Chapter 2

Charged particle motion in

external fields

A (fully ionized) plasma contains a very large number of particles. In general,

their motion can only be studied statistically, taking appropriate averages. Each
particle motion is a↵ected by the local electric and magnetic fields, due to the
charges and current due to the other plasma particles as well as externally
applied fields.
However, to get insight into the relevant physical processes, it useful to study,
sometimes in a simplified way, aspects of the motion of individual particles. This
approach will be taken in this Chapter and in the next one. In this chapter we
will discuss the motion of individual charged particles in given electric and
magnetic fields. In the next chapter we will consider the collisions of a charged
particle with the surrounding particles.
A more general statistical treatment requires the study of the self-consistent
evolution of the particle velocity distribution function, ruled by the Boltzmann
equation (see Chapter 6), and the Maxwell equations. Such an approach is in
most cases extremely complex and solutions of the relevant equations are possi-
ble, even numerically, only resorting to rather drastic simplifications. In many
cases, however, more a↵ordable fluid (actually, magneto-fluid, or magnetohy-
drodynamic, MHD) approaches can used, as discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
In the next sections we will consider the motion of a single particle in ex-
ternally applied, time-independent magnetic (and electric) fields. We will start
from the case of a uniform magnetic field, and then, in sequence, uniform mag-
netic and electric fields, and a few cases of spatially nonuniform magnetic fields.

2.1 Uniform magnetic field

Lorentz force on a particle with charge q and velocity v in a magnetic field B

F = qv ⇥ B (2.1)

15
16 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

Figure 2.1: Normal acceleration in the plane orthogonal to the magnetic field,
due to Lorentz force.

Lorentz Force is normal to both magnetic field and velocity. Particle motion
is the sum of

• uniform motion, at constant velocity vk in direction parallel to B.

• Uniform circular motion, with velocity v? in a plane orthogonal to B

In the plane orthogonal to B,

2
v?
|F | = qv? B = man = m , (2.2)
rL
i.e. circular motion with Larmor radius
mv?
rL = (2.3)
|q| B

In a thermal plasma at temperature T ,

r
1 2kT
mv 2 ' kT ) v? ' (2.4)
2 ? m
hence average radius p
2mkT
rL = . (2.5)
|q| B
Gyration occurs with cyclotron angular frequency

v |q| B
!c = = (2.6)
rL m

and cyclotron frequency

!c
fc = (2.7)
2⇡
Note that often angular frequencies are just referred to as frequencies.
2.1. UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 17

Numerical evaluations:
p
6 T [eV]
rL,e = 3.3 ⇥ 10 [m]
B [T]

where index e refers to electrons.

For T = 1000 eV and B = 5 T we have electron Larmor radius rL,e ⇡ 20 µm,

and proton Larmor radius rL,p ⇡ 1 mm.

Figure 2.2: Electrons and ions rotate in opposite direction. Electron Larmor
radius is typically much smaller than ion Larmor radius

For the cyclotron frequency

!c, e = 1.7 ⇥ 1011 B [T] [s] 1

;

fc,e = 28 B [T] [GHz]

and
fc,p = 1.5 B [T] [MHz] ,
where index p refers to protons.
18 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

2.2 Gyromotion, guiding center, drift

The magnetic field can be uniform only in a limited spatial region. In general, it
is not spatially uniform and may change with time. In many cases, the distance
over which the magnetic field changes significantly (also called magnetic field
gradient scale-length) is much larger than the relevant Larmor radii, and the
time over which it changes is much longer than the reciprocal of the plasma
frequency. In such cases, the motion of a charged can be viewed as the sum
of the fast gyration discussed in the previous section, and a slow motion of the
center of the orbit. We then have a gyration around a moving guiding center,
and a drift of the guiding centre. In summary, when no electric fields are present,
particle trajectories are a sort of helix: particles move at constant speed in the
direction parallel to the field, rotate in the plane orthogonal to the field, and
drift.
The presence of an electric field also a↵ects charged particle motion. The
electric field component parallel to the magnetic field accelerates particles along
its direction, i.e. along the magnetic field. In addition, the component of the
electric field orthogonal to the magnetic field causes a drift of the guiding center,
orthogonal to both electric and magnetic field.
A few, simple and important cases of guiding center drifts, caused by time-
independent fields, are discussed in the following sections.
2.3. UNIFORM E AND B FIELDS: E ⇥ B DRIFT 19

