CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION
 STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF RIVER CHANNEL
MORPHOLOGY
 RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
 TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL PATTERN
 FEATURES DEVELOPED BY THE RIVER CHANNEL
 SKETCHES DESCRIPTION AND PHOTOGRAPH OF
LOCATION
 STUDY AND INTERPRETAION OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
 INTODUCTION
 FAULTS
 FOLDS
 JOINTS
 THRUST
 STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
 INTRODUCTION
 IGNEOUS ROCK
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 METAMORPHIC ROCK
 SAMPLES OF ROCKS
 HANDELING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS AND
MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES OF GEOLOGICAL PLATES
 STRIKE
 DIP
 DIP DIRECTION
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS
 CONCLUSION
 REFERENCE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest apperception to all those who

provided us the possibility to complete this report. We want to provide
heartful thanks to our leader, Proff. Dr.BASANTA RAJ ADHIKARI and his
team, whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement
in the 2 days Geological field visit on geological study of Malekhu area. The
main purpose of this field visit was to understand the different geological
structure, rocks and river morphology along with many objectives. This
report contains all the information required to understand about the rock
and its types, geological structure found on Malekhu area and river
morphology.

Our special thankful to the administration of Himalaya College of

Engineering, head of civil Engineering department Er.kishor b.Thapa and
Dod of civil Engineering department Er. Hari lal Kharel for managing tour
and providing the required materials in the field. It’s the golden
opportunity to us to workout with our subject teacher Proff. Dr. Basanta
Raj Adhikari and his team for their insightful and scholarly guidance to
successfully complete this field work.

Finally, we would like to thank all the staffs, drivers and others who
directly or indirectly helped us to successfully complete the field work.

(www.pramodyadav.com.np)
Introduction
Report on geological field visit to Malekhu, Dhading district
organized by the Department of Civil Engineering, Himalaya College Of
Engineering dated 072/11/4-5.It was conducted in order to study about
rocks, river channel morphology and structure of earth.
Objectives
1. Study and interpretation of river channel morphology
2. Study and interpretation of geological structure
3. Study of rocks and minerals in hand specimen
4. Handling of geological compass and geological hammer
Location of study area
The location of study was Malekhu, dhading district. It is about 75
km. west of Kathmandu valley.

1. Study and interpretation of river channel morphology

Geological agents:
Any phenomenon which changes earth crust are geological
agent. Due to oxogenous (outer) and endogenous (inner) process
structure of land surface like mountains, hills, valleys, plains
occurs. The exogenous process are those which derive their
energy from external sources.
Geological agents like wind, running water, glaciers, sea waves
and underground water etc causes change in structure .Activities
of geological agents include processes like gradations,
degradations, aggradation and weathering.
 A. River Channel Morphology:

The terms river morphologyare used to describe the shapes

of river channels and how they change over time. The morphology of a
river channel is a function of a number of processes and environmental
conditions, including the composition and erodibility of
the bed and banks (e.g., sand, clay, bedrock); vegetation and the rate of
plant growth; the availability of sediment; the size and composition of
the sediment moving through the channel; the rate
of sedimenttransport through the channel and the rate of deposition
on the floodplain, banks, bars, and bed; and
regional aggradation or degradation due to subsidence or uplift.
The study of river morphology is accomplished in the field
of fluvial geomorphology.
When the river flows in its way it follows the definite path, the path
followed by the river during its flow is called river channel.

B. Types of river /River channel pattern:

1. Straight river:- when the river flows in the straight path due to
high energy level this type of river is called straight river
2.Meandering river:- In this type of flow, the river follows the path
like as snake's movement. In valley region, the river follows the
meandering path. Erosion and deposition take place side by side
in the same time.
3.Braided:-In this type of flow, the river follows multiple
Channels. Deposition is predominant in this flow. The braided river
tends to be very wide and relates shallow. The river follows this
type
of path in Terai region.
 C. Features developed by the river channel:-

Depositional landforms :

Higher Terrace
It is the land formed by the river as it was flowing in these areas in the
past history. The higher terrace is over the high flood level of the river
in present. There may be finer and coarser material layers alternately in
the higher terrace.

