CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. MEDIUM RANGE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

An airplane or aero plane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft

that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a
variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for
airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and
research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of
thousands of passengers daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on
board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled.

1.2. TYPES OF PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

 Regional jets
 Narrow body aircraft
 Wide body aircraft
 Heavy jets
 Mid jets
 Light jets
 Piston aircraft
 Turbo prop aircrafts

1.3. DESIGN PURPOSE

The design process starts with the aircrafts intended purpose. Commercial
airliners are designed for carrying a passenger and cargo payload, long range and great
fuel efficiency. Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and
constraints and accounts for existing designs and market recruitments to produce the
best aircrafts.

Some aircraft have specific missions, for instants, amphibious airlines have a
unique design that allows them to allow from both land and water.

1
 Freight transport is a physical process of transporting commodities and
merchandise goods and cargo. The term shipping originally referred to transport by
sea, but in American English, it has been extended to refer to transport by land or air
as well. Logistics, a term borrowed from the military environment is also fashionably
used in the same sense.

1.4. Mission Specifications

Table 1.1. Mission Specifications / Requirements

Type of Aircraft 250 Seater Passenger

Range Medium Range (5700km)
Payload 250 Passengers
Crew 9
Pilots 2
Cruising Velocity 830 kmph
Cruise Altitude 12,100 m

Our team was given an objective to design a Medium Range 250 Seater
Passenger Aircraft.

2
CHAPTER 2 COMPARATIVE STUDY

Comparative study involves the analysis and the synthesis of the similarities,
differences and patterns across two or more cases that share a common focus or goal
in a way that produces knowledge that is easier to generalize about casual questions -
how and why particular parameters / specifications are advantageous /
disadvantageous and also helps in the optimization of the design.

The comparative method is often used in the early stages of the development of
a branch of science. It can help the researcher to ascend from the initial level of
exploratory case studies to a more advanced level of general theoretical models,
invariances, such as causality or evolution.

Many researchers have proposed and investigated different boarding strategies

aiming at reducing the boarding time even by a couple of minutes. Among the existing
boarding strategies, the following are the most well-known techniques: Back-to-Front,
Random Strategy, Outside-in (or Window Middle Aisle), Rotating zone, Reverse
Pyramid, Optimal, Practical Optimal and Efficient Strategy.

The data of the comparative study is presented in the following tables and
comparative plots.

3
 2.1. COMPARATIVE STUDY DATA

Table 2.1. Comparative Data

Boeing-
Name of the Aircraft A-300 A-310 A-321
720
No. of Seats 266 275 236 190
Length (m) 53.61 46.66 44.51 41.25
Wingspan (m) 44.83 43.9 35.8 39.90
Height (m) 16.72 15.8 11.76 12.62
Wing Area (m2) 260 219 122.4 234
Maximum Take-Off Weight (kg) 165000 157000 93440 104000
Maximum Landing Weight (kg) 136000 124000 78017 79379
Operating Empty Weight (kg) 88505 79450 48534 50300
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (kg) 126000 113000 73935 -
Maximum Payload (kg) 37495 32834 - -
24050 -
Maximum Fuel Capacity (liters ) 62000 61070 60900
30030
Range (km) 5375 3700 5900 5800
Maximum Operating Altitude (m) 12192 12496.8 12496.8 12801.6
TURBO TURBO TURBO TURBO
Engines
FAN FAN FAN FAN
No. of Engines 2 2 2 4
CFM56-5B
CF6-50C2 JT9D- PRATT &
&
Engine Type OR JT9D- 7R4/GEC7 WHITNEY
IAEV2500
59A 6-80 JT3C-7
AS
230.15- 203.8-
Thrust (kN) 133-147 53.40
230.50 257.4
Cruise Speed (kmph) 833 850 829 1000
Maximum Speed (kmph) 891 900 871 1009

4
Mach no max 0.78 0.8 0.82 0.82
Aspect Ratio 7.72 8.80 10.4 6.80
T/W 0.2848 0.3342 0.3207 0.2093
Cruising Altitude (m) 12192 12496.8 12496.8 12801.6
Wing Loading (kg/m2) 634.6 716.89 763.39 444.4
Fineness Ratio 9.30 8.27 11.26 10.97
Taper Ratio - - - -
Fuselage Dia (m) 5.64 5.64 3.95 3.76

Table 2.2. Comparative Data Continued

BOEING
BOEING BOEING BOEING
Name of the Aircraft 737-
727 757-200 787
900ER
No. of Seats 190 220 239 242
Length (m) 40.59 41.42 47.3 56.72
Wingspan (m) 32.92 34.32 38.0 60.12
Height (m) 10.44 12 13.6 17.02
Wing Area (m2) 153 124.60 185.25 377
65500-
Maximum Take-Off Weight (kg) 76700 115660 227930
85100
Maximum Landing Weight (kg) - - 92250 172365
36378-
Operating Empty Weight (kg) 39800 58440 119950
44677
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (kg) 132000 67800 84360 161025
Maximum Payload (kg) 43600 - 25690 45360
26022-
Maximum Fuel Capacity (liters ) 29069 43490 126206
29666
Range (km) 4170 5575 7250 13621
Maximum Operating Altitude (m) 12801.6 12496.8 12801.6 13106.4

