotton braid coverings sometimes used in telecommunications power cabling (SK)
— Toxic chemicals emitted by cable insulations in a fire (SK)
— Special types of plenum cabling, such as tray cable (TC) (SK)
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Cover open raceway systems (cable rack is the most common type) and the following concerns relative to
them: (SK)
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11. Recycling
11.1 Lead-acid battery recycling
Cover the following topics relative to lead-acid battery recycling:
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Annex A
(informative)
Generally, a value with many significant digits is harder to read on an analog meter than it is on a digital meter.
Analog devices can lose calibration if subjected to vibration, physical shock, or exceptionally strong magnetic
fields.
Digital test devices have a slower response time than analog devices. Digital test devices can provide erroneous
data when they are used in an environment where EMI is present (although most of them incorporate extensive
shielding and noise filtering).
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Annex B
(normative)
Table B.1 through Table B.5 detail, by subclause, which items covered in this recommended practice should
be handled through hands-on training (where possible) or at least through a combination of hands-on and
classroom training. By default, items not mentioned in these tables can normally be covered exclusively
through classroom instruction. In some cases, hands-on training can be as simple as showing physical examples
in the classroom (for example, a printed circuit board may be passed around showing various components,
such as smaller resistors, inductors, capacitors, and transistors). When hands-on training cannot be provided,
pictures can be a suitable alternative for some of these items. (Refer to Annex F or the level assignments in the
text to see which items should be covered based on the level and type of technician being taught.)
Because of the variations in manufacturers’ products, it is not possible to train (nor hands-on test) on every
piece of equipment the technician is likely to encounter. Generally, picking one sample of a type of equipment
(e.g., rectifier) and using its installation, setup, test, initial activation (turnup), and maintenance procedures
should be sufficient to give an example that the technician can apply to similar equipment by following
manufacturer documentation.
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Table B.3—Battery basics and documentation items best-suited for hands-on training
Training item Subclause reference(s)
Trending data readings over time 6.3.1, 9.1.3.3.6, 9.1.4.5, 9.1.5.2, 9.3.8
Example lithium-based (Li-based) or NiMH batteries 7.1, 7.2.2
Types of casing materials 7.3.1
Electrolyte level lines 7.3.1, 9.2.5.2
Watering tubes 7.3.1, 9.3.3
Use of shipping caps 7.3.1, 9.2.3.4, 9.3.1.2, 11.1
Proper intercell connecting 7.3.1, 9.2.3.4, 9.2.8, 9.3.2.2, 10.3
Tubular plates 7.3.1
Pasted plates 7.3.2
Plate thicknesses 7.3.2
Recognizing proper and improper plate colors 7.3.2
Internal positive and negative straps 7.3.2, 7.4.2, 9.3.1.3
Use of the proper rack/stand/tray/cabinet 7.3.3
Case/container cracking/crazing and/or leakage 7.4.2, 9.3.1.1, 9.3.1.5
Mishandling and abuse 7.4.2
Detecting post seal and container-to-cover seal leaks 7.4.2, 9.3.1.1, 9.3.1.3
Identifying internal open circuits 7.4.2, 7.4.4
Table continues
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Table B.4—Installation and maintenance skills best-suited for hands-on training (continued)
Training item Subclause reference(s)
Checking for calibration and proper operation before test set use 9.1.3.2
How to perform testing without jeopardizing loads 9.1.3.3.2
How to get accurate results from an online test 9.1.3.3.2
Watching charger settings on recharge after a test 9.1.3.3.2
Using manual methods to check for temperature 9.1.3.3.3, 9.2.5.2
Possibly disconnecting ground-fault detection before load tests 9.1.3.3.5
Proper installation of lugs and proper use of crimp tools and dies 9.1.4.1
Proper connection preparation, including antioxidant use 9.1.4.2, 9.2.3.4, 9.2.8, 9.3.2.2
Installation and programming of battery monitors 9.1.5.1, 9.2.6.1, 9.2.8
Incoming battery and rack/stand shipment inspections 9.2.1.1, 9.2.2.4
Filing damage claims and reports 9.2.1.1
How to install and inspect various types of battery racks/stands 9.2.2.1, 9.3.1.7
Series-parallel arrangements within some VRLA strings 9.2.2.1, 9.3.6
Cabinets, trays, shelves, pull-out slides, and compartments 9.2.2.1, 9.3.1.7
Anchor installation 9.2.2.2, 9.2.2.4
Additional placement and location considerations for battery racks 9.2.2.3
Use of shims for leveling 9.2.2.4, 9.3.1.7
Spill containment installations 9.2.2.4, 9.2.4.1, 9.2.4.2
Installing battery cells onto a rack/stand 9.2.2.4
Routing, supporting, and labeling conductors 9.2.2.5, 10.1, 10.3, 10.4
Installing lugs on cables 9.2.2.5
Possible use of material handling rollers 9.2.3.1
Using proper lubricants for sliding batteries into/onto racks/stands 9.2.3.2
Cleaning the rack/stand/tray/shelf before sliding batteries onto it 9.2.3.2
Checking spacing and clearances on installed stands/racks 9.2.3.3
Use of spacing templates for cell placement on racks/stands 9.2.3.3
Spill containment system sealing and pillow inspection 9.2.4.2, 9.2.4.4, 9.2.4.6
Portable ramps for zone or room spill containment 9.2.4.4
Directed drainage containment systems 9.2.4.5
How to properly perform an initial charge and when to do one 9.2.5.1, 9.2.5.3
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B.2 Testing
B.2.1 General
It is not the goal of this recommended practice to set pass/fail standards; however, this document does
recommend that both hands-on and written testing be performed. Because the training provider has a
responsibility to the technicians and their companies, as well as to the battery user who ultimately pays for
the “skills” of a “trained” battery technician, it is in the best interest of the training provider to ensure that the
technician truly understands and can apply the learned skills. Because some individuals are better at hands-
on applications than at classroom education and written tests, consideration should be given by the training
provider to the appropriate weighting of both written and hands-on tests in determining an overall pass/fail
grade.
