SYNTAX

Syntax is the grammar, structure, or order of the elements in a language statement.

(Semantics is the meaning of these elements.) Syntax applies to computer languages as well as to
natural languages. Usually, we think of syntax as "word order." However, syntax is also achieved
in some languages such as Latin by inflectional case endings. In computer languages, syntax can
be extremely rigid as in the case of most assembler languages or less rigid in languages that
make use of "keyword" parameters that can be stated in any order.

C.W. Morris in his Foundations of the Theory of Signs (1938) organizes semiotics, the study
of signs, into three areas: syntax (the study of the interrelation of the signs); semantics (the study
of the relation between the signs and the objects to which they apply); and pragmatics (the
relationship between the sign system and the user).

DETERMINERS

There are many different determiners in the English language.

Articles
Articles are among the most common of the determiners. A, an, and the all express the
definiteness and specificity of a noun.
For example, “the” is a definite article, meaning the person using the word is referring to a
specific one. On the other hand, “a” or “an” are indefinite articles.
 The dog is barking too loudly.
 A student returned the book.
Demonstratives
Demonstratives, such as this, that, these and those, require a frame of reference in which an
individual can point out the entities referred to by a speaker or a writer.
 Do you want this piece of chicken?
 I don't want to go to that movie.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers, such as all, few, and many, point out how much or how little of something is
being indicated.
 He took all the books.
 Few of the children wanted to go to the zoo.
Possessives
 When referring to an entity that belongs to another, you can use possessives. My, your, their,
and its are a few examples.
 Is this your car?
 The dog growled and showed its teeth.
There are many other types of determiners. For instance, cardinal numbers, the numbers that
are written out in English, are also included in the class of determiners. Determiners are
generally split into two groups—definite determiners and indefinite determiners.
Function of a Determiners
A determiner can take on a number of different meanings and roles in a sentence. The
determiner is used in every case to clarify the noun.
 They may be used to demonstrate or define something or someone.
Quantifiers state how many of a thing, in number or expression. A determiner is used to show
that the noun indicated is a specific one (that one), not an unspecific one (any).
 They may also state the differences between nouns.
While determiners may have a number of other functions, most of them are related to these
two key areas. The list of determiners only numbers about 50 words, and all of these words are
commonly used by most individuals. Determiners are not difficult to get the grasp of when
contrasted with adjectives, and do not take too long for native English speakers to grasp. After
all, how many times have you had trouble deciding whether to say “the” or “a”?
Determining Determiners
How should you choose which determiner to use? For those who were raised speaking the
English language, determining the determiner to use is second-nature, since determiners are so
often used in front of nouns.
Like the basic parts of speech, determiners are so ingrained into the English language that
using them is simple. The same goes for most Indo-European languages (for instance, Romance
languages such as Spanish and the Germanic languages such as German).
However, the languages of other countries may not use determiners, or may have sets of rules
very different than the English language does. For these individuals, learning how and where to
use determiners can be rather difficult.
Determiners and Adjectives
Until recently, English teaching in schools did not take determiners into account. Many
determiners were simply lumped into the category of “adjectives,” which works for some but
certainly not for all.
 Adjectives have primarily three functions: they modify noun phrases, or
complement the object or subject of a sentence.
 The function of a determiner is to express proximity, relationship, quantity, and
definiteness.
Determiners are not gradable as are adjectives. For example, a person may be angry, angrier,
or the angriest. A person can not be “her-est” or “the-est.”
 Determiners are usually necessary (or obligatory) in a sentence, whereas adjectives are not.
Adjectives, unlike determiners, cannot have corresponding pronouns.
Adjectives and determiners are distinct from one another and cannot simply be lumped into
the same category.

VERB

It is in primary school that students are formally given their first glimpse into the field of
grammar. At this educational level, the different parts of speech such as nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and verbs are all introduced.
Since you have learned these word types at your mother’s knee, it is understandable if you
need a little review to refresh your knowledge of basic grammar. This article will focus on
answering the question, “What is a verb?” and discuss its kinds and tenses.

