Understanding Leadership:

Explaining the Paradigms

Gayle C. Avery
Sage Publications Ltd
2004
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
LEADERSHIP
base CLASSICAL TRANS- VISIONARY ORGANIC
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
CHARAC-
power coercion, expert, ACTIONAL
interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
TERISTIC referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
Key players Leader
alone.
Leader. Low
makes decision.
Emotion – Entire group.
Management & l’ship dominance
Management. role for
Management. High role for
Leadership. May be
Distributed many
leadership.
Philosophy of manage- through
Newtonian, low individual
Newtonian, low followers.
Newtonian and New Newleaders orcomplexity.
Science, high no
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
respect and/
control through leader.
followers.
mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control.
leaders.
managing members.
Cultural dimensions oronpower.
High Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
on Individualism. and Individualism.
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
LEADERSHIP coercion,
power CLASSICAL
expert,
referent, ownership.
TRANS-
interpersonal skills,
negotiated agreements.
VISIONARY
personal vision, followers’
emotions, charisma.
ORGANIC
collaboration, sharing power,
member attributions.
CHARAC-
Follower power Almost zero.
ACTIONAL
Low. Medium. High.
TERISTIC
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Followers’
Management Low..
& l’ship Management. Low to high..
Management. Medium to
Leadership. High. leadership.
Distributed
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
knowledge base complexity. High
ment and complexity complexity. High control
high..
Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
on Individualism. and Individualism.
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
LEADERSHIP
Decision making CLASSICAL
Leader decides LeaderTRANS-
consults, then VISIONARY
Leader collaborates. MutualORGANIC
decisions.
CHARAC- alone. ACTIONAL
makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
TERISTIC
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
Sources of Position,
control through leader. Position,
mostly from leader. Position,
complexity. Shared control. Group
managing power,
members.
leaderdimensions
Cultural power
(using Hofstede’s
reward,
High on Power
Distance Inequality,
reward,
Low or high Power
Distance Inequality and
referent,
High or low Powerexpert,
Distance
Inequality, Uncertainty
Lowexpertise,
Power Distance Inequality,
Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value coercion,
Uncertainty Avoidance coercion,
Masculinity. High on personal
Avoidance vision,
and Masculinity. collaboration,
Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) expert, Low
and Masculinity.
on Individualism.
interpersonal
Uncertainty Avoidance
and Individualism.
followers’
Medium on Individualism. sharing power,
Diversity referent,
Low. skills,
Medium. emotions,
Medium. member
High.
Adaptability ownership.
Rapid, through command, negotiated
Slow. Followers need to charisma.
Slow – need to shift mindsets Canattributions.
be agile because members
but follower needs to have beagreements.
heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader.
Followers’ knowledge Low.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward,
power coercion, expert,
referent, ownership.
Follower power Almost zero.
Decision making Leader decides
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL
alone.
CHARAC-
Management & l’ship Management.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low
TERISTIC
ment and complexity complexity. High
control through leader.
Follower
Cultural power
dimensions Almost
High on Powerzero.
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low
on Individualism.
Diversity Low.
Adaptability Rapid, through command,
but follower needs to have
necessary skills. Leader
knows where to go. Suits
incremental change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers
accountability limited to specific task
performance.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy.
Matching context Simple, stable.
TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Low to high. Medium to high. High.
Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Low. Medium. High.
Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
makes TRANS-
decision. VISIONARY ORGANIC
ACTIONAL
Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Low.
Low or high
. Power Medium.
High or low Power Distance LowHigh.
Power Distance Inequality,
Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
and Individualism.
Medium. Medium. High.
Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low TRANS-
Newtonian, low VISIONARY
Newtonian and New ORGANIC
New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
CHARAC- control through leader.
ACTIONAL
mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
TERISTIC
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
Decision
dimensions) Leader
and decides
Masculinity. Low Leader Avoidance
Uncertainty consults, leader
Medium on Individualism. Mutual decisions.
making onalone.
Individualism.
. then
and makes
Individualism. collaborates.
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
decision.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
LEADERSHIP
ment and complexity CLASSICAL
complexity. High TRANS-
complexity. High control VISIONARY
Science mixed. Medium ORGANIC
Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
CHARAC-
Cultural dimensions High on Power
ACTIONAL
Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
TERISTIC
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
Management & onManagement.
Individualism. Management.
and Individualism. Leadership. Distributed
leadership
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. leadership.
High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
LEADERSHIP
(using Hofstede’s
national value
CLASSICAL
Distance Inequality,
Uncertainty Avoidance
TRANS-
Distance Inequality and
Masculinity. High on
VISIONARY
Inequality, Uncertainty
Avoidance and Masculinity.
