Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis

Lecturer: Scribes:

Note: LaTeX template courtesy of UC Berkeley EECS dept.

Disclaimer: These notes have not been subjected to the usual scrutiny reserved for formal publications.
They may be distributed outside this class only with the permission of the Instructor.

1.1 Transformation properties

1.1.1 Vectors and scalars

A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Ex: Displacement, velocity. Geometrically
vectors can be represented using arrows, where the length represents the magnitude and the arrow head
represent the direction
A scalar only has a magnitude and can be represented by a single real number. Ex: Distance, speed

1.1.2 Vector and scalar fields

This course is mainly concerned on scalar and vector fields. The mathematical definition of a field: Some
function that connects an arbitrary origin to a general point in space.
Generally, we associate a physical effect with a field. Eg: electric field, magnetic field, gravitational field.
Fields are always related to a region. Physically, both scalar and vector fields exist. The temperature at
any point on earth, density of the air at a given point are examples of scalar fields. The gravitational and
magnetic fields of the earth are examples of vector fields. In general, the value of a field varies with the
position and time.

1.1.3 Vector algebra

Scalar multiplication of a vector A by α just scales the vector when α > 0, otherwise in addition to scaling
the magnitude, it reverses the direction. In order to obtain the unit vector of a given vector A, we multiply
1
the vector by the inverse of its magnitude (Â = kAk A).

Vector addition can be performed by constructing a parallelogram which has two given vectors as its edges.
Then the main diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant vector. Vector addition follows com-
mutative property and associative property.
Scalar product multiplies two vectors and results in a scalar. The scalar product or the Dot product between
two vectors A and B is defined as follows, where θ is the angle between the two vectors.

A · B = kAk kBk cos θ (1.1)

1-1
1-2 Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis

Vector product also multiplies two vectors but it results in a new vector which is perpendicular to the
multiplied vectors. This direction is obtained by the right hand rule. The equation for the magnitude of the
product vector is :

A × B = kAk kBk sin θ , (1.2)

where θ is the angle (< π) between the two vectors.
Based on the above definition the following is true:

A × B = −B × A (1.3)

The triple product of vectors A, B, and C is defined as below:

A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (1.4)

The double vector product has the following identity and it is not associative.

A × (B × C) = (A · C) B − (A · B) C (1.5)

1.1.4 Linear vector transformation

Vector transformation is the mapping from one reference frame to another or one coordinate system to
another. A transformation matrix transforms a vector in one reference frame to the other. If vector A is
transformed from coordinate system c to C. The representation of A changes to A0 . Let us assume that
matrix T does this transformation. Then the following relationships are true.

A0 = TA (1.6)

A = TT A0 (1.7)

The inverse, T−1 , of a transformation matrix T is equal to its transpose, TT .

1.1.5 Cylindrical coordinate system

The cylindrical coordinate system has the angle between the x-axis and the projection of the vector on the
x-y plane φ, the length of the projection of the vector on the x-y plane, ρ and the projection of the vector
on the z axis.
The relationship between the variables of the rectangular coordinate system and the cylindrical coordinate
system can be expressed as follows.

x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ (1.8)
z = z
Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis 1-3

Figure 1.1: Cylindrical coordinates (Engineering Electromagnetics 8th Edition William H. Hayt Mc Graw-
Hill)

p
ρ = x2 + y 2
y
φ = tan−1 (1.9)
x
z = z

Dot product of unit vectors in the rectangular and the cylindrical systems are given by:
aρ aφ az
ax . cos φ − sin φ 0
ay . sin φ cos φ 0
az . 0 0 1

1.1.6 Spherical coordinate system

In the spherical coordinate system θ is the angle between the z axis and the vector. φ is the angle the
projection of the vector on x − y plane has with the x axis. r is the length of the vector from the origin.
Dot product of unit vectors in the rectangular and the spherical systems are given by:
ar aθ aφ
ax . sin θ cos φ cos θ cos φ − sin φ
ay . sin θ sin φ cos θ sin φ cos φ
az . cos θ − sin θ 0
Exercise 1: Given the two vectors A = 3ax − 2ay + 4az and B = 2ax + 1ay − 2az , propose two methods
to find the angle between the two vectors. Which method creates an ambiguity about the angle?
Exercise 2: Express the unit vector ax in spherical components at the point: (a) r = 2, θ = 1rad,
φ = 0.8rad; (b) x = 3, y = 2, z = 1; (c) ρ = 2.5, φ = 0.7rad, z = 1.5.
1-4 Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis

Figure 1.2: Spherical coordinates (Diagram taken from (William2012))

1.2 Gradient of a scalar field

The gradient of a differentiable scalar field φ differentiable on R can be expressed as follows:

Rectangular coordinates

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇φ = ax + ay + az (1.10)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇ denotes the vector differential operator.