Although the concepts recommended by this document to be taught for the higher levels can be difficult, it is
not necessarily correct to give technicians a single chance to pass or fail. Generally, additional training, study,
and work experience can help technicians to pass if tests are retaken.
It is always in the best interest of the battery technician to receive ongoing education. Some training providers
may wish to place requirements on their “graduates” to pursue ongoing education. If a battery technician has
not performed a certain skill for quite a while, it is probably in the technician’s best interest to at least review
training material on the subject, if not to take a refresher course and a retest on the particular subject matter.
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While all of the items listed in Table B.6 and Table B.7 should probably have some form of hands-on testing,
such testing does not necessarily need to be given by the provider of the majority of the training. For example,
the Red Cross or Red Crescent in most countries generally provides CPR certification that includes hands-on
training.
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Table B.7—Additional installation and maintenance skills for hands-on testing (continued)
Training item Subclause reference(s)
Filing claims on material damaged in shipment 9.2.1.1
Installing seismic racks 9.2.2.2
Using tie-downs with VRLAs in seismic areas 9.2.2.2
Installing and reinstalling spill containment systems 9.2.2.4, 9.2.4.2, 9.2.4.6
Installing racks/stands/trays 9.2.2.4
Leveling racks/stands 9.2.2.4, 9.3.1.7
Installing anchors 9.2.2.4, 9.3.1.7
Installing cells onto racks/stands/trays 9.2.2.4
Installing lugs on cable 9.2.2.5
Labeling 9.2.2.5, 10.1, 10.4
Proper lifting of batteries 9.2.3.1
Moving batteries off a hoist onto a rack/stand 9.2.3.1, 9.2.3.2
Ensuring proper clearances between batteries and racks 9.2.3.3
Installing and inspecting flame arrestors 9.2.3.4, 9.3.1.2
Sealing a floor and inspecting spill containment systems 9.2.4.2, 9.2.4.4
Looking for leaks, especially at the seals 9.3.1.1
Performing thorough visual inspections (see IEEE Std 450™ [B38]) 9.3.1.1, 9.3.1.3, 9.3.1.5
Cleaning batteries 9.3.1.1, 9.3.2.1
Battery heater pad thermostat proper operation 9.3.1.7
Cleaning intercell connections and connectors and reinstalling them 9.3.2.2
Watering batteries 9.3.3
Reading specific gravity 9.3.4
Trending 9.3.5
Strapping around a bad cell 9.3.7.2
Writing down readings and keeping maintenance records 9.3.8
Performing switching/isolation/bypass procedures 9.3.9
Setting proper values on a load bank 9.3.9
Proper cable pulling techniques 10.3
Securing cables to the raceway and each other when required 10.4
Protecting cable insulation from coldflow, abrasion, and impingement 10.4
Firestopping cable holes 10.4
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Annex C
(informative)
Current through the body is typically used to determine the severity of a shock. For dc current, Table C.1 and
Figure C.1 (derived from IEC 60479 [B35]) provide general guidelines (the zone boundaries are based on 95%
of the human population).
From IEC 60479-1 ed.4.0 Copyright © 2005 IEC Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.iec.ch. Used with permission.
From IEC 60479-1 ed.4.0 Copyright © 2005 IEC Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.iec.ch. Used with permission.
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Typical relatively low-frequency (nominal 50 or 60 Hz) ac current (such as found in a rectifier or UPS) affects
the body at even lower levels (see Figure C.2, also derived from IEC 60479 [B35]).
From IEC 60479-1 ed.4.0 Copyright © 2005 IEC Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.iec.ch. Used with permission.
Current levels involved during an electrical shock depend on the voltage level, the current path through
the body, and the resistance of that body path. The current can be computed simply by using Ohm’s Law.