ORGANIC
Uncertainty Avoidance,
Individualism and Masculinity.
CHARAC-
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low ACTIONAL
Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
on Individualism. and Individualism.
TERISTIC
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
Philosophy of butNewtonian,
follower needs to have beNewtonian, low
heard and influenced. andNewtonian
win people to newand
vision. are New Science,
constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
management lowwhere to go. Suits
knows complexity. NewandScience
systems processes with for high complexity.
extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
and complexity
Responsibility and
complexity.
Leader high. Followers
High control
Leader high. Followers
mixed. Medium
Leader high. Followers
Letting go of
Everyone high. Self-
accountability High
limited control
to specific task mostly for
accountable from
limited complexity.
accountable to leaders for control. bySelf-
accountability commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes.
Matching structure
through leader.
Simple, bureaucracy.
leader.
Simple, bureaucracy,
Shared control.
Adhocracy, divisional.
managing
to tasks and others.
Adhocracy, network.
divisional. members.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
LEADERSHIP
dimensions) andCLASSICAL
Masculinity. Low TRANS-
Uncertainty Avoidance VISIONARY
Medium on Individualism. ORGANIC
on Individualism. and Individualism.
CHARAC-
Diversity Low.
ACTIONAL
Medium. Medium. High.
TERISTIC
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
Cultural High on Power
necessary skills. Leader
Low or high High or low
Inspire change. Need to align
Low Power
change. Can be slowed by need
dimensions Distance
knows where to go. Suits Power Distance Power
systems Distance
and processes with for Distance
extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
(using Inequality, Inequality and Inequality, Inequality,
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
Hofstede’s
accountability Uncertainty
limited to specific task Masculinity.
accountable for limited Uncertainty
accountable to leaders for Uncertainty
accountability by commitment
national value Avoidance and
performance. High on
outcomes. Avoidance and
outcomes. Avoidance,
to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
dimensions) Masculinity. Uncertainty
divisional. Masculinity. Individualism and
Matching context Lowstable.
Simple, on Avoidance
Simple, stable. and Medium
Simple, complex,on
stable Masculinity.
Complex, dynamic.
Individualism. Individualism. Individualism.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader.
Followers’ knowledge Low.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward,
power coercion, expert,
referent, ownership.
Follower power Almost zero.
Decision making Leader decides
alone.
Management & l’ship Management.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low
ment and complexity complexity. High
control through leader.
Cultural dimensions High on Power
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low
on Individualism.
Diversity Low.
Adaptability Rapid, through command,
LEADERSHIP butCLASSICAL
follower needs to have
necessary skills. Leader
CHARAC- knows where to go. Suits
incremental change.
TERISTIC
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers
accountability limited to specific task
performance.
Diversity
Matching structure
Low..
Simple, bureaucracy.
Matching context Simple, stable.
TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Low to high. Medium to high. High.
Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Low. Medium. High.
Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
makes decision.
Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
and Individualism.
Medium. Medium. High.
Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
TRANS-
be heard and influenced. and VISIONARY
win people to new vision.
Inspire change. Need to align
ORGANIC
are constantly prepared for
change. Can be slowed by need
ACTIONAL systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
outcomes. outcomes.
Medium..
Simple, bureaucracy,
Medium.
Adhocracy, divisional.
High.
to tasks and others.
Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANS-
individual followers. VISIONARY
followers. leadersORGANIC
or no leaders.
CHARAC-
Followers’ knowledge Low.
base
LowACTIONAL
to high. Medium to high. High.

TERISTIC
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
Adaptability Rapid,
referent, through
ownership. Slow. Followers
negotiated agreements. Slowcharisma.
emotions, – need to Canattributions.
member be agile
Follower power command,
Almost zero. but Low. shift mindsets
need to be heard Medium. because members
High.
Decision making follower
Leader decides needs and consults,
Leader influenced.
then andcollaborates.
Leader win people are decisions.
Mutual constantly
to have
alone. makes decision. to new vision. prepared for
necessary
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Inspire change.
Leadership. change.
Distributed Can be
leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity
skills. Leader
complexity. High complexity. High control
Need to align
Science mixed. Medium
slowed by need
Letting go of control. Self-
knows
control where
through leader. mostly from leader. systems
complexity. andcontrol.
Shared for extensive
managing members.
Cultural dimensions to on
High go. Suits
Power Low or high Power processes
High or low Powerwith
Distance Lowconsultation.
Power Distance Inequality,
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value
incremental
Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on
change. Suits
Avoidance and Masculinity.
Suits large and
Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) change.
and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance major
Medium change.
on Individualism. small scale
on Individualism. and Individualism.
change.