What is a Verb?
A verb can be considered as one of the most important parts of a sentence. You probably
already know that a sentence must be composed of a subject and a predicate, so what makes a
verb so important? Well, the verb is the main component of a predicate. Without it, there won’t
be a sentence, just a bunch of words with an incomplete thought. Simply defined, the verb is a
part of speech which is used to demonstrate an action or a state of being.
What are the Different Kinds of Verbs?
Your primary school teachers must have defined verb as an “action word.” That is right,
however, verbs are more than just words that express an action done physically like:

run, jump, dance, write, kick, etc.

In reality, verbs may also refer to an action done mentally such as:

think, ponder, guess, imagine, wonder, etc.

Normal Verbs and Non-Continuous Verbs

The first type of verb used to express physical action is called a Normal Verb, while the
second one, which refers to an action you can’t see someone do, is called a Non-Continuous
Verb.
Sample Sentences:
 Jesse Pinkman laughed hysterically.
 The verb in this sentence is laughed and the subject who does the action is Jessie
Pinkman.
 Aegon Targaryen and his sisters conquered the Seven Kingdoms.
 The verb is conquered, while the subject in this sentence is Aegon Targaryen and
his sisters.
 Darth Vader thought of an evil plan to get rid of Darth Sidious.
 Thought is the mental action word done by the subject Darth Vader in the
sentence above.
  I wonder what will happen on the next episode.
 The pronoun, I, is the subject in the last sentence and the verb is wonder.

Linking Verb
Aside from the Normal Verbs and Non-Continuous Verbs, there is another type which is
called the Linking Verb.
As the name suggests, a linking verb is a kind of verb that links a subject to the complement.
A complement is the part of a sentence which modifies or provides more information about the
subject. Examples of linking verbs are:

am, is, was, are, were, has been, might have been, become, etc.

The words listed above are just some of the “true linking verbs.” They are called that way
because they have no other functions but to serve as linking verbs. However, just like some
people, certain verbs also have dual personalities. Take a look at the two sentences below:

 Irine tasted the exotic food.

 The exotic food tasted great!
In the first sentence, you can easily say that the italicized word is an action word done by
Irine. However, in the second sentence, the same word has a different function. It serves as a
linking verb that connects exotic food with the word, great.
What are Multi-Part Verbs?
Do not assume that verbs are limited to a single word. Sometimes, they come in two to four
words. The basic formula for verbs with multiple parts is:

The auxiliary verbs, also called “helping verbs,” allow you to write in various verb tenses
and voices when combined with a base or main verb.

Take a look at the examples below:

 I was given a two-week notice by the sales agent.

 The sentence above is written in the passive voice. Was is the auxiliary verb and
given is the main verb.
 It must have been raining very hard.
 The main verb is raining and the auxiliary verbs are must have been.
What are the Different Forms of Verbs?
In order to be able to construct a grammatically correct sentence, it is very important that you
know how to write in the proper verb tense. The three basic forms of verbs are past, present,
and future. The first one obviously refers to an action that was already done, the second is for
present action, and the third is for an action that will be done.
Examples:

Past Present Future

aimed aim/s will aim

counted count/s will count

marched march/es will march

picked pick/s will pick

walked walk/s will walk

You will notice that:

1. The present form is just the basic form of the verb (add –s or –es for a singular subject)
 Example: He marches; Soldiers march
2. The past tense is the basic form plus –ed.
 *Note: The past tense of a verb pertaining to a singular subject and a plural
subject is the same.
 Example: She walked; They walked
3. The future tense is the word will plus the basic form of the verb.
 *Note: The future tense of a verb pertaining to a singular subject and a plural
subject is the same.
 Example: Andrea will count; The teachers will count
Although most verbs follow these rules, there are still some exceptions. Take a look at the
examples below:

Past Present Future

drove drive/s will drive

 read read/s will read

felt feel/s will feel

taught teach/es will teach

thought think/s will think

The verbs presented in the table above are called irregular verbs. There are actually no
specific rules on how to form this kind of verb. But don’t worry because you can easily find a
complete list on the internet.

PREPOSITION

the preposition can be regarded as a locator not only of place, but also of time. In order for
you to better understand, please refer to the examples provided below.

The jelly beans are in the jar.