Depending on the path and the person, the resistance of a normal human body ranges from 20 000 Ω to
1 000 000 Ω (see IEC 60479 [B35]). The resistance of a wet human body (such as a person standing in the rain
or a puddle or a person making contact with sweaty skin) or the resistance through contact with an open wound
(the skin provides the most resistance on the body) can be as low as 1000 Ω to 2000 Ω (see IEC 60479 [B35]).
Using a lower-bound wet body resistance of 1 000 Ω and an extended contact time of 10 s or longer, it can be
seen from Figure C.2 and Figure C.1 (using Ohm’s Law) that ac voltages can be fatal at levels as low as 35 Vrms,
and dc voltages can be fatal at levels as low as 150 V.
Physiological effects on the body are dependent not only on current, voltage, and resistance, but also on time.
For example, while electric shock can produce currents through the heart in measured in amperes, if the time
duration of the current pulses is extremely short (in the nanosecond range) fibrillation is usually not induced
The rms voltage or current value is the root mean square of the waveform and represents the effective voltage of the circuit for doing
16
work. It is the value typically used in calculations. For a pure sine wave, the rms value is approximately 70.7% of the peak value of the
waveform.
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(although quite a bit of pain is induced). The severity of electrical burns is based on heating energy, which is
time based. The dependency of physiological effects on time, however, should not be stressed to a technician
as much as the dangers of higher voltage and reduced body resistance.
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Annex D
(informative)
The historical design of a three-phase UPS uses an input and output transformer. Such architecture provides
the full insulation of the battery from incoming and outgoing ac lines (see Figure D.1). Note that only the
secondary side of the utility transformer is shown with the separately derived source multigrounded neutral
(MGN). As shown, the neutral is typically not brought into the input isolation transformer of the UPS.
Some UPS systems are constructed without input/output transformers (see Figure D.2). Removal of a
transformer in some UPS designs can provide a direct path from the ac line to the battery and result in a
configuration known as a nonisolated UPS.
In a nonisolated UPS, the charger/rectifier power switches (e.g., SCR, IGBT, FET) connect the battery
terminals sequentially to the incoming ac line. The power switch conduction frequency is synchronized to the
incoming ac line (a multiple of 50 or 60 Hz). The duration of conduction depends on the ratio of the intended
dc battery voltage to the voltage of the incoming ac line. The same is true for the power switches of the inverter.
Synchronization takes place to the desired output frequency of the inverter rather than to the input of the
charger. As a result, the battery terminals’ potential with respect to cabinet grounds follows the combination
of the switching pattern of the power switches, incoming/outgoing ac voltages, and the dc potential of the
battery itself. Depending on the switching technique (e.g., PWM, step, pulse) and the voltages in the system,
the battery voltage with respect to ground can reach a momentary magnitude of 1000 V with a frequency
exceeding 20 kHz.
Additionally, the nonisolated UPS provides a ready circuit path for battery ground-fault current via a common
ground path to the neutral-to-ground bond at the upstream supply transformer powering the UPS (see
Figure D.2). Any grounded conductor touching any battery post may result in an explosion. The magnitude
of this explosion is mostly dependent on the size of this conductor and the dc power fuse location and ratings.
Safety regulations require the battery of a transformerless UPS to be placed in a cabinet with entry restriction;
however, occasional limited maintenance activities (e.g., voltage readings) must be performed with the UPS
and battery energized. When working on such batteries, always use insulated tools, extended test leads rated
for 1000 V or more, insulation mats, and, above all, common sense.
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Annex E
(informative)
H 2 = 127 × I e × N × S (E.1)
where
NOTE—Differences in altitude and temperature will change the amount of hydrogen evolved slightly. VRLA batteries are
theoretically 95% to 100% efficient in recombining oxygen and suppressing hydrogen evolution. However, under thermal
runaway conditions or a failed valve, all of the current supplied to a cell may result in hydrogen evolution and release. Note
also that some batteries may be equipped with catalysts in the valves and/or flame arrestors. The purpose of these catalysts
is to recombine evolved hydrogen and oxygen back into water before it escapes the cell.
where
There is a similar relationship between specific gravity and minimum charge voltage for lead-acid cells as
shown in Equation (E.3).
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where
Vmc is the minimum voltage required to maintain the cell at full charge (overcome the effects of
self-discharge) at 25 °C
s.g . is the specific gravity of the electrolyte at 25 °C
NOTE—Specific gravity, OCV, and minimum charge voltage will vary slightly at other temperatures. In general, per
independent testing (see Enersys AE-080123.4 [B29]), the variance is minimal and can be ignored except at temperature
extremes.
∆V
Rint = (E.4)
∆I
where
NOTE—The load rates and end-of-discharge voltages chosen for this calculation will affect the validity, with the most
accurate calculation being at the highest published ampere rate (lowest published time, where the end-of-discharge voltage
is the lowest one published). This is typically the 1-min rate (but should never be longer than the 5 min rate) to 1.60, 1.63,
or 1.67 V/cell for lead-acid cells.
