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Soil Mechanics II (Geotech Engg) Lab Report
Soil Mechanics II (Geotech Engg) Lab Report
Soil Mechanics II (Geotech Engg) Lab Report
Lab Report
Abstract:
Geotechnical Engineering is the specialty of Civil Engineering which deals with the
property and behavior of soil and rock in engineering purposes.
The following tests was performed by the students of Civil Engineering Department
U.E.T Peshawar (the list of experiments can be seen in table of contents) under the supervision
of Sir Engr. Zia Ullah.
The main purpose of this lab was to investigate different types of soils through different
tests and to compare them with the standards mostly ASTM. Soil behaves differently in
different conditions. Field identification tests of soil and laboratory tests like direct shear test
may be performed on collected disturbed soil samples, unconfined compression test,
consolidation test and triaxial test may be performed on collected undisturbed soil samples
according to ASTM (American Standards for Testing Materials) methods.
This Lab manual was prepared with the help of ASTM and ―Engineering Properties
of Soil based on Laboratory Testing.
Contents:
Experiment 1: “Direct shear test” .................................................................. 5
Objective: .................................................................................................................................. 5
Knowledge of equipment:........................................................................................................ 5
Procedure: ................................................................................................................................ 6
Parts of Apparatus:.................................................................................................................. 7
Data: .......................................................................................................................................... 8
Graphs: .................................................................................................................................. 10
Experiment # 2 ................................................................................... 12
Procedure: .............................................................................................................................. 13
Calculations: ........................................................................................................................... 13
Data: ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Graph: ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Experiment # 3 ................................................................................... 15
Apparatus ............................................................................................................................... 15
Procedure: .............................................................................................................................. 16
Table: ...................................................................................................................................... 17
GRAPH: .................................................................................................................................. 19
Result: ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Objective: ................................................................................................................................ 39
Apparatus: .............................................................................................................................. 39
Procedure: .............................................................................................................................. 40
Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 42
References: 46
Objective:
To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear apparatus.
3. Dial gauge.
4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper.
6. Straight edge.
8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.
APPARATUS
Knowledge of equipment:
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading unit,
proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two piece square
shear box is one type of soil container used.
A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated in the shearing plane.
Procedure:
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is desired
tamp the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate the
density of the soil.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between
two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment
Parts of Apparatus:
4. Proving ring for Shear force measurement. Loads are kept in loading frame for application
of normal stress
Data:
1) Normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 L.C=0.01 P.R.C=0.425
Horizontal Proving
Horizontal/shear Shear
Gauge Ring Shear Stress
Deformation Force (kg)
Reading Reading
0 0 0 0 0.000
50 16 0.5 6.8 0.241
100 21 1 8.925 0.316
150 26 1.5 11.05 0.391
200 29 2 12.325 0.436
250 33 2.5 14.025 0.496
300 35 3 14.875 0.526
350 37 3.5 15.725 0.556
400 38 4 16.15 0.571
450 39 4.5 16.575 0.586
500 40 5 17 0.601
550 40 5.5 17 0.601
600 41 6 17.425 0.616
650 41 6.5 17.425 0.616
700 41 7 17.425 0.616
750 42 7.5 17.85 0.631
800 46 8 19.55 0.692
850 46 8.5 19.55 0.692
900 46 9 19.55 0.692
950 46 9.5 19.55 0.692
1000 45 10 19.125 0.677
Graphs: Graph # 1
1.4 Normal
Stress 0.5
1.2 kg/cm^2
Normal
Shear Stress ()KPa)
1 Stress 1
kg/cm^2
0.8 Normal
Stress 1.5
kg/cm^2
0.6
Normal
0.4 Stress 2
kg/cm^2
0.2
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
Graph # 2
1.4
1.2
Shear stress (Kg/cm^2)
y = 0.3786x + 0.2335
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Normal Stress (kg/cm^2)
Conclusion:
Cohesion = 0.2335
Internal friction angle = 21o
General Remarks:
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a
predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the
shear box. This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading, the state of stress
cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure condition i.e. Mohr’s circle can be drawn
at the failure condition only. Also failure is progressive.
2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used in shear
box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also
useful to study friction between two materials one material in lower half of box and another
material in the upper half of box.
3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of
grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28o
(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46o (well graded sand with
angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on gradation,
particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal planes, principal stress ratio,
stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of apparatus, test procedure, method
of preparing specimen etc. In general loose sands expand and dense sands contract in volume
on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either expansion contraction in volume takes place.
This void ratio is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the
movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and interlocking
action.
The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and dense sand
approximately attain the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at
ultimate stage, slight disturbance in density during sampling and preparation of test
specimens will not have much effect.
Experiment # 2:
Objective:
The aim of this laboratory test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength
of a cohesive soil.