Middle Terrace
As its name it is the middle part of the higher and lower terrace. This
terrace will also over the high flood level of the river.

Lower Terrace (Flood Plain)

During floods a river overflows its bank and submerges the adjacent
low-lying areas where deposition of alluvial material takes place. A wide
belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on either side of a stream, is
called 'flood plain'.

Channel Bar
Many rivers are forced to rope a part of their load along their beds,
especially in the flatter regions along their course. Most commonly the
deposits so formed tale the shape of long narrow ridges called channel
bars. Since they are made up of sand, they are also called sand bar. The
river will flow from both side of the CHANNEL bar. They are temporary
in nature because an increase in velocity, the river may cut down and
take the sand along with it.
Alluvial Fans
The alluvial material, which flows down from mountains, accumulates
at foothills where the stream enters a plain. The deposition occurs due
to abrupt change in the gradient of river valley. Such deposits spread
out in the shape of flat fans and are called “alluvial fans”. Usually the
coarse material is dropped near the base of the slope while finer
material is carried further out on the plain. Alluvial fans from many
adjacent streams along a mountain may merge to form a long wedge of
sediment called “alluvial aprons”.

Point Bars
In meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur as point bars. The point
bars are the crescent shaped deposits, which occur at inside bends of a
river channel.

Deltas
Deltas are deposits built at the mouths of streams. The deltas are
usually triangular in shape with their apex pointed upstream. When a
stream enters an ocean or lake, the currents of the flowing water
dissipate quickly. This results in the deposition of the series of
sedimentary layers, which make up the delta. The material of most
deltas is well sorted and many deltas are uniformly graded

ii. Erosional Features:

Erosional features that are found in river channel morphology are:-
1. Pot hole
2. River valley
3. Falls George
4. Rock island
5. 0xbow lake
Location 1st.
We studied the river channel morphology of the Trishuli-Thopal
confluence from the higher terrace of the river located about 500m. NE
towards Dhading Besi along old track from the suspension bridge. There
was channel bar in the left side of the river. The discharge of the
Trishuli river was high with compared the Thopal river. There was side
bar in the right bank of the river. At the confluence point there was
erosion band in the right side of the river. There was an island at the
confluence of these two rivers. The site study of the field fortified us
with the knowledge about the morphology of the river, the activities of
the river, various landforms formed by the river cutting, deposition and
erosion. Moreover the site provided us with the knowledge about the
appropriate site for the construction of the bridge, i.e. the bridge must
be constructed where the effect of river cutting is the minimum and it
should be somewhere near the deposition bank so that we can easily
get the constructions required. The site must also have a strong
foundation bed to resist the impact due to river.

Features observed at the site were-

# Meandering river type

# Still water present in some part of river.

# Rock island forms at the junction of Trishuli- Thopal Khola.

# Erosional and depositional bank in Trishuli river

# Point bar deposit in Trishuli river.

# Large and wide striking bank.

 Image: Trisuli and thoppal river

Fig: sketch of observation point

2. Study and interpretation of geological structure
Introduction
 Structural geology is a subfield within geology which focuses on
the study of geological structures, with the goal of learning how, when,
and why they formed. There are a number of applications for structural
geology, ranging from determining where valuable mineral resources
might be buried to assessing land to determine whether or not it is safe
to build on. Practitioners in this field usually have a bachelor's degree in
structural geology, and they may have pursued graduate work as well.

•Primary structures
–Primary structures are original features of sedimentary or igneous
rocks resulting from deposition or emplacement
–It gives an ultimate goal to understand the total history of a deformed
rock and not just its deformational history.
–It also help to understand that the processes of deposition and
deformation are not necessarily isolated in time
•Secondary structures
–Secondary structures are formed after the formation of rock due to
different types of stresses.

Different geological structures are:-

1. Faults
2. Folds
3. Joints
4. Thrust

Faults
 Fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along which there has

been an observable amount of movement and displacement. Unlike

folds which form predominantly by compressional stress, faults result
from either tension, compression or shear.