The available short-circuit current depends on the sum of the internal resistance(s) of the cell(s) that are shorted
as well as the external resistances to the point of the short circuit as shown in Equation (E.5).
VOC
I sc = (E.5)
Rint + Rext
where
NOTE—Short-circuit current does not vary with temperature. Also, a rough estimation of the short-circuit current of a
bolted cell fault can be obtained by multiplying the 1 min rate of the cell (from the lowest end-of-discharge voltage table
published) by 10. This information was verified in Albércorp AEI Test 059-1 [B2].
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If the short-circuit current is known, but the internal resistance is not, the internal resistance can be easily
approximated using Ohm’s Law as shown in Equation (E.6).
VOC
Rint = (E.6)
I sc
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Annex F
(normative)
For purposes of this recommended practice, testing (as referenced in other IEEE stationary battery documents)
is normally done by a maintenance technician, but some testing is done by installation technicians (see the
associated tasks for specifics).
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Table F.3—Math, battery basics, and documentation curriculum for Level 1 technicians
Maintenance Subclause
Training item Installer
tech reference(s)
Basic electrical, chemical, and battery terms √ √ 6.1
Elementary math skills √ √ 6.3.1
Basic series circuits and requirements for a complete circuit √ √ 6.4
Float charging and applications and introduction to equalization √ √ 6.5.2.2, 7.2.3,
7.5.1, 7.6.3
Basic circuit breaker usage (including in-battery disconnects) √ √ 6.7.1
Differentiating between grounded and ungrounded systems √ √ 6.8, 9.1.3.3.5,
9.2.2.5
Table continues
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Table F.5—Safety, math, and circuit curriculum for Level 2 technicians (continued)
Maintenance Subclause
Training item Installer
tech reference(s)
Thermal runaway gassing and causes, including √ √ 5.8, 7.4.3.1,
overdischarge of AGM batteries 7.4.3.3, 7.4.3.4
Minimum egress aisle widths √ 5.9
CPR and defribillator devices √ √ 5.13
Basic electrical, chemical, and battery terms √ √ 6.1
Basic electrical components and their use in dc systems √ √ 6.2
Overcurrent protection √ 6.2, 6.7.1, 8.1.3
Exponents and basic algebra √ √ 6.3.1
Rounding and significant digits √ √ 6.3.1
Basic numerical multiplier prefixes √ √ 6.3.1
Ohm’s Law and power formulas √ √ 6.3.2
Relation between specific gravity and open-circuit and charge voltages √ √ 6.3.2
Parallel and series-parallel circuits √ √ 6.4, 9.3.6
Single and three-phase ac voltages √ √ 6.5.1, 6.6
Rectifier control methodologies √ √ 6.5.1
Temperature-compensated charging √ √ 6.5.2.2, 7.4.3.4
Filtering of ripple √ 6.5.2.2, 6.5.3.1
Equalizing √ 6.5.2.2, 7.5.1
Ripple filtering provided by the battery √ √ 6.5.3.2
DC-preferred operation of an inverter √ 6.6
Waveform output shapes from an inverter √ √ 6.6
Slow-blow and fast-acting fuses √ √ 6.7.1
Types of breaker mountings √ √ 6.7.1
Using battery disconnects for protection and sectionalization √ √ 6.7.1
Shunt trip and undervoltage relay breakers and contacts √ √ 6.7.1
Operating circuit protection devices and their alarms √ √ 6.7.2
AC versus dc component ratings √ √ 6.7.2
Testing techniques to determine whether a system is grounded √ √ 6.8, 9.1.3.1.1
Differences between grounded and grounding conductors √ √ 6.1, 6.8
Basic computer literacy √ √ 9.1.3.1.1
Condition of the flame arrestor, vents, and seals √ √ 9.3.1.1, 9.3.1.2
Calculate and set load bank current/wattage for capacity testing √ √ 9.3.9
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Table F.9—Safety, math, and circuit curriculum for Level 3 technicians (continued)
Maintenance Subclause
Training item Installer
tech reference(s)
Rectification circuits and charger types √ √ 6.5.1, 7.5.1
Controlling output ripple in rectifier design √ √ 6.5.1
Charging and use in cycling applications √ √ 6.5.2.2, 7.2.3
Creating ac from dc √ √ 6.6
Frequency and phase matching √ √ 6.6
Operating modes of inverters and bypass operation √ 6.6
Inverter alarms √ √ 6.6
Differences in circuit breaker types √ √ 6.7.1
Sizing circuit protection devices and I-t curves √ 6.7.1
Auxiliary contacts on breakers √ √ 6.7.2
Theory of operation and construction of circuit protectors √ √ 6.7.2, 8.1.3
Repair and replacement of circuit protection devices √ 6.7.2
kA IC ratings √ 6.7.2
Pros and cons of fuses versus breakers versus switches √ √ 6.7.2
Using dc-rated components in dc circuits √ √ 6.7.2, 9.1.3.3.4
Stationary engine start battery systems √ √ 6.8
Avoiding partial tapping of a string for lower voltage loads √ 9.1.4.1
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Table F.13—Items of specialized safety, circuit, and battery design knowledge (continued)
Maintenance Subclause
Training item Installer
tech reference(s)
Sizing batteries for PV applications √ 7.5.2
How charging helps establish the potential (voltage) in the cell √ √ 7.6.1
Tafel curves and plate polarization √ 7.5.3.1, 7.6.2
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Annex G
(normative)
DC cabling information
G.1 Cable types
Cables are made with many different insulation types, which have differing insulation voltage values,
temperature withstand capabilities, flame retardancy, flexibility, water resistivity, etc. (see NEC, Table 310.13
[B67]). Different applications require different insulation types. In addition, the raceway and the environment
through which the cables pass may affect the type of insulation chosen. Some of the most common cable
insulation types used in dc systems include the following:
For specialized applications where battery cables are run in heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
plenum environments, consult applicable codes. Differing types of insulations have differing fire-resistive
properties and voltage ratings. Not all cables are Listed, and only Listed cables should be used. Sometimes the
wire is tinned, depending on the application and insulation type. In telecommunications, a fire-retardant, dyed
cotton braid is often applied to power cables.
