BIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT SB015 SEMESTER 1, SESSION 2018/2019

1. A eukaryotic chromosome may have multiple replication bubbles thus speeding up

the copying of the very long DNA molecules. The bubbles expand as replication
proceeds in both directions from each origin. Explain how the process occurs.

Firstly, Helicase will unwind the parental DNA double helix at replication fork or we
can call it as origin of replication. This process could happen by breaking the
Hydrogen Bond between Nitrogenous bases. Then, Replication Bubble consists of
two replication fork formed. We call this process as The Unwinding of Strand.

Next, each of the single-strand of Parental DNA will acts as template strands for the
new complementary DNA strands. A Protein that we call as Single-Strand Binding
Protein will holds the separated DNA strands apart and stabilize them while they act
as a template and avoid them from pairing.

Then, Topoisomerase or DNA gyrase will make sure that double stranded DNA
outside of the replication fork does not super-coil and knot formation during
replication. Then Synthesis RNA primer occur by using Primase. Primase will bind
the template strands and synthesize RNA to short sequence of RNA at 5’ end of the
strand.

After that, DNA Polymerase III will elongate new DNA strand by adding free DNA
nucleotides by complementary base pairing. This process is called as Extension
where DNA nucleotide will join up to the exposed bases by specific base pairing. The
addition of new nucleotide occurs at Fee 3’-OH.

Furthermore, Formation of leading and lagging strands will occur. It starts when DNA
Polymerase III synthesize a complementary strands called Leading Strands. This
process happens continuously towards the replication fork by using only one RNA
primer. Besides, the lagging strand proceed discontinuously contrary to the Leading
Strand. A series of segment that known as the Okazaki fragment will be produced.
This fragment's direction is away from the replication fork using several RNA
primers. While, DNA polymerase I replaces the RNS primer with DNA nucleotides in
both strands. This process occurs before DNA ligase can join the Okazaki fragment
together in lagging strands.

Lastly, The Formation of new strand from5’ to 3’ will occur when the new leading and
lagging strands elongates from 5’ to 3’ direction thus resulting in two identical copies
of the original DNA.

2. Insulin is a peptide hormone which is synthesized in pancreatic cell. Explain how

insulin is produced in the cell.

Insulin is produced by protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is a process which amino

acids are linearly arranged into proteins through the involvement of ribosomal RNA,
transfer RNA, messenger RNA, and various enzymes.

Protein synthesis process starts with transcription. It involves 3 main stages. First,
elongation where is RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to promoter and then
unwind DNA double helix. Second, elongation where is RNA polymerase moves
along DNA template to keep unwind the DNA and add free RNA nucleotides. Then,
the mRNA is synthesized from 5’ to 3’.Third, transcription ends when the RNA
polymerase reaches terminator and mRNA molecule is released from template DNA
strand.

The process is followed by translation process that involves 3 type of RNA. First,
mRNA, it carries genetic information transcript from DNA in nucleus to cytoplasm in
form of triplets bases called codon. Second RNA is tRNA. tRNA will bring specific
amino acids to the particular codon on the mRNA. Acid amino from tRNA will be
determined by specific triplet bases called anticodon.
Anticodon is a region in tRNA that matches with codon in mRNA. This attachment
process is known as the activation of amino acids. Third is rRNA, it will combine with
protein to form organelles called ribosome. Ribosome facilitates the specific coupling
of anticodon and codon during translation. Ribosome have 3 side that are E for exit,
P for peptidyl-tRNA binding site where ribosome holds the tRNA that carrying
growing polypeptide chain and A for aminoacyl-tRNA binding site where ribosome
holds the tRNA that is carrying the next acid amino to be added in the chain.
3. Lac operon is an example of an inducible operon. Explain what is lac operon and
the mechanism of operon control in E.coli.

Lac Operon means Lactose Operon. It contains genes that encode for enzymes
used in the hydrolysis and metabolism of lactose in E.coli bacteria. It has been
introduced by Jacob and Monod. Furthermore, only prokaryote ha operon.

Next, Lac operon consist of Structural Genes such as Z, Y A, Promoter genes that
has a binding site for RNA polymerase, and Regulator gene known as I that is
located outside operon and act as a code for repressor protein.

Then, if the lactose not present, the repressor protein will bind to operate and this
thing makes the RNA polymerase cannot bind with promoter. We can say that Lac
operon is inactivated because structural genes are not transcribed then enzymes will
not be produced and lactose will not be broken down.

However, if we drink Milk, an inducer will present. So, lactose will be converted into
allolactose. allolactose will bind repressor protein. Then, the repressor protein
changes its shape and cannot bind with operator gene so RNA polymerase can bind
with promoter gene. We can say that Lac operon is activated because structural
gene are transcribed into tRNA and then ribosome translates tRNA to produce
enzymes and the lactose will break down and produce glucose and galactose.