Apparatus:
Bottom
Conical
Plate
Motor
Procedure:
• Place the specimen in the loading device so that it is centered on the bottom platen.
• Adjust the loading device carefully so that the upper platen just makes contact with
the specimen.
• Zero the deformation indicator or record the initial reading of the electronic
deformation device.
Record load, deformation, and time values at sufficient intervals to define the shape
of the stress-strain curve (usually 10 to 15 points are sufficient).
• The rate of strain should be chosen so that the time to failure does not exceed about
15 min
• Continue loading until the load values decrease with increasing strain, or until 15
% strain is reached
• Determine the water content of the test specimen using the entire specimen, unless
representative trimmings are obtained for this purpose, as in the case of undisturbed
specimens
Calculations:
Axial Strain Formula:
e = (ΔL /L0) × 100
Area Correction:
Ac = A0 / (1- (e /100)
Compressive stress, σc:
σc = P/Ac
Data:
Least Count (L.C) = 0.01 mm
Proving Ring Constant (PRC) = 0.218 kg/division
Graph:
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Axial Strain (%)
Result:
Experiment # 3
Objective:
Apparatus
Axial Load-Measuring Device APPARATUS
Axial Loading Device
Triaxial Compression Chamber
Axial Load Piston
Pressure Control Device
Specimen Cap and Base
Deformation Indicator
Rubber Membrane
Timer
Balances
Specimen Size Measurement Devices
Sample Extruder
Miscellaneous:
Apparatus—Specimen trimming and carving
tools including a wire saw, steel straightedge,
miter box and vertical trimming lathe,
apparatus for preparing compacted specimens,
remolding apparatus, water content cans, and
data sheets shall be provided as required.
Procedure:
The loading ram was brought into contact with the loading cap. Then cautiously the
TRIAXIAL cell was raised to bring the loading ram in contact with the proving ring.
(This is shown by small deflection, maybe 2 divisions, as observed from the dial gauge).
A cell pressure was then applied, this was done by opening the cell pressure supply
valve.
Proper adjustment was giving to the proving ring’s position, to make contact with the
loading ram, then zero the dial gauge.
The strain rate was set to 1.25 mm/min, after this the machine was turned on.
The proving ring dial gauge readings (divisions) were recorded subsequent to the
vertical defection.
The machine is to be switched off when either the proving ring gauge goes backwards
or if a 16mm deformation is achieved. In this lab test, the machine was switched off
when the proving ring gauge started going backwards.
The cell pressure valve was closed and drained of water into the water cylinder.
Then cautiously the cell was lowered and the loading ram discharged. Then the Perspex
cylinder top was removed and the soil sample extracted.
The whole tested soil specimen was then used to determine a water content.
Then the above steps were repeated at the desired cell pressures.
∈ = ΔH/ H0
Where,
H0 = initial height of specimen minus any change in length prior to loading, mm (in.)
Ac = A0 / (1− ∈/100)
Where,
Deviator stress:
(σ1−σ3) = P / Ac
Where:
P = given applied axial load (corrected for uplift and piston friction, if required), kPa (psi).
Unit Axial
Elapsed Axial
Deformation Proving Corrected Applied Axial load Load
time strain
Dial (ΔL) Ring Dial Area (6)=3×calibration (Deviator
(min) (e)
(2) (3) (5) factor stress)
(1) (4)
(7)=6/5
0.00 0 0 0 4.91 0 0
0.88 0.005 0.0012 0.0009 4.91 7.2 1.5
1.75 0.01 0.0025 0.0017 4.91 15 3.1
2.63 0.015 0.0037 0.0026 4.92 22.2 4.5
3.50 0.02 0.0053 0.0034 4.92 31.8 6.5
4.38 0.025 0.0066 0.0043 4.93 39.6 8.0
5.25 0.05 0.014 0.0086 4.95 84 17.0
6.13 0.075 0.0201 0.0129 4.97 120.6 24.3
7.00 0.1 0.0256 0.0172 4.99 153.6 30.8
7.88 0.125 0.0294 0.0215 5.01 176.4 35.2
8.75 0.15 0.0321 0.0258 5.04 192.6 38.2
9.63 0.175 0.0337 0.0301 5.06 202.2 40.0
10.50 0.2 0.0331 0.0344 5.08 198.6 39.1
11.25 0.225 0.0305 0.0387 5.10 183 35.9
GRAPH:
Stress-Strain Curve
45
40
35
Stress (lb/in^2)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045
Axial Strain (in/in)
Result:
Objective: Vane shear test is used to determine the undrained shear strength of soils
especially soft clays. This test can be done in laboratory or in the field directly on the ground.
Vane shear test gives accurate results for soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2).
Apparatus:-
3. Vernier calipers.
of handles.
Take the soil specimen in container which is generally 75 mm in height and 37.5 mm
in diameter.