Standard wire sizes are measured in American wire gauge (AWG), thousands of circular mils (kcmil), and
square millimeters (see Equation (G.10) and Equation (G.11) for conversions between international and North
American standard cable sizes), as defined by ANSI F 1883-03 [B4]. Table 8 of Chapter 9 in the NEC [B67]
cross-references the standard US measurements to the actual cross-sectional area. Table 5 of Chapter 9 in
the NEC [B67] gives dimensions. Cable sizes 26 AWG and larger can be solid, standard strand, or various
flex types. The size of the strands is determined by various ASTM and UL standards (see [B11], [B12],
[B13], [B14], [B15], [B75], [B76]). Battery installations generally use Class B, Class I, or Class K (which
is sometimes incorrectly referred to as Class W) stranded cable. Class B stranding is sometimes called Code
cable and is the number of strands referred to in Table 8 of Chapter 9 of the NEC [B67]. The higher letters refer
to smaller strands (the further in the alphabet one goes, the more flexible the cable becomes). Class I cable
is often referred to as flex. Class K stranded cables are sometimes referred to as diesel locomotive (DLO),
welding, and super-flex.
Depending on the industry, color coding is sometimes used for conductors in battery systems. Battery systems
used for telecommunications are sometimes coded differently from other systems. Most industrial dc electrical
systems designate red as the positive polarity, black as a negative polarity (because most grounded industrial
dc systems ground the negative side), and green as a framework ground conductor. While this coding is often
valid in dc systems used in telecommunications applications, a large segment of that industry uses different
color coding. Some companies use red to signify the ungrounded (energized/hot) conductor regardless of its
polarity, with black or gray designating the return conductor. Others use black or gray for both conductors,
indiscriminately, with the distinguishing feature being positive and negative markings on the cable ends. For
example, in a –48 V dc system, the positive side is grounded; therefore, the –48 V lead may be red, the return
lead gray, and the framework ground green. Lastly, some telephone companies provide redundant feeds to
their equipment from separate dc plants. In those cases, the conductors from one plant may be a different
color (e.g., red versus blue) from those of the other plant. The point is that no assumptions should be made
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about voltage and polarity simply from wire color; instead, polarity should be determined by testing with a
voltmeter. The importance of labeling conductor ends and appearance points for voltage and polarity should
be stressed to installers (maintenance technicians should label unlabelled wires before disconnecting them for
maintenance purposes). If the system is “Covered” by the NEC (NFPA 70) [B67], and operates at greater than
60 Vdc, color coding must comply with Article 210.5(C)(2) and/or 215.12(C)(2).
As also noted in 10.2, NEC Table 310.15(B)(16) (as modified by Article 240 and Article 110.14) [B67] is most
commonly used in North America to determine cable ampacities for AWG cable sizes (IEC 60364-5-52 [B33]
is commonly used in Europe for metric cable sizes). The NEC table consists of three columns for differing
types and temperature ratings of conductors. It is important to note that the ampacities listed under the highest
temperature rating can normally be used only if all conductors and terminations are Listed and marked for the
given temperature rating. For conductors sized 1 AWG and larger, the middle column (75 °C) can be used (if
the conductors are rated at that temperature or higher) if the rating of the terminations is unknown. Note that
the NEC [B67] ampacities are based on certain numbers of conductors in raceways, and that there are actually
two common tables. While Table 310.15(B)(16) is most commonly used, it is designed around three current-
carrying conductors in a raceway (typically conduit). Table 310.15(B)(17) may be used for single conductors
in free air, as may sometimes be found in a dc battery plant.