In order to correctly describe a fault, it is essential to understand its

components:
1- The fault plane: Is the plane of dislocation or fracture along which
displacement has occurred. The fault plane therefore separates one or
more rock units into two blocks.
2- The Hanging wall and footwall blocks: If the fault plane is not
vertical, then the block lying on top of the fault plane is known as the
hanging wall block, whereas that lying below this plane is known as the
footwall block.
3- The downthrown and up thrown blocks: The downthrown block is
the one that has moved downwards relative to the other block,
whereas the up thrown block is that which registers an upward relative
movement.
4- The Dip of the fault plane is the angle of inclination of the fault plane
measured from the horizontal plane perpendicular to its strike.
6- Fault Throw: Is the vertical displacement of a fault.
8- Dip slip: Is the amount of displacement measured on the fault plane
in the direction of its dip.
9- Strike slip: Is the amount of displacement measured on the fault
plane in the direction of its strike.
10- Net slip: Is the total amount of displacement measured on the fault
plane in the direction of movement.

N.B. In measuring the slip or throw of a fault, the displacement has to

be measured using the same surface of the same unit affected by that
fault.

Types of Faults
1- Normal fault: Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have
moved downwards relative to the footwall (i.e. downthrown block =
hanging wall block).
2- Reverse fault: Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have
moved upwards relative to the footwall (i.e. upthrown block = hanging
wall block). Because the displacement in both normal and reverse faults
occurs along the dip of the fault plane, they may be considered types of
dip slip faults.
3- Thrust fault (or thrust): Is a reverse fault in which the fault plane is
dipping at low angles (< 45°). Thrusts are very common in mountain
 chains (fold and thrust belts) where they are characterized by
transporting older rocks on top of younger ones over long distances.
4- Strike slip (wrench, tear or transcurrent) fault: Is a fault in which the
movement is horizontal along the strike of the fault plane.
5- Oblique slip fault: is one in which the displacement was both in the
strike and dip directions (i.e. the displacement has strike and dip
components). Keep in mind that an oblique slip fault can also be either
normal or reverse.

From this classification of faults, it can be seen that normal faults result
predominantly from tensional stress, reverse faults and thrusts from
compression (or shear), and strike slip faults from tension, compression
or shear.

The engineering significances of fault are as follows:

•Faults are the region where dislocation of ground has occurred in the past
due to deformation and where such dislocation cannot be entirely ruled out
in future.
•The faulted rocks will form weak foundation despite the fact that the rock
originally might have been strong.
•The shear of fault zone will be a easy pathway for water and cause leakage
if left untreated in dams and reservoirs.
•Fault planes with easy pathway for groundwater creates problem if
encountered along the highway or tunnel alignment.
•The fault zone once lubricated by water may slip further and prove critical
for foundation and abutments.
•Fault gouge and breccias may create additional problems and they have to
be cleared to the sound bedrock for construction in the site.
•Major fault zones are prone to landslides due to fragile earth material and
may cause problem during construction of various projects.
•The presence of faults, their type and extent and their effect on the
project area can be ascertained by engineering geological map and
geophysical data.
•The number, size and inclination of shear zone should given consideration.
•Ideally, projects are to be located far from an active fault and never on the
active faults.
•If the site couldn’t be relocated the treatment of the shear zone extensive
excavation of the sheared material and back filling with cement grouting
may be a solution to the problem.
•Many major faults may be associated with earthquakes so the project site
should also be considered with respect to the seismic zoning of the country.
•Even if the evidence of the study shows that the sheared zone will have no
movement during the lifespan of the project, some factor of safety should
be considered while constructing in the sheared zone.
Field identification criteria of fault:
The criteria for the recognition of faults may be considered under the
following headings:
1) Discontinuity of structures;
2) Repetition or omission of strata;
3) Features characteristic of fault planes;
4) Silicification and mineralization;
5) Sudden changes in sedimentary faces
(6) Physiographic data
Fold:
Wavy undulation on the surfaceof the earth is known as fold. The
bending of rock strata is due to the compressional forces acting from
opposite directions.
Folds result due to ductile deformation of rocks.