5
 ROLLS- ROLLS-
Pratt &
CFM56- ROYCE ROYCE
Engines whitney
7B27 RB211- TRENT
JT8D-17
535E4-37 1000-E
TURBO TURBO TURBO TURBO
No. of Engines
FAN FAN FAN FAN
Engine Type 3 2 2 2
Thrust (kN) 62-64 89-120 189 280
Cruise Speed (kmph) 865 838 854 903
Maximum Speed (kmph) 961 - 918 956
Mach no max 0.9 0.82 0.86 0.90
Aspect Ratio 7.08 9.4 7.8 9.5
T/W 0.2551 0.2874 0.3330 0.2504
Cruising Altitude (m) 11000 12496.8 12801.6 13106.4
Wing Loading (kg/m2) 501.30 628.98 624.34 604.58
Fineness Ratio 10.68 8.84 12.5 9.50
Taper Ratio - - - -
Fuselage Dia (m) 3.8 3.53 3.76 5.97

Table 2.3. Comparative Data Continued

BOEING BOEING BOEING BOEING7

Name of the Aircraft
737-800 737-400 767-200 67-300ER
No. of Seats 189 189 290 351
Length (m) 39.47 36.4 47.24 53.67
Wingspan (m) 34.32 28.9 47.57 47.57
Height (m) 12.55 11.07 15.03 5.03
Wing Area (m2) 124.60 105.4 283.30 283.30
Maximum Take-Off Weight (kg) 79016 68040 136078 181437
Maximum Landing Weight (kg) 66361 56240 122470 145149

6
Operating Empty Weight (kg) 41413 34820 80921 89902
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (kg) 61690 530730 112491 130634
Maximum Payload (kg) - - 34065 45541
Maximum Fuel Capacity (liters ) 26022 20100 63216 91380
Range (km) 5436 3820 7200 5760
Maximum Operating Altitude (m) 12496.8 11277.6 11887.2 11887.2
CFM56- CFM56- CF6-
Engines CF6-80A
7B27 3B2 80C2B6F
No. of Engines 2 2 2 2
TURBO TURBO TURBO TURBO
Engine Type
FAN FAN FAN FAN
Thrust (kN) 110-120 105 213.5 273.6
Cruise Speed (kmph) 842 796 850 900
Maximum Speed (kmph) 871 876 - -
Mach no max 0.78 0.82 0.80 0.80
Aspect Ratio 9.44 9.70 7.90 7.90
T/W 0.3096 0.3146 0.3199 0.3074
Cruising Altitude (m) 12497.8 11277.6 11887.2 11887.2
Wing Loading (kg/m2) 634.15 645.54 480.33 640.44
Fineness Ratio 10.49 9.57 9.39 10.66
Taper Ratio - - - -
Fuselage Dia (m) 3.76 3.8 5.03 5.03

7
2.2. COMPARATIVE STUDY GRAPHS

Cruise Speed vs Cruise Altitude

13500

13000
Cruise Alitiude (m)

12500

12000

11500

11000

10500
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.1. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Cruise Altitude

Cruise Speed vs Aspect ratio

12

10

8
Aspect Ratio

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.2. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Aspect Ratio

8
 Cruise Speed vs Range
16000

14000

12000

10000
Range (km)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.3. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Range

Cruise Speed vs Wing Loading

8000

7000

6000
Wing Loading (N/m2)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.4. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Wing Loading

9
 Cruise Speed vs l/d Ratio

14

12

10

8
l/d

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.5. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Fineness Ratio

Cruise Speed vs l/b Ratio

1.4

1.2

0.8
l/b

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.6. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Fuselage Length to Wingspan Ratio

10
 Cruise Speed vs We/W0 Ratio
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
We/Wo

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.7. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Empty Weight Fraction

Cruise speed vs T/W Ratio

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25
T/W ratio

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Cruise speed (km/hr)

Fig 2.8. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Thrust to Weight Ratio

11
 Cruise Speed vs Wf/W0 Ratio
0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
Wf/Wo Ratio

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Crusie Speed (kmph)

Fig 2.9. Comparative Plot of Cruise Speed vs Fuel Fraction

Table 2.4. Values Taken from Comparative Study

Aspect Ratio 7.89

T/W Ratio 0.32
We/W0 Ratio 0.495
L/b Ratio 1.18
L/d Ratio 9.3
Range 5700 km
Cruising Altitude 12100 m
Wing Loading 6180.3 N/m2

12
 CHAPTER 3 WEIGHT ESTIMATION & POWERPLANT
SELECTION

3.1. PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Weight is the most important parameter in the design of the airplane as it

dictates the payload that can be carried in the airplane with minimal losses. The
weight estimation during the conceptual design is done in two steps. An initial crude
estimate is done based on the data from the comparative graphs and a second estimate
of weight is done based on the range that the airplane has to cover.