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ax + ay + az (1.11)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Cylindrical coordinates
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= aρ + aθ + az (1.12)
∂ρ ρ ∂θ ∂z

Spherical coordinates

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= ar + aθ + aφ (1.13)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

The gradient of a scalar field points in the direction of the greatest change in the scalar field. Therefore it
results in a vector field.
Properties of the grad operator:

• The gradient of a scalar field in a particular direction can be calculated using the dot product.

• At any point p, grad φ points at the greatest rate of change of φ at p, and has the magnitude of the
rate of change of you with respect to distance in that direction.
Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis 1-5

• Gradient of a constant function is normal to the the surface of the function

p
Exercise 1: Calculate the gradient of f (x, y, z) = 3x2 + 5y + z 3 .

1.3 Vector properties of the ∇ operator

Distributive laws

∇ · (A + B) = ∇ · A + ∇ · B (1.14)

∇ × (A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B (1.15)

Product laws
∇ · (φA) = φ∇ · A + A · ∇φ (1.16)

∇ × (φA) = φ (∇ × A) + ∇φ × A (1.17)

Product of two vector fields

∇(A · B) = (A · ∇)B + (B · ∇)A + A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A) (1.18)

∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B) (1.19)

∇ × (A × B) = A(∇ · B) − B(∇ · A) + (B · ∇)A − (A · ∇)B (1.20)

Identities having two ∇s

∇ × (∇φ) = 0 Curl of a grad is always zero (1.21)

∇ · (∇ × A) = 0 Div of a curl is always zero (1.22)

∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A (1.23)

1.4 Divergence of a vector field and divergence theorem

1.4.1 Divergence

Divergence of a vector field results in a scalar field since it is the dot product of the ∇ operator with the
vector field. In mathematical notation the divergence of a vector field f~(x, y, z) is given by ∇ · f~.
1-6 Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis

Exercise : Calculate the divergence of f~(x, y, z) = ~ + y~j + z~k), where r =

1
p
r 3 (xi x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Divergence (in the physical sense) is the outward flux (efflux) creation from a unit volume of the vector field
at each point inside the physical space where the vector field exist. Flux is a vector quantity. It describes
the magnitude and direction of the flow of a substance or property.

1.4.2 Divergence theorem

If F is a vector field and S is a closed surface covering region R, the following identity is true.

¨ ˚
F · dA = ∇ · FdV (1.24)
S R

Exercise : The paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 

and the plane z= 1, is the boundary of a region R. Let S represent
˜
this boundary. Evaluate the integral y~i + x~j + z 2~k · dA.
S

1.5 Curl of a vector field and Stokes’ theorem

Curl of a vector field A = ax~i + ay~j + az~k is the cross product between the ∇ and the vector field. The curl
can be calculated using the same way we calculate the determinant of a matrix as shown below:

 ~i ~j ~k 
 
 ∂ ∂

∂ 
∇ × A =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
(1.25)
 a ay a 
x z

Curl represents the circulation per unit area of the field.

1.5.1 Stokes’ theorem

S is an oriented, piecewise smooth surface. C is a simple closed, piecewise smooth curve that bounds the
surface S. Oriented in this case implies that, if the thumb of the right hand points towards the normal vector
of surface S near the boundary, the other fingers should point in the direction of C.Let F be a vector field
having continuous derivatives in an open region of R3 containing S. Then Stokes’ theorem says:

˛ ¨
F · dr = curlF · dS (1.26)
C S

Example
Suppose S is that part of the plane x + y + z = 1 in the first octant, oriented with the upward-pointing
normal, and let C be its boundary, oriented counter-clockwise when viewed from above. If F = (x2 − y 2 )~i +
¸ ˜
(y 2 − z 2 )~j + (z 2 − x2 )~k, verify Stokes’ theorem by computing both Fdr and curlF · dS.
C S
Lecture 1: Revision of Vector Analysis 1-7

References
[William2012] W. H. Hayt and J. A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics 8th Edition,” Mc Graw-Hill,
2012, ISBN 978-0-07-338066-7.
[web1] “Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl ”, https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/ cs749/spr2016/handouts/
jem graddivcurl.pdf
[web2] “Vector operator identities” http://www2.ph.ed.ac.uk/ mevans/mp2h/VTF/lecture15.pdf

[web3] “Divergence theorem examples” http://math.umn.edu/ nega0024/docs/2263 S14/GaussExamples.pdf

[web4] “Stokes Theorem” http://www.math.harvard.edu/archive/21a spring 09/PDF/13-07-Stokes-thm.pdf