The effects of topographic irregularities on

ground motions have played an important role

in damage during past earthquakes.
Perhaps the best known example of
topographic effects was produced by an
accelerograph on the Pacoima Dam in
southern California.
The Pacoima Dam accelerograph recorded
peak horizontal accelerations of about 1.25g
in the 1971 San Fernando (ML = 6.4)
earthquake.
 This PHA was considerably larger than
expected for an earthquake of this magnitude.

Topography
The accelerograph, was located at the crest
• Valley

Effects
of a narrow, rocky ridge adjacent to the dam.
• Ridge
The subsequent investigations have
attributed high peak accelerations to dynamic • Slope variations
response of the ridge itself : A topographic
effect.
Similarly, less damage was observed to
structures situated in valleys.
In case of a ridge topography, apex
displacements are amplified by focusing
and diffractions.
For example consider a triangular infinite
ridge-wedge topography subjected to
vertically propagating SH-waves with
particle motion parallel to its axis. Characterization of simple topographic irregularities; (a)
The maximum amplification of ground notation for a triangular wedge; (b) approximation of
motion occurs to those seismic waves actual ground surface (solid line) at trough and crest by
whose wavelength matches with the width wedges.
of base of the ridge (or ridge width).
2π
Amplified Ground Motion = A0
Φ2

where Φ2 is the ridge-wedge angle in

radians and A0 is the amplitude of
incident wave.
The intensity on a ridge may be 1-2
scales larger as compared with the
surrounding.
Amplitude of ground motion increases with the
increase of elevation of the recording station on the
same slopping side of the ridge.
Increased amplification near the crest of a ridge
was measured in five earthquakes in Matsuzaki,
Japan (Jibson, 1987).
Figure shows how the normalized peak
acceleration varied at different points along the
ridge.
The average peak crest acceleration was about 2.5
times the average base acceleration.

CONCLUSIONS:
Maximum spectral amplification at the
top of ridge for wavelength comparable
to the width of the base of the ridge.
Increase of amplification with elevation.
Amplification and de-amplification along
the flank of the ridge may occur.
This type of effect was observed on the Dewaldhar, Mawan, ridges during
recent Chamoli Earthquake (1999).
The base displacements are de-amplified
in valley.
Consider a triangular valley subjected to
vertically propagating SH-waves with
particle motion parallel to its axis.
2π
Deamplified Ground Motion = A0
Φ1
where Φ1 is the valley wedge angle in radians and A0 is the amplitude of incident wave.
The intensity in a valley may be 1-2 scales lesser as compared with the surrounding, if it is
free from the soil deposits.
Valley effect was observed in the Mandal valley and Pingala Pani and Unali during recent
Chamoli Earthquake (1999).
 MAJOR CONCLUSIONS
 The ridge-focusing is frequency-dependent and valley-defocusing is
frequency-independent.
 The ground motion level increase with elevation on the ridge and
maximum is obtained at the top of the ridge.
 There is de-amplification of ground motion at the base of valley and
increases towards its top.
 A ground motion amplification of the order 50% may occur near the top
corners of the valley.
 The amplification caused by ridge very much depends on the shape and
shape-ratio. It increase with the shape-ratio.
 The amplification at the top corners of valley very much depends on the
shape and shape-ratio. It decrease with increase of shape-ratio.