Engineering Significance of fold:

•Fault planes are weak zone

•Water makes the fault weak
•Some cracks act as channel which creates severe groundwater
problem
•Shaking in fault may collapse the civil engineering structures
•Fault can cause landslides
•Fault zones are weak, porous, unstable, incompetent and run
serious rick of occurrence of faulting.

1- Hinge line: Is the line of maximum curvature on a folded surface. The

hinge line almost always coincides with the axis of the fold defined as a
line lying in the plane that bisects a fold into two equal parts.
2- The axial plane is an imaginary plane dividing the fold into two equal
parts known as limbs. It is therefore the plane which includes all hinge
lines for different beds affected by the same fold.
3- The crest of a fold can be considered the highest point on a folded
surface. The trough is the lowest point on a folded surface.
4- The inter-limb angle: Is the angle between two limbs of the same
fold. It is measured in a plane perpendicular to that of the fold axis.
5- The angle of plunge of a fold is the angle between the fold axis and
the horizontal plane, measured in a vertical plane. The direction of
plunge of a fold is the direction in which the fold axis dips into the
ground from the horizontal plane.
6- The median surface: Is the surface that passes through points where
the fold limb changes its curvature from concave to convex.
7- The amplitude of a fold: is the vertical distance between the median
surface and the fold hinge, both taken on the same surface of the same
folded unit.
8- The wavelength of a fold system is the distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs taken on the same folded surface.

Classification of folds
Folds may be classified based on the direction of dip of their limbs, the
inclination of their axial planes, the value of their interlimb angle, their
plunge, and their general shape and effects on the thickness of the
folded layers. In order to describe a fold correctly, one may have to use
more that one of these classifications; e.g. recumbent anticline, open
syncline, tight plunging anticline,.... etc.

(a) Classification based on the direction of dip of the limbs:

When both limbs of a fold dip away from the fold axis, the fold is called
an antiform. If both limbs dip towards the fold axis, the fold is known as
a synform. If the relative ages of the folded units are known, such that
the oldest units occur in the core of the antiform, the antiform is called
"anticline". Similarly, if the youngest units occur in the "center" of a
synformal structure, it is known as a syncline.

A monocline is a single step-like bend in a rock unit, and is often caused

by vertical displacement. A dome consists of uparched rocks that dip in
all directions away from the central point. A basin is a downwarp in
which the layers dip in all directions from all sides towards the centre .
A fold is described as isoclinal if both limbs dip in the same direction at
the same angle.

(b) Classification based on the inclination of the axial plane:

A symmetrical (or upright) fold is one in which the axial plane bisects
the fold (and is vertical). If the axial plane is inclined at an angle < 45°
(measured from the vertical plane), the fold is said to be inclined. If the
angle of inclination of the axial plane is > 45° (from the vertical plane),
then both limbs of the fold will dip in the same direction, and the fold is
known as inverted or overturned. If the axial plane is horizontal, the
fold is known as recumbent.

(c) Classification based on the value of the interlimb angle:

(1) Open folds: those with an interlimb angle > 70°,
(2) Closed folds: with interlimb angles between 30 and 70°,
(3) Tight folds: with interlimb angles < 30°,
(4) Isoclinal folds: have zero interlimb angles.

Identification of fold:
Local scale fold are directly observe in the field in railways
cutting, hill cutting during road construction, excavation of tunnels as
well as drilling of rocks beds for certain purpose.
Large scale fold are recognized in the field by plotting the attitudes
of the beds or foliation planes by preparing geological map and
obtaining cross-section.
 Joints
Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no movement along
their surfaces. Although most joints are secondary structures, some are
primary, forming at the time of formation of the rocks.

Types of joints
1- Columnar joints: Are joints that form in basalts. When the basaltic
lava cools, it contracts giving rise to hexagonal shaped columns.
2- Mud cracks: Are joints that form in mud. As the mud loses its water,
it contracts and cracks.
3- Secondary joints: Are joints that form in rocks as a result of their
subjection to any form of stress (compression, tension or shear). Joints
that are oriented in one direction approximately parallel to one another
make up a joint set. Rocks often have more than one set of joints with
different orientations, which may intersect, and are then known as joint
systems. Note that tensional stress usually results in one set of joints,
whereas compression may form more than one set.
4- Sheet joints: Are joints that form in granitic rocks in deserts causing
them to break into thin parallel sheets. These joints form when the
rocks expand as a result of the rapid removal of the overlying rock
cover, possibly due to faulting or quarrying. This process is called
exfoliation.