Level the soil surface on the top and mount the container on the base of vane shear test
Lower the vane gradually into the soil specimen until the top of vane is at a depth of 10
Note down the reading of pointer on circular graduated scale which is initial reading.
Rotate the vane inside the soil specimen using torque applying handle at a rate of
When the specimen fails, the strain indicator pointer will move backwards on the
circular graduated scale and at this point stop the test and note down the final reading
of pointer.
The difference between Initial and final readings is nothing but the angle of torque.
Repeat the procedure on two more soil specimens and calculate the average shear
strength value.
Sensitivity of given soil sample is determined by repeating the above test procedure on
remolded soil which is nothing but soil obtained after rapid stirring of vane in the above
test.
Shear
Initial Final Spring
S. Difference Torque G = 1/π × Strength
Reading Reading Constant
No (Deg) (T) (D2H/2+D3/6) (S=T*G)
(Deg) (Deg) (Kg-cm)
(Kg-cm-2)
Objective:
To Determine the rate and magnitude of settlement in soils.
Parts of Consolidometer
Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.002mm)
Knife or spatula or fine metal wires
Weighing balance (accuracy of 0.01g)
1. First step is to collect the soil specimen using consolidation metal ring. The ring should be
clean and dried and its weight, inner diameter and height are measured using weighing balance
and calipers respectively.
2. Now press the metal ring into the soil sample using hands and it is taken out with soil specimen.
3. The soil specimen should project about 10 mm on either side of metal ring.
4. Now trim the excess soil content on top and bottom of the rings using Knife or spatula or fine
metal wires. This excess soil can be used to measure the water content of soil sample.
5. Make sure that the ring should not contain any soil on its outer part and weight the metal ring
with soil specimen.
6. Take two porous stones and saturate them by boiling (15 minutes) or by submerging (4 to 8
hours) in distilled water.
7. Assemble the Consolidometer. Place the parts of Consolidometer from bottom to top in the
order beginning with bottom porous stone, filter paper, specimen ring, filter paper and top
porous stone.
8. Place the loading pad on the top porous stone and lock the Consolidometer using metal screws
provided.
9. Mount the whole assembly on the loading frame and center it such that the load applied is axial.
10. Arrange the dial gauge in a position in such a way that it should allow sufficient space for
swelling of soil specimen.
11. Water reservoir is connected to the mounted assembly to saturate the soil. The water level in
the water reservoir should be of same level as the soil specimen.
12. Now apply the initial trail load which should not allow any swelling in the soil. In general 5
kN/m2 initial load applied for ordinary soils and 2.5 kN/m2 is applied for very soft soils.
13. Leave the load until there is no change in dial gauge reading or for 24 hours and note down the
final reading of dial gauge for initial load.
14. First load increment of 10 kN/m2 is applied and start the stop watch immediately and note down
the readings of dial gauge at various time intervals. In general, readings are taken at 0.25, 1,
2.5, 4, 6.25, 9, 16, 25, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hrs.
15. In general primary consolidation of soil (90% of consolidation) is reached within 24 hours.
Hence readings are noted up to 24 hours.
16. Next apply the second load increment of 20 kN/m2 and repeat same procedure as said in 14 th
step.
17. Similarly apply the load increments 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kN/m2 and repeat the same
procedure and note down the readings.
18. When values of last load increment are noted, now reduce the load to ¼ of the last load value
and leave it for 24 hours. At this point note down the dial gauge reading. Reduce the load again
and again and repeat the procedure until the load gets 10 kN/m2. At every point note down the
final gauge readings.
19. Now remove the assembly from loading frame and dismantle it.
20. Take out the specimen ring and wipe out the excess water and Weigh the specimen ring and
note down.
21. Finally Put the specimen in oven and determine the dry weight of specimen.
Height Voids, Hv = H – Hs
Void ratio, e = Hv / Hs
Height Height
Intensity Initial Final Initial
∆H Specimen of of Void
Pressure Dial Dial Height
(mm) height, H solids, voids, Ratio, e
( kN/m ) Reading
2 Reading Ho(mm)
Hs Hv
Graphs to be plotted:
o Dial gauge reading Vs. square root of time to determine the coefficient of consolidation (Cv).
o Final void ration Vs logarithmic of effective stress – To determine Compression Index (Cc).
Graphs:
DETERMINATION OF mv and Cc
1.1
1
e
0.9 1 1, 0.91
void ratio (e)
0.8
0.7 5, 0.69
e2
0.6
0.5 P1
0.1 1 P2 10 100
Log of Pressure
50
100
150
190
200
250
300
350
690 793 Square-root of Time
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Square-root of Time
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
Square-root of Time
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
Square-root of Time
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2.2
1400
Dial Gauge Reading
1450
1500
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
Square-root of Time
Objective:
To find the penetration Resistance of soil and determine in-situ properties of cohesion less
soils.
Test Procedure:
The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler. Once
the drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the sampler is placed
inside the bore hole.