 The cat is on the roof.

Jake is beside Finn.

All of the blue italicized words (in, on, and beside) above are examples of prepositions which
say something about the location (place) of the nouns contained in the sample sentences.
As mentioned earlier, prepositions can also indicate the location in time of nouns
or pronouns. Take a look at the sentences below:
 During the summer, I always spend my time playing video games or reading sci-fi
books at home.
 At noon, I went to my wife’s office to surprise her.
 In the winter, plants somehow “hibernate” just like animals.
During the summer, at noon, and in the winter describe a particular time (location in
time).
What is the Function of Prepositions?
Aside from providing information about the location in place and time, this part of speech
usually comes before a noun or a pronoun to describe its relationship to another word or part of
the sentence.

Examples:

 I think it’s a vessel for

The italicized word “for” is a preposition which describes the relationship between the words
“vessel” and “weapons.”

 The child quickly hid under the thick covers.

 The word “under” is a preposition which links the nouns “child” and “covers,” and shows the
relationship between the two.

 My kite soared above the building.

In this sample sentence, the preposition “above” shows the relationship between the kite and
the building.

What is a Prepositional Phrase?

A prepositional phrase is simply a group of words which contains a preposition at the
beginning and a noun or a pronoun at the end. It usually follows this formula:

Preposition + Modifiers (not required) + Noun or Pronoun (object of the preposition)

Some Examples of Prepositional Phrases:

 Above the dark skies

Above= preposition; the and dark= modifiers; skies= noun
 In New York
In= preposition; New York= noun
 From my father
From= preposition; my= modifier; father= noun
Examples of Prepositions
Since there are so many possible relationships and locations in time and place that need to be
indicated, there is actually a long list of prepositions that can be used in sentences. Listed below
are most common prepositions in the English language:

 on  around  by means of
 off  according to  between
 up to  against  before
 along  after  beneath
 across  to  beyond
 as for  up  beside
 next  within  during
 through  in spite of  except for
 of  at  under
 as  out  down
 along with  behind  below
 apart from  past  by
 about  out of  over
  inside  into  instead of
 underneath  until  in front of
 except  unlike  in
 round  in back of  since
 from  like  despite
 outside  because of  on top of
 toward  with  throughout
 without  concerning  in place of
 in addition to  for  onto
 in  near  upon

Remember:

(Time)

 The preposition ”at” is used to indicate a specific time. (Example: at 9:30 am)
 In is used for unspecific times during a year, a season, a month, or a day. (Example: in
1984)
 The preposition “on” is used to state the date or the day of the week. (Example: on
Saturday)
 In measuring time, whether you are talking about seconds, hours, days, or years, the
preposition “for” should be used. (Example: We’ve been together for two years now.)
(Place)

 The preposition ”at” is used to state a specific address. (Example: at Block 22- Lot 71,
Dahlia Street, Angeles City)
 In is used for names of countries, cities, towns, villages, states, or continents. (Example:
in Sarajevo)
 For names of streets or avenues, the preposition “on” is appropriate to use. (Example: on
24thAvenue)

PRONOUN

In order to be able to write great compositions and communicate well, you must learn how to
use this type of word properly.
 So, what exactly is a pronoun?
For you to understand the concept easily, you can look at nouns as actors and pronouns as
stuntmen in movies. When a stuntman takes the place of an actor for a particular scene, he
represents the same character. Just the same, a pronoun replaces a noun in a particular sentence,
but it still refers to the same noun.
For example:
 Mr. White was a high school teacher turned race car driver. He was able to win 99.1% of
the races because of his extensive knowledge in racing.
 In the sentence, the person is Walter White. Instead of repeating his name in the next
sentence, the pronouns “he“ and “his” were used to refer to him.
What would happen if there were no pronouns?

The previous example would look like this:

 Mr. White is a high school teacher turned race car driver. Mr. White was able to win
99.1% of the races because of Mr. White’s extensive knowledge in racing.
 It sounds awkward, right?

So you see, pronouns are very important in written and verbal communication because they
avoid repetitiveness and ensure a good flow of words. They serve as stuntmen that are always
ready to replace the real actors when the actors start to wear out.