Engineering significances

Joint:
The engineering significances of joints are as follows:
•The selection of sites for dams and reservoirs and alignment of tunnels
and highway through require very thorough investigation of joints for
arriving at safe and economic design.
•Joints are always considered as a source of weakness of the rocks and as a
pathway for the leakage of water through the rock.
•Both these properties of joints destroy the inherent soundness of the rock
to a great extent.
•If a rock forming the foundation of a dam or reservoir happens to be
heavily jointed and the region is one of low water table, the risk of leakage
of water from under the dam or from reservoir may be of substantial
magnitude demanding very heavy cost for treatment of rocks.
•If the roof and side rocks in the case of tunnel are much fractured,
slippage of rock along these fractures and leakage of water may cause many
troubles.
•A large joint dipping into the highway cut is the site of potential landslide.
•Jointed rocks easily get lubricated in the presence of water and start
sliding or falling form the original places of occurrence.
•Many landslides and slope failures are directly related to the jointed
nature of the rocks.
Thrust:
A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across
which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of
lower stratigraphicposition are pushed up and over higher strata. They are
often recognized because they place older rocks above younger. Thrust
faults are the result of compressional forces.
The engineering significances of thrust are as follows:
• It is a weak and hazardous planes , it should be avoided during site
selection of infrastructures.
• Nepal himalaya has dissected by three main master thrusts
namely; The Himalaya frontal thrust (MFT), The Main Boundary
Thrust(MBT), The Main Central Thrust(MCT). So the himalaya is restless
mountain i.e hte nthe thrust are still active.
• The presence of thrusts, their type and extent and their effect on
the project area can be ascertained by engineering geological map and
geophysical data.
• The contacts of structures in the thrust boundary are hazardous in
nature due to shearing movement.
Study and identification of rocks and Minerals in the field

Introduction
Minerals, quite simply, are the building blocks for making rocks, and a
rock is made up of one or more minerals. When you look at a rock and
see different colors, those colors are minerals that make up that
specific rock. There are over 3,000 named minerals; however, there are
really only about 30 minerals that people who are not geologists will
come across or need to concern themselves with.
There are four criteria that must be met in order for something to be
called a mineral:
• Not formed from the remains of plants or animals; that
is, inorganic
• Naturally occurring, not man-made
• Has the same chemical makeup wherever it is found (Ex: Quartz is
always SiO2)
• Has a crystalline structure, which means that it has a specific
repeating pattern of atoms.

If all four of the criteria are not met, the substance is not a mineral.
Therefore, “minerals” made in a lab are not true minerals because they
did not occur naturally.
Here are a few tests that geologists rely on to identify what minerals
they are looking at.
Color – Color is a very common way to try to identify a mineral;
however, it should not be used on its own. Because any mineral can be
any color, you cannot use color alone to identify a mineral. Color can
merely help you. (Or, sometimes, confuse you!)
Shape – Minerals form in certain shapes based on the elements that
make them up. Some minerals, such as quartz, only form in one
particular shape. Others, such as calcite, can be found in multiple
shapes. Sometimes shape isn’t enough and you need to use other tests
to help you identify a mineral.
Hardness – How hard or soft a mineral is can tell you right away what
mineral it could or could not be. The hardness of minerals is based on
the Mohs Hardness Scale, which ranges from 1-10, 1 being the softest
and 10 the hardest.
Streak – The streak of a mineral is simply the color of a powder that’s
left behind when the mineral is scratched along a white, ceramic,
unglazed tile. Even if the color of the mineral itself changes from one
specimen to another, the streak color is always the same.
Luster – Luster simply means the way that light reflects off a mineral.
Light can make a mineral look very dull or as shiny as a diamond.
There are many other tests that geologists use; however, the tests
listed above are usually sufficient for the amateur, and can help you
identify the mineral.