W0 = Wc+Wp+Wf+We

Here, Wo – Total Weight or Maximum Takeoff Weight, Wc – Crew Weight, Wp –

Payload, Wf – Fuel Weight and, We – Empty Weight

Using data from the comparative graphs, we get an initial estimate of,

W0 = 1088910 N

3.2. FUEL TANK SIZING AND SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATION

In the previous estimate, the fuel fraction was taken as a reference from the
comparative study and here, the fuel fraction will be calculated based upon the fuel
consumption of the engine and the range. Using this value of fuel fraction, the weights
will be re-estimated.

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓. 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 ∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 ∗ 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ∗ 1.2

𝑊𝑓 =
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Wf = 432020 N

W0 = Wc+Wp+Wf+We

W0 = 1457874.6 N

We = 731554.6 N

13
Wf = 432020 N

3.3. THRUST ESTIMATION

The thrust is estimated based upon the thrust to weight ratio obtained from the
comparative study.
𝑻
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐
𝑾

(Multiply the thrust with 1.2 for the safety factor)

T = 1088910*0.32*1.2

T = 418141.44 N (for two engines)

T = 209070 N (for single engine)

3.4. POWER PLANT SELECTION

Selection of powerplant is an important step in design process because one has to

compromise with weight of the engine, thrust provided by it, TSFC etc. different types
of powerplant are available,

 Turbojet

 Turboprop

 Turbofan

 Ramjet

Turbofan engine is used in almost all the passenger aircrafts today as they have
a very high efficiency compared to other types of engines and can be operated at high
speeds. Turbofan engines generate less noise compared to other types and hence
ensuring passenger comfort. Based upon the thrust requirement, two General Electric
CF6-80A turbofan engines are selected for our aircraft and the specifications of the
engine is given in the table below.

14
 Table 3.1. Specifications of the General Electric CF6-80A

Name General Electric CF6-80A

Type High Bypass Turbofan
Compressor Fan & 3 LPC + 14 HPC
Turbine 2 HPT + 4 LPT
Length 4.24 m
Diameter 2.67 m
Takeoff Thrust 210 – 220 kN
Bypass Ratio 4.59 – 4.66
TSFC (max. power) 9.4 – 9.8 g / kN – s
Weight 3973 – 3981 kg

15
CHAPTER 4 WING, FUSELAGE AND TAIL DIMENSIONS

4.1. ESTIMATION OF WING DIMENSIONS

The dimensions of the wing are estimated based upon the wing loading of the aircraft
and using formulae relating the geometric parameters of the wing.

𝑊𝑜
= 6180.3 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑆

1457874.6
𝑆=
6180.3

S = 235.89 𝒎𝟐

ASPECT RATIO AR = 7.89

𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑠

7.89
𝑏= √
235.89

b = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟖 m

2S
𝐶𝑟 =
b(1 + λ)

2 ∗ 235.89
Cr =
43.168 (1 + 0.3)

𝐂𝐫 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟎𝟔 𝒎

Ct = Cr × λ

Ct = 8.406 × 0.3

𝐂𝐭 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐𝟏𝟖 m

b
C̅ =
AR

16
 43.168
C̅ =
7.89

C̅ = 5.471 m

4.2. ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE DIMENSIONS

Here, the length and diameter of the fuselage will be estimated based upon the
comparative study data.

From graph,

l
= 1.19
b

l = 43.168× 1.19

Length of the Fuselage, l = 51.369 m

l
= 9.3
d
51.369
d=
9.3

Diameter of the Fuselage, d = 5.523 m

4.3. ESTIMATION OF HORIZONTAL TAIL DIMENSIONS

The tail geometry is calculated based on the aspect ratio, taper ratio and span
area of the tail is found out to be 21 % of wing area (approx. from reference)

SHT = 49.5369 m2

λ = 0.33 ( from reference)

AR = 4.5

𝑏ℎ𝑡2
AR =
𝑆ℎ𝑡

4.5
𝑏2 ℎ𝑡 =√
49.5369

bHT = 14.930 m

17
 2S
Cr =
b(1+λ)

2×49.5369
Cr =
14.930(1+0.33)

Cr = 4.9893 m

Ct = Cr × λ

Ct =4.9893 × 0.33

Ct = 1.64 m

Cr+ Ct
C̅=
2

4.9893+1.64
C̅=
2

𝐂̅= 3.3146 m

4.4. ESTIMATION OF VERTICAL TAIL DIMENSIONS

The tail geometry is calculated based on the aspect ratio, taper ratio and span
area of the tail is found out to be 14 % of wing area (approx. from reference)

SVT = 33.026 m2

λ = 0.4 (from reference)