Note that the NEC [B67] ampacities are based on 60 Hz ac current (which can be generally extended to 50 Hz
ac available in some other parts of the world). The dc current-carrying capacity of conductors can be 1%–30%
higher (dependent on ambient temperature, conductor size, and other factors) than it is for 60 Hz ac because
there is no skin effect. However, this fact is rarely used in common practice because many installations are
governed by regulations that include the NEC or similar Codes. In addition, in a UPS application, there can
often be high amounts of ac ripple current (which will exhibit skin effect) on the dc conductors due primarily
to the feedback from the inverter(s).
Finally, in a UPS application, high currents in the dc conductors are typically only experienced during
discharge, which is typically designed to be 15 min or less at peak loads. There is an NEC Table [B67] covering
ampacities of conductors when the current load will be an hour or less. Combining NEC Tables 310.15(B)(16),
310.15(B)(17), 400.5(A)(1) and 610.14(A) [B67], along with their corresponding Notes and related Code
Articles, as well as tables from IEC 60364-5-52 [B33], yields the following typical ampacities for typical
dc conductors with 70 °C or 75 °C insulation (note that there are very few exact crosses between metric wire
sizes and AWG, but what is shown in parentheses in the wire size column of the table is reasonably close for
purposes of determining ampacity).
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Busbar ampacity is usually given by the busbar manufacturer and is dependent on planar orientation, ambient
temperature, spacing, and whether the busduct is enclosed. Where manufacturer busbar ampacity data cannot
be found, Article 366.23 of the NEC [B67] provides a conservative rule of thumb of an ampacity of 155 A/cm2
(1000 A/in2) of the cross-sectional area of copper bus.
Voltage drop becomes even more important in cables and bus in systems with long cable/bus runs, or in lower
voltage systems (e.g., 48 V or 24 V), or in systems serving equipment with tight voltage operating limits.
Battery cabling voltage drop contributes to the overall system voltage drop.
NEC Article 210.19 and Article 215.2 [B67] suggest that overall system voltage drop should not exceed 5%
with no more than 3% in any one branch. Different industries may have more rigid voltage drop standards due
to the issues noted in the prior paragraph.
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Voltage drop in cables can be computed using Ohm’s Law and linear resistance values like those found in
Table 8 of Chapter 9 of the NEC [B67] or by using Equation (G.1) through Equation (G.4).
K ×d × I
VD = (G.1)
A
where
NOTE 1—In North America, circular mils and AWG (Table 8 in Chapter 9 of the NEC [B67] cross-references AWG to
circular mils) are used instead of square millimeters for wire sizes. Equation (G.1) can be adapted for North American
trade sizes (e.g., AWG) and foot-pound units by replacing area with circular mils (CM), measuring the distance in feet, and
changing K to 11.1 for copper. Equation (G.3) and Equation (G.4) can be used for busbar cross-sectional area conversions.
NOTE 2—The distance and voltage drop are related. Because a complete dc circuit includes both feed and return
conductors, to find the circuit voltage drop, one must use the total distance of both conductors (loop distance). The formula
can also be used for one-way voltage drop of either the feed (hot) or return conductors.
Equation (G.1) can be rearranged algebraically to compute the size or number of cables needed if the desired
voltage drop is known as shown in Equation (G.2).
K ×d × I
A= (G.2)
VD
Two other useful formulas for converting North American wire trade sizes to international sizes are shown in
Equation (G.3) and Equation (G.4).
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Annex H
(informative)
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Annex I
(informative)
Glossary
For the purposes of this recommended practice, the following terms and definitions apply. These and other
terms within IEEE standards are found in The IEEE Standards Dictionary Online.17
absorbed-electrolyte cell: A cell in which the electrolyte is absorbed in fiberglass or polymeric fiber
separators. Syn: absorbed glass mat (AGM) cell; starved electrolyte cell.
acceptance test: A capacity test made on a new battery to determine if it meets specifications or manufacturer’s
ratings.
American Wire Gauge: A gauge, also known as the Brown and Sharp gauge, which was devised in 1857
by J. R. Brown. This gauge has the property such that its sizes represent approximately the successive steps
in the process of wire drawing. Also, its numbers are retrogressive; a larger number denotes a smaller wire
corresponding to the operations of drawing. These gauge numbers are not arbitrarily chosen, but follow the
mathematical law upon which the gauge is founded.
ampacity: The current-carrying capacity, expressed in amperes, of an electric conductor under stated thermal
conditions.
battery capacity: The quantity of electrical energy, measured in ampere-hours or watt-hours, produced by a
battery during discharge. Syn: available capacity; rated capacity.
carbon pile/pot: A load bank for single-cell discharges consisting of carbon resistors.
circular mil: The area of a circle with a diameter of 1/1000 of an inch (used in North America to describe the
cross-sectional area of a conductor).
formation charge (lead-acid battery): The initial charging process on lead-acid plates during which the
raw materials are electrochemically converted into charged active material, with lead peroxide formed in the
positive plates and sponge lead formed in the negative plates.