There are 3 types of rocks:-

# Igneous Rock
#Sedimentary rocks
#Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rock
These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of magma either
under the surface of earth or over it. These are of three types according
to the solidification process.
Plutonic Rock: - The rocks, which are formed underneath the surface of
the earth, are called the plutonic rocks.
Volcanic Rock: - The rocks, which are solidified on the surface of earth,
are called volcanic rocks.
Hypabyssal Rock: - The rocks, which are solidified on the way of
extrusion process, are called hypo basal rocks.
Igneous rocks are commonly identified in the field by the study of their
interlocking crystallization of a number of mineral grains. Igneous rocks
are generally hard, massive, compact, having no bedding plane and
interlocked grains. It usually contains much feldspar. By the study of
these properties we identified the igneous rocks in the field. e.g.
Granite - generally equigranular texture, light color appearance
Gabbro - coarse grain and dark color
Dolerite - containing dark minerals in good proportion with
medium
grain sized

Sedimentary rocks
These rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks through the process of
erosion, transportation and deposition by various natural agencies such
as wind, water, glacier etc. The loose sediments undergo compaction
and form resulting products as sedimentary rocks. According to the
mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are divided into three
different types.
Clastic Rocks: - The rocks which are formed by deposited mechanically
are known as clastic rocks.
Chemical Deposits:-The rocks which are formed by chemical
precipitation are known as chemical deposits.
Organic Deposits:-The rocks which are formed by deposited organically
are called organic deposits.

Sedimentary rocks are identified in the field by the study of different

layers, which are originally bedded or laminated under suitable
conditions. There may be the impression of fossils in sedimentary rocks.
The colour and the grain size of the rocks may be different in different
layers. By the study of these properties also the rocks may be
identified. e.g.
Conglomerate - grain size greater than 2 mm
Sandstone - grain size is equal to sand (i.e. 1/16 mm –2 mm),
quartz is common
Clay stone - formed by deposition of clay, shale is common example

Metamorphic rock
These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structure,
chemical composition etc. in pre-existing rocks due to the action of
temperature, pressure and chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks are
generally hard and having of interlocking grains.
· Contact Metamorphic
· Dynamic Metamorphic
· Dynamo Thermal
· Metasomatic

Metamorphic rocks are distinctly distinguished from other types of

rocks by the development of features like cleavage, foliation, schistosity
and by the presence of such minerals which are known to be of
metamorphic origin. Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an interlocking
texture of the constituent minerals grains. Thus these rocks are
basically identified in the field on the basis of color, texture as well as
structure. e.g.,
Slate - slate cleavage
Phyllite - soapy feeling
Schist - rough, irregular and undulated plane, unequal growth of
minerals
Gneiss - band of contrast colour, composition and texture (mica
band)

Sample no 1.

1. Color: light gray

2. Texture: non-crystalline
3. Structure: foliation plane
4. Grain size: fine
5. Specific gravity: low
6. Acid/hammer test: hardness 5.5
7. Mineral composition:
- Quartz
- Feldspar
- Muscovite
- Biotite
-chlorite
8. Rock type: metamorphic rock
9. Rock name: slate
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: low
Drill-ability: high
Blastivity: low

Uses
1. It is use flooring and roof covering due to the presence of slaty
cleavage.
2. It is use as aggregate.

Geological unit: Benighat slate

Sample no 2.

1. Color: White
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: bedding plane
4. Grain size: Fine
5. Specific gravity: medium
6. Acid/hammer test: - reacts with acid and mono-mineralic so
hammer test can be done.
7. Mineral composition: calcite
8. Rock type: sedimentary
9. Rock name: limestone
10.Engineering properties:
Strength: medium
Drill-ability: high
Blastivity: high

Uses:
1. Use in making cement
2. Use for making statue
3. Use as construction
material

Geological unit:
Malekhu limestone
 Sample no 3.

1. Color: Bluish grey

2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Bedding plane
4. Specific gravity: medium
5. Acid/hammer test: -
-Slowly react with acid but reacts
rapidly with power
-scratches by hammer
6. Mineral composition: Dolomite
7. Rock type: Sedimentary
8. Rock name: Dolomite

Uses:
- Use for making cement by mixing with limestone
- Good for construction

Geological Unit: Malekhu limestone

Location: About 800m from the malekhu bridge towards south

west along the upstream of Malekhu River on the right side of bank.