AR = 1.2

𝑏𝑣𝑡2
AR =
𝑆𝑣𝑡

1.2
𝑏2 ℎ𝑡 =√
33.026

bVT = 6.2951 m

2S
Cr =
b(1+λ)

2×33.026
Cr =
6.2951(1+0.4)

Cr = 7.484 m
18
Ct = Cr × λ

Ct = 7.484 × 0.4

Ct = 2.97 m

Cr+ Ct
C̅=
2

7.484+2.97
C̅=
2

𝐂̅= 5.232 m

19
CHAPTER 5 AIRFOIL SELECTION

The main criteria for selection of airfoil is to have high lift co-efficient and
minimum drag co-efficient as low as possible. A set of airfoils are selected based on
the lift requirement for steady level flight and the thickness to chord ratio. These
airfoils are analyzed using JAVA Foil software to estimate the values of lift and drag
coefficients. The airfoil having the maximum lift coefficient and minimum drag is
selected for our aircraft. NACA 6 digit series airfoils are used.

5.1. Estimation of Lift Requirement

The lift required will be estimated using the steady level flight equation.

2 ∗ Wo
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌∗𝑣2 ∗𝑆

2×1457874.6
CL =
1.225×230.5 2 ×235.89

𝐂𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟒

5.2. Estimation of Thickness to Chord Ratio

The t/c ratio is estimated based on the size of the fuel tank required in the
wings according to the fuel weight estimated in the previous chapter. Using specific
weight of fuel (aviation turbine fuel), the volume of fuel tanks can be found from the
fuel weight.

𝑡 𝐶 ̅ 𝑏
vf = 2*( * 𝐶̅ ∗ *0.5625* )
𝑐 2 2

𝐯𝐟 = 52.302 𝒎𝟑

t/c = 0.14

This value of t/c is high and some of the fuel is planned to be placed in the
fuselage, then t/c becomes, t/c = 0.10

20
 For these conditions, five airfoils of NACA 6 series were analyzed in JAVA
Foil and the airfoil section NACA 63A810 was selected as it had the best
aerodynamic efficiency. The characteristic curves of this airfoil are given below.

CL vs 𝛼
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
CL

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.2
-0.4
𝛼

Fig 5.1. Lift Curve for NACA 63A810

21
CHAPTER 6 FLAP SELECTION

Flaps are high lift devices, that are used momentarily during takeoff and
landing. The speed of the aircraft is usually low during takeoff and landing. In order to
compensate, for the loss in lift due to low speeds, the lift coefficient is increased by
deflecting the flaps of the airplane. However, flaps are not used during cruise as they
also generate a large amount of drag. The flaps are selected based on the incremental
lift coefficient required during landing as it is highest during landing.

ΔCL = CLmax,required – CLmax,available

Vstall = 73.08 m/s

𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.15* 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2aS𝑙 *0.6

Landing Distance, Sl = (from reference)

ΔCL = 0.39

For this aircraft, part span split flaps are used and the lift increment produced
by it is calculated using ARC report R & M 2622 as reference (10). In the report the
empirical relations have been developed for a wing of aspect ratio 6, however, it can
be modified for our wing by using a correction factor.

𝐹 (𝐴) 𝐶 (𝑓) 𝑏(𝑓)

∆CL = * λ1 * λ2 (𝛿𝑓 ) λ3*
𝐹 (6) 𝐶 𝑏

F(A)/F(6) = 1.09 for AR = 7.89

Assuming a flap chord of cf = 0.10c, λ1 = 0.35

For a maximum deflection of 60 deg, λ2 =0.4004

From these, λ3 =0.7146

From the graph of λ3 we get a bf/b = 0.59 and the flap span bf = 25.469 m, cf = 0.5471
m

22
CHAPTER 7 TIRE SELECTION AND RUNWAY LOADING

For the aircraft, the commonly‐used tricycle landing gear configuration is used.

NOSE GEAR

Load on the nose gear is 10% of the total weight of the aircraft

Load on nose gear = 0.10*W0

= 145787.46 N

Convert the loads into pounds = 32763.13051/2

Load on a single wheel = 16381.5652 lbs

MAIN LANDING GEAR

Load on the main landing gear is to be 90% of the overall weight of the aircraft

Load on main landing gear = 0.90*1457874.6

= 1312087.14 N

Convert the load into pounds = 294868.1753 lbs

Load on a single wheel = 24572.34 lbs

RUNWAY LOADING

Constant area = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏

= 27.12 ft2

Wo (tons)
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
constant area ∗ no. of tyres

Runway loading = 4.465 tons/𝑓𝑡 2

23
CHAPTER 8 ESTIMATION OF CG

Estimation of CG is important as it will be necessary when designing the control

surfaces of the airplane and in carrying out the stability analysis.