NOTE—the term formation charge is preferred over forming charge. It is usually performed by the manufacturer’s factory.
Formation process may not be fully complete at the time of shipment.
gelled electrolyte cell: A cell in which the electrolyte is immobilized by the addition of a gelling agent. Syn:
gel cell.
Hall effect devices (in conductors and semiconductors): The change of the electric conduction caused
by that component of the magnetic field vector normal to the current density vector, which instead of being
parallel to the electric field forms an angle with it.
17
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online is available at: http://dictionary.ieee.org.
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internal ohmic measurement: A measurement of the electronic and ionic conduction paths within a cell or
unit, expressed in terms of conductance, impedance, resistance, or admittance.
information technology (IT) equipment: Electrical/electronic units or systems that predominantly generate
a multiplicity of periodic binary pulsed electrical/electronic waveforms and are designed to perform data
processing functions such as word processing, electronic computation, data transformation, recording, filing,
sorting, storage, retrieval and transfer, and reproduction of data images.
lockout/tagout: Safely shutting down, isolating, and tagging (mechanically and electrically) equipment or
components from all sources of energy.
microohmmeter: A tool capable of accurately measuring resistance down to levels of millionths of an ohm
(commonly used to measure battery intercell connector resistance).
nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) cell: A secondary cell in which the active material of the positive electrode is nickel
oxyhydroxide, the active material of the negative electrode is cadmium, and the electrolyte is a dilute solution
of potassium hydroxide.
open-circuit voltage (OCV) (batteries): The voltage of a cell or battery when no current is flowing in the
external circuit.
ORing diode: A power diode where the natural voltage drop across the diode is employed in equipment with
two dc power inputs to force the equipment to choose the highest voltage source. Usually, they are employed
in pairs, and their current rating must equal or exceed the rated current of the equipment.
photovoltaic (PV) power system: A system that converts sunlight directly into electric energy and processes
it into a form suitable for use by the intended load.
polyvinyl chloride (PVC): An insulator in cable coatings and coaxial foam compositions.
potentiometer: A resistor with an adjustable sliding contact that functions as an adjustable voltage divider.
recharge module: A set of resistors placed in series between a dc bus and a fully discharged battery to limit the
recharge current to the battery and the voltage dip on the bus during the initial recharge regime.
spill management: A program addressing all elements of battery electrolyte spills, including training,
containment, absorption, neutralization, disposal, and reporting.
statement of work (SOW): A document used by the acquirer as a means to identify, describe, and specify the
tasks to be performed under the contract.
state of charge (SOC): The stored or remaining capacity in a battery expressed as a percentage of its fully-
charged capacity.
valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) cell: A lead-acid cell that is sealed with the exception of a valve that
opens to the atmosphere when the internal pressure in the cell exceeds atmospheric pressure by a pre-selected
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amount. VRLA cells provide a means for recombination of internally generated oxygen and the suppression of
hydrogen gas evolution to limit water consumption.
vented cell: A cell in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed to escape freely to the
atmosphere as they are generated. Syn: flooded cell.
NOTE—Vented cell is the preferred term that should be used in place of wet cell or flooded cell.
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Annex J
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
[B1] Accredited Standards Committee C2-2012, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).
[B3] ANSI A14.5, Safety Requirements for Portable Reinforced Plastic Ladders.18
[B4] ANSI F 1883-03, Standard Practice for Selection of Wire and Cable Size in AWG or Metric Units.
[B7] ANSI Z535.2, Standard for Environmental and Facility Safety Signs.
[B9] ANSI Z535.4, Standard for Product Safety Signs and Labels.
[B10] ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.19
[B12] ASTM B 8, Specification for Concentric-Lay-Stranded Copper Conductors, Hard, Medium hard, or
Soft.
[B13] ASTM B 33, Specifications for Tinned Soft or Annealed Copper Wire for Electrical Purposes.
[B14] ASTM B 172, Specification for Rope-Lay Stranded Copper Conductors Having Bunch-Stranded
Members for Electrical Conductors.
[B15] ASTM B 189, Specification for Lead-Coated and Lead-Alloy-Coated Soft Copper Wire for Electrical
Purposes.
[B19] ASTM F 479, Standard Specification for In-Service Care of Insulating Blankets.
18
ANSI publications are available from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
19
ASCE publications are available from the American Society of Civil Engineers (http://www.asce.org/).
20
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (http://www.astm.org/).
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[B20] ASTM F 1505, Standard Specification for Insulated and Insulating Hand Tools.
[B25] Code of Federal Regulations Title 29 Part 1910 (29 CFR 1910), Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, and Part 1926 (29 CFR 1926), Safety and Health Regulations for Construction.22
[B26] Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 (40 CFR), Protection of the Environment.
[B29] Enersys AE-080123.4, Temperature Compensation Factors for OCV (Open-Circuit Voltage), Float
Voltage, and Electrolyte Specific Gravity.23
[B33] IEC 60364-5-52, Low Voltage Electrical Installations—Part 5-52: Selection and Erection of Electrical
Equipment—Wiring Systems.27
[B34] IEC 60417/ISO 7000 (formerly IEC 417), Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment.