Sample no. 4
1. Color: Silvery gray
2. Texture: crystalline
3. Structure: foliation plane/slaty
cleavage.
4. Grain size: fine
5. Specific gravity: low
6. Acid/hammer test: doesn’t react with
acid and cannot be done hammer
test due to multi-minerallic.
 7. Mineral composition: Quartz, feldspar, mica(muscovite, chlorite,
sericite) and other clay minerals.
8. Rock type: metamorphic rock
9. Rock name: Phyllite
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: weak (low)
Drill-ability: high
Blastivity: low

Uses: In filling material, roofing, flooring.

1. Cannot be used in road aggregate

2. Cannot be used in road foundation
3. Cannot be used in Gavin wall.

Geological unit: Robang formation

Sample no: 5

Location: About 1000m from the malekhu bridge along the upstream of
Malekhu River on the right side of bank.

1. Color: yellowish gray

2. Texture: crystalline
3. Structure: foliation plane
4. Grain size: fine
5. Specific gravity: high
6. Acid/hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and can be done
hammer test due to mono-minerallic.
7. Mineral composition:
- Quartz
8. Rock type: metamorphic rock
 9. Rock name: slate
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: high
Drillability: low
Blastivity: high

Uses
1. Use as aggregate.
2. Use in foundation material.
3. Use for decoration purpose.
Geological unit: Dunga Quartzite Robang Formation.

Sample no: 6

Location: About 1000m from the mlekhu bridge along the upstream of
Malekhu River on the right side of bank.

1. Colour: Dark Grey

2. Texture: Non-crystalline
3. Structure: foliation plane/Schistocity clevage
4. Grain size: fine
5. Specific gravity: low
6.Acid/hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done
hammer test due to multi-minerallic.
7.Mineral composition:biotite,Quartz,fdeldspar,mica.
8. Rock type: metamorphic rock
9. Rock name: schist
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: low
Drillability: high
 Blastivity: low

Uses:
Used for flooring, gap in walls(retaining wall) .

Geological unit : Raduwa Formation.

Sample 7:

1. Color: White,blackgrey
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: preferred orientation-Gneissocity cleavage
4. Grain size: Medium
5. Specific gravity: high to medium
6. Acid/hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done
hammer test due to multi-minerallic.
7. Mineralcomposition: biotite, Quartz, plagioclage.
8. Rock type: metamorphic rock
9. Rock name: Gneiss
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: high
Drill-ability: high
Blastivity : low

Uses:
 Used in foundation, aggregate.

Geological unit: Kulekhani Formation.

Sample-8:
1. Color: Black spot
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Massive (random orientation of minerals).
4. Grain size: coarse
5. Specific gravity: high
6.Acid /hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done
hammer test due to multi-minerallic.
7. Mineral composition: biotite,Quartz,feldspar,muscovite,
tourmaline and other mineral.
8. Rock type: Igneous rock
9. Rock name: Granite
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: high
Drillability: low
Blastivity: high

Uses:
Used for flooring, as polishing
stone and for construction
because of high crushing
properties, aggregate.
Geological unit: Agra Granite.

Sample-8:
1. Color: White with Black spot
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Massive (random orientation of minerals).
 4. Grain size: coarse
5. Specific gravity: high
6. Acid /hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done
hammer test due to multi-minerallic.
7. Mineral composition: biotite,Quartz,feldspar,muscovite,
tourmaline and other mineral.
8. Rock type: Igneous rock
9. Rock name: Granite(Xenolyth)
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: high
Drillability: low
Blastivity: high

Uses:
Used for flooring, as polishing stone and for construction because of
high crushing properties, aggregate .

Geological unit: Agra Granite.

Sample-10:
1. Color: White
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Massive (random orientation of minerals).
4. Grain size: coarse
5. Specific gravity: medium to high
6. Acid /hammer test: reacts with acid and scratch by hammer.
7. Mineral composition: Calcite.
8. Rock type: Metamorphic rock
9. Rock name: Marble
10. Engineering significance:
Strength: medium to high.
Drill-ability: high
Blastivity: high
 Uses:
Used for flooring, as polishing stone and occasionally ascement.