8.1. ESTIMATIONN OF WING CG

FULL FUEL

Table 8.1. CG Estimation of Wing (Full Fuel)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 wing structure 109340.6 7.125 779051.8
2 Fuel 32401.5 5.911 191525.3
3 engine 1 39053 4.014 156758.7
4 main landing gear 43736.24 6.399 279868.2
TOTAL FUEL 263584.34 1563963
X = 5.933443

HALF FUEL

Table 8.2. CG Estimation of Wing (Half Fuel)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 wing structure 109340.6 7.125 779051.8
2 Fuel 16200.75 5.911 95762.63
3 engine 1 39053 4.014 156758.7
4 main landing gear 43736.24 6.399 279868.2
HALF FUEL 247383.59 1468200
X = 5.934913

24
RESERVE FUEL

Table 8.3. CG Estimation of Wing (Reserve Fuel)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 wing structure 109340.6 7.125 779051.8
2 Fuel 3240.15 5.911 19152.53
3 engine 1 39053 4.014 156758.7
4 main landing gear 43736.24 6.399 279868.2
RESERVE FUEL 234422.99 1391590
X = 5.936235

8.2. ESTIMATIONNOF FUSELAGE C.G

FULL PAYLOAD

Table 8.4. CG Estimation of Wing (Full Payload)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 Instruments front 7636.618 2.568 19610.83
2 Pilots 2354.4 5.1369 12094.32
3 Nose wheel 29157.49 5.1369 149779.1
4 Crew members 4708.8 8.7327 41120.54
5 Lavatories 4859.58 42.63 207163.9
6 Payload 1 23544 5.547 130598.6
Structural weight
7 218681.2 23.116 5055034
of fuselage
8 Payload 2 35316 6.2875 222049.4
9 Payload 3 235440 14.794 3483099
10 Galley 7289.37 43.6 317816.5
11 Instruments back 7636.618 45.2 345175.1
12 Vertical tail 29157.49 46.36 1351741

25
 13 Horizontal tail 43736.24 48.8 2134328
TOTAL
649517.8 13469612
PAYLOAD
X = 20.73786

HALF PAYLOAD

Table 8.5. CG Estimation of Wing (Half Payload)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 Instruments front 7636.618 2.568 19610.83
2 Pilots 2354.4 5.1369 12094.32
3 Nose wheel 29157.49 5.1369 149779.1
4 Crew members 4708.8 8.7327 41120.54
5 Lavatories 4859.58 42.63 207163.9
6 Payload 1 11772 5.547 65299.28
Structural weight of
7 218681.2 23.116 5055034
fuselage
8 Payload 2 17658 6.2875 111024.7
9 Payload 3 117720 14.794 1741550
10 Galley 7289.37 43.6 317816.5
11 Instruments back 7636.618 45.2 345175.1
12 Vertical tail 29157.49 46.36 1351741
13 Horizontal tail 43736.24 48.8 2134328
HALF PAYLOAD 502367.8 11551738
X = 22.99458

26
ZERO PAYLOAD

Table 8.6. CG Estimation of Wing (Zero Payload)

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT (N) X (m) WX (N-m)

1 Instruments front 7636.618 2.568 19610.83
2 Pilots 2354.4 5.1369 12094.32
3 Nose wheel 29157.49 5.1369 149779.1
4 Crew members 4708.8 8.7327 41120.54
5 Lavatories 4859.58 42.63 207163.9
6 Payload 1 0 5.547 0
Structural weight of
7 218681.2 23.116 5055034
fuselage
8 Payload 2 0 6.2875 0
9 Payload 3 0 14.794 0
10 Galley 7289.37 43.6 317816.5
11 Instruments back 7636.618 45.2 345175.1
12 Vertical tail 29157.49 46.36 1351741
13 Horizontal tail 43736.24 48.8 2134328
No Payload 355217.8
x 26.36

Wing Attachment

CG of Aircraft : X f + X fuselage

= 6.09 + 15.4107

= 21.50 m

27
To calculate XCG,

(Wfuselage × xfuselage) + Wwing (x + xwing) = (Wfuselage + Wwing) (x + xfinal)

The shift of C.G for all the possible combinations should be within the
allowable limits for stable configuration.

Neutral Point

It’s the mathematical analysis of longitudinal static stability of a complete

aircraft (including horizontal stabilizer) yields the position of center of gravity at
which stability is neutral. This position is called the Neutral Point.

Table 8.7. Shift in the CG

Sl. No. Configuration Xf

1 Airplane with Full Payload + Full Fuel 6.09
2 Airplane with Full Payload + Half Fuel 6.04
3 Airplane with Full Payload + Res. Fuel (10%) 5.98
4 Airplane with Half Payload + Full Fuel 6.66
5 Airplane with Half Payload + Half Fuel 6.68
6 Airplane with Half Payload + Res. Fuel (10%) 6.7
7 Airplane with No Payload + Full Fuel 7.37
8 Airplane with No Payload + Half fuel 7.53
9 Airplane with No Payload + Res. Fuel (10%) 7.69

Neutral Point

28
 Static margin an important parameter that determines the stability of the
aircraft is calculated for various flight conditions and it is seen that static margin is
always positive, in other words neutral point is always ahead of center of gravity and
the aircraft is stable.