Below is a list of the most common pronouns that you can use to replace different kinds of
nouns.

The Antecedent
As previously mentioned, a pronoun is used to replace a noun. This noun is called the
antecedent.
The prefix “ante” means before, so for example:
The police officers rushed into their headquarters.
In this example, the pronoun “their” refers back to the police officers. The underlined noun is
therefore, the antecedent of “their.”
In a simple sentence such as that stated above, it is very easy to identify the antecedent that
the pronoun is referring to. However, you should be very careful with the use of pronouns in
writing complicated sentences or paragraphs. If not used properly, these can confuse readers as to
what you’re talking about. Make sure that your antecedent will not get lost to avoid this
confusion.

Kinds of Pronouns
There are six kinds of pronouns with different functions:

1. Personal pronouns
This kind of pronoun refers to a particular person or thing. The form of the personal pronoun
that is appropriate to use for a specific sentence depends on the gender and number of persons or
things that serve as the antecedents.

For example, you are referring to a female subject in the sentence, the pronouns that are
appropriate to use are: she, her, and hers. If you are referring to a male, you can use: he, him, and
his. For a group of persons, not including yourself, the appropriate pronouns are: they, them, and
theirs.
Personal pronouns can serve as the subjects, objects of the verb or preposition, and can also
show possession. They are formally classified into: subjective personal pronouns, objective
personal pronouns, and possessive personal pronouns.
Examples:
 You are definitely the biggest science nerd I’ve ever met.
 In the example above, the underlined pronoun serves as the subject.
 Harry persuaded her to come with him.
 The pronoun “her” is the object of the verb persuaded. Him, on the other hand, is the
object of the preposition with.
 Ours is the one on the left.
  The pronoun “ours” signifies possession.
2. Demonstrative pronouns
The function of this kind of pronoun is to point to a noun. Examples are: this, these, that, and
those. The pronouns “this” and “these” points to things that are nearby while the other two are
for things that are far. Aside from proximity, you must also consider the number of things you are
pointing out. For singular nouns, “this” and “that” should be used, while for plural nouns “these”
and “those” are appropriate.

Examples:
 That is the car that I’ll buy for my birthday.
 The speaker is pointing out to a singular noun that is far from him/her.
 She said she wanted these.
 The underlined pronoun refers to a plural noun and also serve as the object of the verb
wanted.
3. Indefinite pronouns
This kind of pronoun refers to unspecified things. Some examples are: any, all, another, each,
anyone, anything, anybody, nobody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, few, and many.

Examples:
 Many were called for the interview but only 3 were hired.
 He’s ready to give up everything for his family’s safety.

4. Intensive pronouns
The function of intensive pronouns is to give emphasis to the antecedent. Examples of this
kind of pronoun are: myself, itself, himself, herself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, and
ourselves.

Examples:
 The president himself said that it was a terrorist attack.
 I myself knew that it was a mistake.

5. Interrogative pronouns
As the title implies, the function of this kind of pronoun is to ask questions. Examples of
interrogative pronouns are: who, what, which, whom, whoever, whatever, whichever, and
whomever.

Examples:
 Who wrote the book 1984?
 What did the doctors say?

6. Relative pronouns
This kind of pronoun links one clause or phrase to another. Some of the most common
relative pronouns are: who, whoever, whomever, that, and which.
 Examples:
 The contestant who gets the highest score wins the million dollar jackpot.
 In this sentence, the underlined pronoun is the subject of the verb gets. The subordinate
clause, “who gets the highest score wins the million dollar jackpot,” describes the noun
contestant.
 He will accept whichever project comes first.
 The subordinate clause, ”whichever project comes first,” serves as the object of the verb
“will accept.”
7. Reflexive pronouns
This kind of pronoun is used to refer back to the subject. Some of the reflexive pronouns are:
yourself, myself, ourselves, himself, herself, themselves, and itself.

Example:
 Sandra never forgets to send a copy of the email to herself.
 The pronoun “herself” refers back to the subject of the sentence, which is Sandra.
 He promised to repair the broken fence, however, we ended up fixing it ourselves.
 The underlined reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject we.