4. Handling of geological compass and measurement of attitudes of

geological plats
There are a number of different magnetic compasses used
by geologists to measure orientation of geological structures, as they map
in the field, to analyze the geometry of bedding planes, joints, and/or
metamorphic foliations and lineations. A functional field compass for
geological field work should have the following attributes:

1. Must be lightweight and portable - can be carried on a belt loop

or neck land yard.
2. The compass should be able to provide a precession of 1 degree
for bearings.
3. The compass should have magnetic declination adjustment
mechanism.
4. The compass should have a clinometer to allow the measurement
of slopes and structural information such as dip and plunge.

Strike:
An imaginary horizontal line in any horizontal plane is called strike.
Strike is the horizontal direction of slope. More precisely, strike can be
defined as the direction of a line formed by the intersection of the bedding
(or foliation) with a horizontal plane. In simple term, strike is the extension
of a bed or it is perpendicular to the dip direction.
Dip:
The inclination of the bed is called its dip or it is the acute angle
between the bedding and a horizontal plane. Dip line represents the
maximum inclination of a bed or foliation plane. It is the value of angle
given by zero of inner graduation of a geological compass, which coincides
with the angle from 0 to 90 when the bubble spirit is at the middle.
Dip direction:
It is the direction of inclination of a bed or slope of mountain or foliation
plane. It is measured by Brunton Compass, holding its north towards the
direction of inclined beds or foliation planes. Its is the value given by the
north pointer of the geological compass when compass pointer is
perpendicular to the structural plane.

Orientations of planar features or portions of surfaces by:

Strike, dip, and dip direction; or Dip and dip bearing…
Types of the geological compass:
1 Clinometer compass: These compasses are the fundamental
type of the compass. They do not contain the sprit level hence should
be balanced in approximation of hand. They are used for measuring the
angle between the inclined surface and the horizontal.
 2 Brunton compass:- These are the most commonly used type of
the geological compass. Since strike, dip and dip direction are
measured only using a rotating level, dip measurements are unaffected
by magnetic fields. We should measure the strike, dip angle and dip
direction separately using this compass. It consists of the levels so
measurement is more accurate.

3 Clar compass:- It can measure strike, dip, and dip direction at a

single time.
 4 Digital compass: All the measured data are displayed on the
digit simply so is easier for operation. It did not require leveling during
operation.
Observation data in the field:
DIP DIP REMARKS OBSERVED
S.N. DIRECTION AMOUNT ATTITUDE BY
1. 140° 89° 89°/140° Joint plain Sakar
2. 170° 80° 80°/170° Joint plain Sakar
3. 172° 87° 87°/172° Joint plain sirjana
4. 172° 81° 81°/172° Joint plain sirjana
5. 187° 83° 83°/187° Joint plain Shraddha
6. 185° 83° 83°/185° Joint plain shraddha
7. 175° 83° 83°/175° Joint plain Shreedhar
8. 175° 83° 83°/175° Joint plain shreedhar
9. 182° 78° 78°/182° Joint plain Sishir
10. 171° 81° 81°/171° Joint plain Sishir
11. 160° 69° 69°/160° Joint plain Suban
12. 181° 81° 81°/181° Joint plainSuban

Conclusion:-
In geological field visit of Malekhu area for two days we were able to
know about the practical knowledge about geology. We became able to
recognize the geological structures like fold, fault joint etc. We also
know about the study of different type of rocks with its classification,
different properties and engineering significance also. We also learn to
measure the rock’s strike dip amount and dip direction of the bedding
plane by using the geological compass (brunton). We know the
handling of geological compass and geological hammer and used it for
various practical purpose. River channel morphology was studied in
detail and its features like activities of river, type of river channel, land
forms developed by the river and river channel Morphology at the
Trishuli-Thopal Confluence.
Reference:-
1. Kabiraj Paudyal., Geology For Civil Engineers
2. Proff. Dr.Basanta Raj Adhakari
3. www.Google.com
4. Er. Santosh Adhikari