Static Margin is estimated by

𝑋𝑛 𝑋𝑐. 𝑔
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅

Table 8.8. Static Margin for Various Configurations

Sl. C.G. (% OF STATIC

Configuration
No. MAC) MARGIN
1 Airplane with Full Payload + Full Fuel 30.00 0.255
2 Airplane with Full Payload + Half Fuel 29.04 0.2649
Airplane with Full Payload + Res. Fuel
3 27.80 0.2773
(10%)
4 Airplane with Half Payload + Full Fuel 27.54 0.2724
5 Airplane with Half Payload + Half Fuel 25.62 0.2991
Airplane with Half Payload + Res. Fuel
6 24.85 0.3068
(10%)

29
CHAPTER 9 ESTIMATION OF DRAG

Estimation of drag is important as it will be necessary to determine the

performance parameters. Lift and drag coefficients are related to each other which can
be written as an equation and even plotted as a graph and it is known as drag polar.

CD = CDO + KCL2
1
K=
𝜋𝑒∗𝐴𝑅

K = 0.04740

CD0 is the drag coefficient at zero lift and it has to be estimated separately for each
component of the airplane.

FUSELAGE

𝐶𝐷𝑂 𝑙 𝑑 𝑑
= 3( )+4.5( ) 0.5+21( )2
𝐶𝑓 𝑑 𝑙 𝑙

𝐶𝐷𝑂 = 5.696*10-4

0.427
Cf =
(ln 𝑅𝑒−0.407)^ 2.64

Cf= 2.519*10-4

𝜌∗𝑉∗𝐶̅
Re =
𝜇

Re = 27.350*106

CANOPY = 10% * CDf

CANOPY = 0.10*5.696*10-4

CANOPY = 2.519 *10-3

30
DRAG OF WING

CDow C t
= 4+2( )+120( )3
Cf 𝑡 C

CDow = 2.5892

𝐶𝐷𝑂 𝑙 𝑑 𝑑
= 3( )+4.5( ) 0.5+21( )2
𝐶𝑓 𝑑 𝑙 𝑙

𝐶𝐷𝑂 = 1.482

FLAPS

bflap
CDO = 0.0023* * 40° (for take off )
bwing

CDO = 0.0542

bflap
CDO = 0.0023* * 60° ( for landing )
bwing

CDO = 0.0814

LANDING GEARS

Nose wheel = 0.6

Main wheel = 1

Table 9.1. Drag Estimation for Takeoff Condition

Components Sπ Cdπ Sπ*Cdπ

Canopy 17.9655 0.002519 0.045255
Fuselage 23.9574 0.0002519 0.006035
Wing 235.89 0.0056276 1.327495
H.T 49.536 0.0050648 0.25089
V.T 33.024 0.0050648 0.16726
Engine 5.59 0.00328 0.018335

31
Main wheel 4.3354 1 4.3354
Nose wheel 0.0824 0.6 0.04944
Flaps 38.2067 0.05427 2.073478
8.273587
CDO = 0.035074

Table 9.2. Drag Estimation for Cruise Condition

Components Sπ Cdπ Sπ*Cdπ

Canopy 17.9655 0.074615 1.34
Fuselage 23.9574 0.0074615 0.18
Wing 235.89 0.0056276 1.33
H.T 49.536 0.0050648 0.25
V.T 33.024 0.0050648 0.17
Engine 5.59 0.00328 0.02
3.28
CDO= 0.013918

Table 9.3. Drag Estimation for Landing Condition

Components Sπ Cdπ Sπ*Cdπ

Canopy 17.9655 0.002519 0.045255
Fuselage 23.9574 0.0002519 0.006035
Wing 235.89 0.0056276 1.327495
H.T 49.536 0.0050648 0.25089
V.T 33.024 0.0050648 0.16726
Engine 5.59 0.00328 0.018335
Main wheel 4.3354 1 4.3354
Nose wheel 0.0824 0.6 0.04944
Flaps 38.2067 0.08141 3.110407
9.310517

32
 Table 9.4. Drag Polar

Sl. No. Cl Cd cruise Cd(T) Cd(landing)

1 0 0.013918 0.035074 0.039472
2 0.2 0.015814 0.03697 0.041368
3 0.4 0.021502 0.042658 0.047056
4 0.6 0.030982 0.052138 0.056536
5 0.8 0.044254 0.06541 0.069808
6 1 0.061318 0.082474 0.086872
7 1.2 0.082174 0.10333 0.107728
8 1.4 0.106822 0.127978 0.132376
9 1.6 0.135262 0.156418 0.160816
10 1.8 0.167494 0.18865 0.193048

cl vs cd
0.25

0.2

0.15
cd

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
cl

Cd cruise Cd(T) Cd(landing)