2.3 Uniform E and B fields: E ⇥ B drift

Let us consider the case of magnetic field B and electric field E orthogonal
to each other.
dv
m = q (E + v ⇥ B) (2.8)
dt
We write the velocity as
E⇥B
v⌘w+ , (2.9)
B2
where the second term on the right hand side is a constant, depending only on
the fields. Inserting this expression into Eq. (2.8) we obtain an equation for w:
✓ ◆  ✓ ◆
dw d E⇥B E⇥B
m +m = q E + w + ⇥B (2.10)
dt dt B2 B2
| {z }
=0

Using

(E ⇥ B) ⇥ B = B ⇥ (E ⇥ B) = E (B · B) + B (B · E) = EB 2 (2.11)
| {z }
=0

we then have
dw EB 2
m = qE + qw ⇥ B + q , (2.12)
dt B2
dw
m = qw ⇥ B (2.13)
dt
This is just the equation for gyromotion in a uniform magnetic field. Since
v = w + (E ⇥ B/B 2 ), the resulting motion is gyromotion summed to drift of
the guiding centre with velocity

E⇥B
vE = , (2.14)
B2

orthogonal to both electric and magnetic field. Notice that the direction of the
drift does not depend on the sign of the particle charge (see Fig. 2.3).
Qualitative explanation. Refer to the ion motion (red trajectory in the
figure). When the ion is in the lower part of the orbit it has higher velocity (due
to the acceleration caused by the electric field) and then larger Larmor radius.
The opposite occurs in the upper portion of the orbit. This leads to the drift
towards the right hand side.
The expression of the E⇥B drift can be generalized, by replacing the electric
force qE with any force F,
F⇥B
vF = . (2.15)
qB 2
20 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

Figure 2.3: E ⇥ B drift.

2.4. NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 21

2.4 Non-uniform magnetic field

We now we consider non-uniform magnetic fields, and no electric fields. We
shall consider a few cases separately.

2.4.1 r|B| ? B

Figure 2.4: Left: r|B| ? B; right: unperturbed gyromotion in the x y plane.

(Electron and ion orbits not to scale.)

We assume that the magnetic field gradient scale-length is much larger than
the Larmor radius rL , so that the particle orbit is unperturbed, with radius rL
and frequency fc = !c /2⇡. Unperturbed orbit:
x x0 = rL sin !c t, (2.16)
y y0 = ±rL cos !c t, (2.17)
where the positive sign refers to ions and the negative sign to electrons. Hence
vx = rL !c cos !c t = v? cos !c t (2.18)
vy = ⌥v? sin !c t (2.19)
Force on the particle
0 1
î ĵ k̂
F = q @ vx vy vz A = qvy Bz î qvx Bz ĵ. (2.20)
0 0 Bz
This force changes as the particle moves because the magnetic field is not uni-
form, Bz = Bz (y), with y = y0 ± rL cos !c t. However, since the change of the
field over a Larmor radius is small, we can compute it along the particle orbit
by using a Taylor expansion limited to the first term. We then write
" #
@Bz
Fy = qvx Bz (y) ' qv? cos !c t Bz0 + (y y0 ) , (2.21)
@y y=y0
22 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

and then " #

@Bz
Fy = qv? cos !c t Bz0 + (±rL cos !c ) , (2.22)
@y y=y0

where Bz0 is the field at the center of the orbit, i.e. Bz0 = Bz (y = y0 ). This
force changes in time. Since gyrations are fast (with respect to drift) we can
average the force over an orbit, to obtain

@Bz
F̄y = 0 ⌥ rL qv? cos2 !c t (2.23)
@y y0
| {z }
1
2

Proceeding in the same way we find

F̄x = 0. (2.24)

In conclusion, the force (2.23) normal to the magnetic field acts on the particle.
According to Eq. 2.15 this force causes a drift, with velocity

F⇥B 1 r |B| ⇥ B
v= = ⌥ v ? rL (2.25)
qB 2 2 B2

Notice that the direction of this drift depends on the sign of the charge (see
Fig. 2.5)

Figure 2.5: r|B| ? B drift.

2.4. NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 23

2.4.2 Curvature drift

Let us now consider a circular B-field line, with curvature radius Rc ; see Fig. 2.6.
We indicate with r̂ = Rc /Rc the versor (unit vector) directed along the radius.