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANS- VISIONARY ORGANIC
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
CHARAC-
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low ACTIONAL
Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
TERISTIC
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
Responsibility
(using Hofstede’s Leader
Distance high.
Inequality, Leader
Distance high.and
Inequality Leader
Inequality, high.
Uncertainty Everyone
Uncertainty high.
Avoidance,
and
national value
dimensions)
Followers
Uncertainty Avoidance
and Masculinity. Low
Followers
Masculinity. High on
Uncertainty Avoidance
Followers
Avoidance and Masculinity.
Medium on Individualism.
Self- and Masculinity.
Individualism

accountability onlimited to
Individualism. accountable
and Individualism. for accountable to accountability,
Diversity specific task
Low. limited
Medium. leaders for
Medium. self-
High.
Adaptability performance.
Rapid, through command,
but follower needs to have
outcomes.
Slow. Followers need to
be heard and influenced.
outcomes.
Slow – need to shift mindsets
and win people to new vision.
Canresponsibility by
be agile because members
are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align commitment
change. Can be slowed bytoneed
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. tasks
large andscale
and small others.
change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
LEADERSHIP
ment and complexity CLASSICAL
complexity. High TRANS-
complexity. High control VISIONARY
Science mixed. Medium ORGANIC
Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
CHARAC- ACTIONAL
Cultural dimensions High on Power Low or high Power High or low Power Distance Low Power Distance Inequality,
TERISTIC
(using Hofstede’s Distance Inequality, Distance Inequality and Inequality, Uncertainty Uncertainty Avoidance,
national value Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity. High on Avoidance and Masculinity. Individualism and Masculinity.
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
Matching onSimple,
Individualism. Simple,
and Individualism. Adhocracy, Adhocracy,
structure
Diversity bureaucracy
Low. bureaucracy,
Medium. divisional
Medium. network
High.
Adaptability Rapid, through command, divisional
Slow. Followers need to Slow – need to shift mindsets Can be agile because members
but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. and win people to new vision. are constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.
LEADERSHIP CLASSICAL TRANSACTIONAL VISIONARY ORGANIC
CHARACTERISTIC
Key players Leader. Leader. Low role for Leader. High role for Entire group. May be many
individual followers. followers. leaders or no leaders.
Followers’ knowledge Low. Low to high. Medium to high. High.
base
Sources of leader Position, reward, Position, reward, coercion, Position, referent, expert, Group power, expertise,
power coercion, expert, interpersonal skills, personal vision, followers’ collaboration, sharing power,
referent, ownership. negotiated agreements. emotions, charisma. member attributions.
Follower power Almost zero. Low. Medium. High.
Decision making Leader decides Leader consults, then Leader collaborates. Mutual decisions.
alone. makes decision.
Management & l’ship Management. Management. Leadership. Distributed leadership.
Philosophy of manage- Newtonian, low Newtonian, low Newtonian and New New Science, high complexity.
ment and complexity complexity. High complexity. High control Science mixed. Medium Letting go of control. Self-
control through leader. mostly from leader. complexity. Shared control. managing members.
LEADERSHIP
Cultural dimensions CLASSICAL
High on Power Low orTRANS-
high Power HighVISIONARY
or low Power Distance ORGANIC
Low Power Distance Inequality,
CHARAC-
(using Hofstede’s
national value
Distance Inequality,
Uncertainty Avoidance
ACTIONAL
Distance Inequality and
Masculinity. High on
Inequality, Uncertainty
Avoidance and Masculinity.
Uncertainty Avoidance,
Individualism and Masculinity.
TERISTIC
dimensions) and Masculinity. Low Uncertainty Avoidance Medium on Individualism.
on Individualism. and Individualism.
Diversity Low. Medium. Medium. High.
Matching
Adaptability
Simple, stable Simple, stable
Rapid, through command, Slow. Followers need to
Simple,
Slow – need to shift mindsets
Complex,
Can be agile because members
context but follower needs to have be heard and influenced. andcomplex,
win people to stable
new vision. are dynamic
constantly prepared for
necessary skills. Leader Inspire change. Need
and/or dynamic to align change. Can be slowed by need
knows where to go. Suits systems and processes with for extensive consultation. Suits
incremental change. change. Suits major change. large and small scale change.
Responsibility and Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Leader high. Followers Everyone high. Self-
accountability limited to specific task accountable for limited accountable to leaders for accountability by commitment
performance. outcomes. outcomes. to tasks and others.
Matching structure Simple, bureaucracy. Simple, bureaucracy, Adhocracy, divisional. Adhocracy, network.
divisional.
Matching context Simple, stable. Simple, stable. Simple, complex, stable Complex, dynamic.
and/or dynamic.