Fig 9.1. Drag Polar

33
 CHAPTER 10 TAKEOFF, LANDING AND TURNING
PERFORMANCE

10.1. TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE

Vstall = 73.08

CL max = 1.889

VT.O= Vstall * 1.2

VT.O= 87.696

2∗(6180.3)
CL T.O =
1.225∗87.696

CL T.O= 1.3120

CD T.O= CDO T.O+ K CLTO2

= 0.035074 + 0.0474*1.31202

CD T.O = 0.1166

𝐶𝐷 𝑇.𝑂∗ 𝜌∗𝑉 2 ∗𝑆
𝐷𝑇.𝑂 =
2
0.1166∗ 1.225∗87.6962 ∗235.89
=
2

𝐷𝑇.𝑂 = 129560.83 N

TOTAL TAKE OFF THRUST = 418140 N

𝑇𝑇.𝑂− 𝐷𝑇.𝑂
sin𝛾=
𝑊

418140−129560.83
sin𝛾 =
1457874.6

𝛾= sin-1 0.1974

𝛾 = 11.414

34
 0.7
Vavg =
𝑉𝑇.𝑂

Vavg = 61.3872m/s

𝐶𝐿 𝑇.𝑂∗ 𝜌0∗𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 2 ∗𝑆
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

= 714340.22

𝐶𝐷 𝑇.𝑂∗ 𝜌𝑠𝑙∗𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔2 ∗𝑆
𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

= 63484.80

1.21∗𝑊 2
S ground roll =
𝑔∗ 𝜌∗ 𝑆∗ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇𝑇.𝑂 − (𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝜇 (𝑊−𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 )))

S ground roll= 858.04 m

𝑉𝑇.𝑂2
R transition =
0.2∗𝑔

R transition =3919.76

S transition =R transition*sin𝛾

= 775.720

h transition =R transition*(1-cos𝛾)

h transition =15.31

ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛−(1+ℎ𝑜𝑏𝑠)
sclimb =
tan 𝛾

sclimb = 304.725

stake off = S ground roll+S transition+sclimb

= 858.04+775.720+304.725

35
stake off =1938.485 m

10.2. LANDING PERFORMANCE

2∗𝑤𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
V stall approach =√
𝑠∗𝜌𝑠𝑙∗𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥

= 67.382

W landing = w0*0.05

= 1239193.41

V approach = V stall approach *1.3

= 87.596

CDlanding =CDo landing + K CL2

=0.039472+0.0474*(1.889)2

= 0.2086

𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥∗ 𝜌𝑠𝑙∗𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔2 ∗𝑆
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

= 1026153.217

𝐶𝐷 𝑇.𝑂∗ 𝜌𝑠𝑙∗𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔2 ∗𝑆
𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

= 63340.108

Treverse=0.125*TT.O

=52267.5

𝑉 2 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
Rflare =
0.2∗𝑔

=3910.83

hflare =Rflare*(1-cos 𝛾)

=3.7222

36
 ℎ𝑜𝑏𝑟𝑡−ℎ𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒
S approach =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛾

15−3.722
=
0.04366

S approach = 258.314

Sflare =Rflare*sin 𝛾

= 170.564

1.69∗𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2
S ground roll =
𝑔∗ 𝜌∗ 𝑆∗ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 +(𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝜇𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠(𝑊−𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 )))

S ground roll =918.37 m

10.3. TURNING PERFORMANCE

𝐶
Em= ( 𝐿 )max
𝐶𝐷

=21.95

𝑇
Z = ∗ 𝐸𝑚
𝑊

= 6.295

𝐿
n=
𝑊

= 0.48

u=1

37
 Table 10.1. Turning Performance Parameters
CASE U N ω (rad/s) R (m)
MSTR 1 3.404 0.1384 1664.996
SST 0.398 1.6824 0.04295 871.7974
nmax 2.508 6.295 0.0420 5487.96

38
 CHAPTER 11 OTHER PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

11.1. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR VARIOUS ALTITUDE

CASE I

AT SEA LEVEL 0m
DENSITY 1.225 kg/m3
TEMPERATURE 288.16 K
SPEED OF SOUND 340.2686 m/s
V R/C Prequired Pavailable
CL (m/s) CDT(incomp) D (N) T (N) (m/min) (W) (W)
0.2 224.61 0.034342155 250332.8 418140 1551.210781 56227245.46 93918425.4
0.4 158.82 0.037239403 135725.9 418140 1845.961214 21555995.37 66408994.8
0.6 129.68 0.046036145 111858.2 418140 1634.651803 14505772.81 54224395.2
0.8 112.3 0.058998124 107514.8 418140 1435.646367 12073915.79 46957122
1 100.45 0.075885217 110631.1 418140 1271.272549 11112897.02 42002163
1.2 91.69 0.096626593 117391.2 418140 1134.89828 10763600.33 38339256.6
1.4 84.89 0.121194455 126204.5 418140 1019.939719 10713501.11 35495904.6
1.6 79.41 0.149575232 136288.7 418140 921.1414131 10822686.25 33204497.4