Figure 2.6: Particle motion around a curved magnetic field line.

In the guiding centre reference frame, a centrifugal force

mvk2
Fc = r̂ (2.26)
Rc

acts on the particle; here vk is the component of the velocity parallel to B. This
force causes a curvature drift with velocity

Fc ⇥ B
vR =
qB 2

and then
mvk2 Rc ⇥ B
vR = (2.27)
qB 2 Rc2

Referring to the figure, the drift is normal to the plane of the figure, and its
sign depends on the sign of the charge.
However, if the magnetic field lines are curved, then we also have a finite
r|B| that causes an additional drift. We evaluate this drift as follows. We refer
to the cylindrical coordinate system in Fig. 2.7, so that

Br = 0 (2.28)
Bz = 0 (2.29)
B✓ = B✓ (r) (2.30)

If in the region we are considering there are no currents, then, for Ampere law,
24 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

Figure 2.7: Circular field line and cylindrical coordinate system.

r ⇥ B = 0. The z component of the curl operator,


1 @ @Br
(r ⇥ B)z = (rB✓ ) , (2.31)
r @r @✓

in our case reads

1 @
(rB✓ ) (2.32)
r @r
and must be identically zero for the Ampere law. We then find that
1
B✓ / . (2.33)
r
It follows that
⇣ ⌘ cost
(r |B|)r=Rc = r B✓ ✓ˆ = r̂, (2.34)
r=Rc Rc2

and then ✓ ◆
r |B| cost Rc r̂ Rc
= · r̂ = = , (2.35)
|B| r=Rc Rc2 cost Rc Rc2
and the relevant drift velocity is

1 r |B| ⇥ B 1 Rc |B| ⇥ B
vr|B| = ⌥ v? rL = ± v ? rL . (2.36)
2 B2 2 Rc2 B 2

Finally, by using the definition of Larmor radius, rL = mv? / |q| B = ±mv? /qB,
we can write
2
m v? Rc ⇥ B
vr|B| = , (2.37)
q 2 Rc2 B 2
2.4. NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 25

2
which di↵ers from the curvature drift [Eq. (2.27)] only for the term v? /2, re-
placing vk2 . The total drift velocity, sum of Eq. (2.27) and (2.37) is then
✓ ◆
m 1 2 Rc ⇥ B
v = vR + vr|B| = vk2 + v? (2.38)
q 2 Rc2 B 2

Figure 2.8: Drift in a purely toroidal field.

An important consequence of curvature drift concerns plasma confinement

in toroidal geometry. Let us consider a toroidal (i.e. donut shaped) configu-
ration, with a purely toroidal magnetic field, i.e. a sort of toroidal solenoid
(see Fig. 2.8). According to Biot-Savart’s law, B(r) / 1/r and then the field
gradient is directed towards the torus major axis and is at any point orthogonal
to the field. The combined curvature and gradient drift pushes electron and
ions vertically, in opposite directions, thus producing charge separation, and a
vertical electric field, orthogonal to the magnetic field. This leads to an E ⇥ B
drift, pushing particles of both signs out of the torus. Confinement in toroidal
geometry then requires more complex field topologies, as discussed in a later
Chapter.

Excercise
Compute electron thermal velocity, ion thermal velocity and (curvature plus
gradient) drift velocity in a toroidal device with major radius Rc = 1 m, mag-
netic field of 5 T, and plasma temperature of 1 keV. Verify that the drift velocity
is much smaller than the thermal velocities.
26 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

2.4.3 r|B| k B; Magnetic mirror

Figure 2.9: Cylindrically symmetric magnetic field and cylindrical coordinate

system.

We now consider the case of magnetic field gradient (nearly) parallel to the
magnetic field B. We refer, for simplicity, to a configuration with cylindrical
symmetry, as illustrated in Fig. 2.9. The magnetic field B is nearly axial and
weakly varying (i.e. the gradient scale-length is much larger than the Larmor
radius). In summary

B = (Br , 0, Bz ) ; |Br | << |Bz | ; (2.39)

@Bz
⌧ Bz /rL . (2.40)
@z

We use Maxwell’s equation r · B = 0 to determine the relation between the

radial and axial component of the magnetic field. Using the expression of the
divergence operator in cylindrical coordinates,