[B38] IEEE Std 450™, IEEE Standard for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid
Batteries for Stationary Applications.29,30
[B39] IEEE Std 484™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Implementation of Vented
Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
21
CEN standards are available from Global Engineering Documents (http://global.ihs.com/).
22
CFR publications are available from the U.S. Government Publishing Office (http://www.ecfr.gov/).
23
This Enersys document is available at http://www.enersys.com.
24
This publication from the International Conference of Building Officials is available from IHS, Inc. (http://aec.ihs.com/).
25
Uniform Building Code and UBC are both registered trademarks of the International Conference of Building Officials.
26
Publications from the International Code Council (http://www.iccsafe.org/) are available from IHS, Inc. (http://aec.ihs.com/).
27
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch) and the American National
Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
28
The IEEE thanks the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for permission to reproduce information from its International
Standard IEC 60479-1 ed.4.0 (2005). All such extracts are copyright of IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. IEC has no
responsibility for the placement and context in which the extracts and contents are reproduced by the author, nor is IEC in any way
responsible for the other content or accuracy therein.
29
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
30
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Annex J are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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[B40] IEEE Std 485™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary
Applications.
[B41] IEEE Std 535™, IEEE Standard for Qualification of Class 1E Storage Batteries for Nuclear Power
Generating Stations.
[B42] IEEE Std 937™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation and Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries
for PhotoVoltaic (PV) Systems.
[B43] IEEE Std 946™, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of DC Auxiliary Power Systems for
Generating Stations.
[B44] IEEE Std 1013™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Photovoltaic (PV)
Systems.
[B45] IEEE Std 1106™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation, Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement
of Vented Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications.
[B46] IEEE Std 1115™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary
Applications.
[B47] IEEE Std 1184™, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Selection and Sizing of Batteries for
Uninterruptible Power Systems.
[B48] IEEE Std 1187™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of Valve-
Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
[B49] IEEE Std 1188™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Valve-
Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for Stationary Applications.
[B50] IEEE Std 1189™, IEEE Guide for Selection of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for
Stationary Applications.
[B51] IEEE Std 1361™, IEEE Guide for Selection, Charging, Test, and Evaluation of Lead-Acid Batteries
Used in Stand-Alone PhotoVoltaic (PV) Systems.
[B53] IEEE Std 1491™, IEEE Guide for Selection and Use of Battery Monitoring Equipment in Stationary
Applications.
[B54] IEEE Std 1561™, IEEE Guide for Sizing Hybrid Stand-Alone Energy Systems.
[B55] IEEE Std 1562™, IEEE Guide for Array and Battery Sizing in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic (PV) Systems.
[B56] IEEE Std 1578™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Battery Spill Containment and Management.
[B57] IEEE Std 1635™ /ASHRAE 21, Guide for the Ventilation and Thermal Management and Ventilation of
Batteries in Stationary Applications. 31
ASHRAE publications are available from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (http://
31
www.ashrae.org/).
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IEEE Std 1657-2018
IEEE Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualifications for Installation and Maintenance of Stationary Batteries
[B58] IEEE Std 1661™, IEEE Guide for Test and Evaluation of Lead-Acid Batteries Used in Photovoltaic (PV)
Hybrid Power Systems.
[B60] IEEE Std C37.2™, IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers and Contact
Designations.
[B61] Lazar, Richard, National Center for Early Defibrillation: What You Need to Know About Liability, Nov.
2000.
[B62] NABCEP Study Guide for Photovoltaic System Installers, Section 3.5 (Adapting the Electrical
Design).32
[B63] NETA ATS, Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and
Systems.33
[B65] NETA MTS, Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Distribution Equipment
and Systems.
[B69] NFPA 70EHB-2015, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace Handbook.
[B71] NFPA 111, Standard on Stored Electrical Energy: Emergency and Standby Power Systems.
[B73] NTIS PB98-137730, Recommendations for Chemical Protective Clothing, Table L.38
[B74] Telcordia GR-1275, Central Office Environment, Installation/Removal Generic Requirements, Chapter
7 (Method of Procedure), Issue 7, Dec. 2004.
[B76] UL 1581, Reference Standard for Wires, Cables, and Flexible Cords.
32
This guide can be obtained from the North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (http://www.nabcep.org/).
33
This publication is also available from the InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA) (http://www.netaworld.org/).
34
NFPA publications are published by the National Fire Protection Association (http://www.nfpa.org/).
35
National Electrical Code and NEC are both registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
36
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association (http://www.nfpa.org/). Copies are also available from the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
37
NFPA 101 and Life Safety Code are both registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
38
This NTIS publication is available from http://www.ntis.gov.
39
UL publications are available from Underwriters Laboratories (http://www.ul.com/).
115
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