By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate of
30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil. This is as per IS -2131:1963.
The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted. Further it is
driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.
Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of blows
recorded.
The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken into consideration.
The number of blows recorded for last two 150mm intervals are added to give the standard
penetration number (N).
In other words,
N = No: of blows required for 150mm penetration beyond seating drive of 150mm.
If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test
is discontinued. The standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy correction
and overburden correction.
1. Dilatancy Correction:
Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore water pressure which is not
easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the
penetration number (N).
Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommend the following correction in the case of silty fine sands
when the observed value is N exceeds 15.
The corrected penetration number, NC = 15 + 0.5 (NR -15)
cohesive soil.
Fall = 30 inches.
Drop Blows
6 inches 11 blows
12 inches 15 blows
18 inches 24 blows
o Bore hole dia factor CB, As equipment variables are 65-115mm so correction factor
is 1.
o Rod length Correction CR, As Rod length is 3-4 m so correction factor is 0.75
Em C B C S C R N
N 60 (Putting the values in this eq.)
0.60
Value of N come out is 39 but after all the corrections, N60 value is 29
Meyerhof’s Equations
Bowles’ Equations
Terzaghi’s Method (Graphical Method)
Brinch Hansens Method
We will find the bearing capacity by the above 2 equations/methods for a footing of 4 feet
wide strip, and the bottom surface of footing is 3 feet above from ground level.
1. Meyerhof’s Equations:
Soil SPT Number, N60 = 29,
Width of footing, B = 4 feet,
Bottom surface of footing above the ground level, D = 3 feet.
Meyerhof’s Equation,
( N 4)
Qa
K
K 1 0.33( D B)
Putting the values,
K 1 0.33(3 4)
K = 1.2475
( 29 4 )
Qa
1.2475
Qa = 5.8 kips/ft2
2. Bowles’ Equations:
( N 2.5)
Qa
K
Where
( 29 2.5)
Qa
1.2475
Qa = 9.3 kips/ft2
Objective:
To determine the ultimate bearing capacity using plate load test.
Apparatus:
Mild Steel plate
Reaction beam or reaction truss
Dial gauges
Excavating tools
Necessary equipment for loading platform
loading columns
Settlement recording devices
Hydraulic jack and pump
Procedure:
1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth. The pit size should be at least 5 times the size
of the test plate (Bp).
2. At the center of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. Size of the hole is same
as the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole should correspond to the level
of actual foundation. The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio of the depth to
width of the hole is equal to the ratio of the actual depth to actual width of the
foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as load bearing plate whose thickness should be at least 25
mm thickness and size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The plate can be square or
circular. Generally, a square plate is used for square footing and a circular plate is used
for circular footing.
4. A column is placed at the center of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate through
the centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by truss
method.
6. For gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load is
applied to the platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads. The hydraulic
jack is placed in between column and loading platform for the application of gradual
loading. This type of loading is called reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record the
settlement. The gauges are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with the plate.
8. Apply seating load of .7 T/m2 and release before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. The load is then applied through hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The increment
is generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-tenth of the ultimate
bearing capacity or any other smaller value. The applied load is noted from pressure
gauge.
11. The settlement is observed for each increment and from dial gauge. After increasing
the load-settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40 and 60 minutes and then at
hourly intervals until the rate of settlement is less than .02 mm per hour. The readings
are noted in tabular form
12. After completing of the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load
increment is applied and readings are noted under new load. This increment and data
collection is repeated until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is
generally 1.5 times the expected ultimate load or 3 times of the expected allowable
bearing pressure.
𝒒𝒖(𝒇) = 𝒒𝒖(𝒑) 𝒙 𝑩𝒇 / 𝑩𝒑
Calculations:
Observations Table:
Se (P)
Assume Width qo = Qo/ Bf2 Se (F) from
Qo (kN) corresponding
Bf (m) (kN/m2) equation (mm)
to qo (mm)
Conclusion:
The column footing with dimensions of 3.1m × 3.1m will be appropriate
References: (ASTM)
https://www.scribd.com/doc/226087086/ASTM-D2435-Standard-Test-Method-for-
One-Dimensional-Consolidatin-Properties-of-SoilsUsing-Incremental-Loading
http://www.engr.mun.ca/~spkenny/Courses/Undergraduate/ENGI6723/Reading_List/
ASTM_D_4767_95_Triaxial_CU_Cohesive_Soils.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288191270_Standard_test_method_for_dire
ct_shear_test_of_under_drained_conditions_D3080-98
http://www.jeanlutzsa.fr/public/temp/Normes/ASTM/D1586.17074.pdf
https://www.scribd.com/doc/178721614/ASTM-D-1194-94-Standard-Test-Method-
for-Bearing-Capacity-of-Soil-for-Static-Load-and-Spread-Footings
THE END