1 @ @Bz 1 @B✓
(rBr ) + + = 0, (2.41)
r @r @z r @✓

we obtain
@ @Bz
(rBr ) = r. (2.42)
@r @z
(the third term in Eq. (2.41) vanishes identically, because B✓ = 0). We integrate
along the radius between the axis and a radius r
Z r Z r
@ @Bz 0 0
(r0 Br ) dr0 = r dr . (2.43)
0 @r0 0 @z

Since @Bz /@z varies weakly with r, we can take it as a constant (or take an
average value), and then we have

r @Bz
Br ⇠
= . (2.44)
2 @z
2.4. NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 27

Motion along z, magnetic moment as an adiabatic invariant

We now study the axial component of the motion of a particle (actually, of its
guiding centre) close to the axis. We can write

dvk
m = Fz = q (vr B✓ v ✓ Br ) = qv✓ Br (2.45)
dt
Now, writing v✓ = ⌥v? = rL !c , approximating r ' rL , and using Eq. (2.44)
for Br , we obtain
✓ ◆
dvk r @Bz 1 @Bz @Bz
m = q · (±v? ) · = |q| rL2 !c = µ (2.46)
dt 2 @z 2 @z @z

The quantity
2
1 mv?
µ= (2.47)
2 B
is called magnetic moment of the particle.

Exercise
Show that this definition is just the same as that for the magnetic moment of a
current carrying coil, µ = IS, where I is the current and S is the surface area
of the coil.

We now show that the magnetic moment is an adiabatic invariant, i.e. it

is a constant if the magnetic field changes weakly in space and time. Here we
consider the case of a magnetic field which varies in space but is constant in
time. We multiply both members of Eq. 2.46 by vk ,

dvk @Bz
mvk = µvk , (2.48)
dt @z
which can also be written as
✓ ◆
d 1 @z @Bz dB
mvk2 = µvk = µ . (2.49)
dt 2 @t @z dt

During motion, kinetic energy (equal to total energy, since there is no potential
energy) is conserved, hence
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
d 1 d 1 d 1
mv 2 = mvk2 + mv? 2
= 0, (2.50)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2

or, using the definition of magnetic moment,

✓ ◆
d 1 d
mvk2 = (µB) . (2.51)
dt 2 dt
28 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

By equating the right hand sides of Eq. (2.49) and (2.51) we obtain
d dB
(µB) = µ (2.52)
dt dt
which is satisfied for constant values of µ only. (A full proof requires to show that
µ is constant also in the case of magnetic field slowly varying in time. We omit
such a proof here.) In conclusion, if r|B| is nearly parallel to B the magnetic
moment remains constant as particles move. An important application of such
a results concerns the magnetic mirror.

Magnetic mirror

Figure 2.10: Magnetic mirror: magnetic field topology

We consider a cylindrically symmetric magnetic mirror, with field topology

as shown on Fig 2.10. Two cylindrical coils, at some distance from each other
generate a magnetic field, which is stronger close to the coils and weaker in the
region between the coils. We now show that such a configuration allows for a
(partial) confinement of plasma particles.
Let us consider a particle close to the axis at position z = 0, and with
velocity v0 forming an angle ✓0 with the mirror axis (see Fig. 2.11). Due to the
constancy of the magnetic moment
2
v? B
2 = . (2.53)
v?0 B0

Hence as the particle moves toward the region of higher magnetic field the com-
ponent of the velocity orthogonal to the field, v? increases. At the same time,
since kinetic energy is conserved, the parallel component decreases. When the
orthogonal component becomes so large that the parallel component vanishes,
2.4. NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD 29

Figure 2.11: Above: reflected particle guiding centre motion; below: velocity
components in a position close to the origin of the coordinate system.

Figure 2.12: Magnetic mirror: loss cone

the particle is reflected, and therefore it is contained in the space between the
two coils. However, particles with too small value of ✓0 cannot be reflected. To
show this we proceed as it follows. Reflection occurs when

vk2 = v02 2
v? = 0.

This condition can also be written as

B
v02 2
v?0 = 0, (2.54)
B0
or ✓ ◆
B
v02 1 sin2 ✓0 = 0. (2.55)
B0
It follows that particles with central velocities forming an angle ✓0 with the
30 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS

mirror axis, such that r

B0
✓0 < ✓m = arcsin (2.56)
Bm
cannot be confined, and are then lost by the mirror. This defines a loss cone; see
Fig. 2.12. A word of caution: consideration of particle collisions and of kinetic
e↵ects makes the study of mirrors substantially more complex.