CASE II

AT 3000m 3000 m
DENSITY 0.9089 kg/m3
TEMPERATURE 268.66 K
SPEED OF SOUND 328.5538 m/s
R/C Prequired Pavailable
CL V (m/s) CDT(incomp) D (N) T (N) (m/min) (W) (W)
0.2 260.7635 0.038692359 282043 310218.1 302.3724432 73546516.3 80893534.71
0.4 184.3876 0.038317808 139656.4 310218.1 1294.327696 25750909.08 57200366.95
0.6 150.5519 0.046640686 113327.1 310218.1 1219.952523 17061607.44 46703904.04

39
 0.8 130.3817 0.059417039 108278.2 310218.1 1083.601975 14117504.09 40446767.36
1 116.617 0.076205329 111097.8 310218.1 955.6706302 12955889.55 36176688.51
1.2 106.4562 0.096885664 117706 310218.1 843.4517316 12530532.99 33024647.26
1.4 98.55932 0.121411929 126431 310218.1 745.4933747 12460951.29 30574882.22
1.6 92.1938 0.149762585 136459.4 310218.1 659.2941824 12580712.77 28600183.47
1.8 86.92115 0.181926219 147347.6 310218.1 582.6382478 12807619.86 26964511.57

CASE III

AT 6000 6000m
DENSITY 0.6594 kg/m3
TEMPERATURE 249.12 K
SPEED OF SOUND 316.3802 m/s
CDT R/C Prequired Pavailable
CL V (m/s) (incomp) D (N) T (N) (m/min) (W) (W)
0.2 306.1472 0.0541592 394786.6 225042.9 -2138.72505 120862819.6 68896270.83
0.4 216.4788 0.040003958 145801.9 225042.9 705.9869707 31563012.43 48717020.3
0.6 176.7542 0.047492868 115397.7 225042.9 797.6096539 20397032.92 39777280.51
0.8 153.0736 0.059983455 109310.4 225042.9 729.0993961 16732543.91 34448135.41
1 136.9132 0.076628703 111715 225042.9 638.5769838 15295262.91 30811348.99
1.2 124.9841 0.097223427 118116.3 225042.9 550.0114122 14762656.99 28126784.79
1.4 115.7128 0.121692783 126723.4 225042.9 468.2222637 14663520.27 26040342.7
1.6 108.2394 0.150002898 136678.4 225042.9 393.6357472 14793984.19 24358510.15
1.8 102.0491 0.182136197 147517.6 225042.9 325.5994687 15054037.02 22965423.61

40
 CASE IV

AT 9000 9000m
DENSITY 0.466kg/ m3
TEMPERATURE 229.66 K
SPEED OF SOUND 303.7719 m/s
R/C Prequired Pavailable
CL V (m/s) CDT(incomp) D (N) T (N) (m/min) (W) (W)
0.2 364.1764 0.044923733 327465.8 159060.5 -2524.05541 119255338.4 57926067.13
0.4 257.5116 0.043912532 160047.4 159060.5 -10.4598513 41214067.4 40959914.88
0.6 210.2574 0.049094534 119289.5 159060.5 344.150802 25081485.24 33443630.45
0.8 182.0882 0.060974808 111117 159060.5 359.2873865 20233100.98 28963033.57
1 162.8646 0.077343462 112757.1 159060.5 310.3635119 18364140.08 25905324.76
1.2 148.6744 0.097781364 118794.1 159060.5 246.3821148 17661647.43 23648217.88
1.4 137.6457 0.122149993 127199.6 159060.5 180.4895181 17508477.37 21893995.44
1.6 128.7558 0.150390038 137031.1 159060.5 116.7344421 17643554.47 20479957.44
1.8 121.3921 0.182471815 147789.5 159060.5 56.30980357 17940478.5 19308689.04

41
11.2. PERFORMANCE CURVES

The thrust required, thrust available, power required and power available are
plotted to study their variation with respect to speed and altitude. It is also known that
the rate of climb depends upon the excess power of the aircraft and hence, rate of
climb also varies with speed and altitude. These curves will be very helpful in the
optimization of the design.

velocity vs R/C
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
R/C

1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
velocity (m)

42
 Thrust vs Velocity
450000
400000 thrust at sea level
350000 thrust at 3000m
300000 thryst at 6000m
thrust at 9000m
250000
Thrust

drag at sea level

200000
drag at 3000 m
150000
drag at 6000m
100000 drag at 9000m
50000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Velocity (m)

Power required vs velocity

140000000

120000000 p req at sea level

p req at 3000m
100000000
power required

preq at 6000m
80000000 preq at 9000m
60000000 p ava at sea level
p ava at 3000m
40000000
pava at 6000m
20000000
pava at 9000m
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
velocity (m)

43
 R/C (max) VS ALTITUDE
1800

1600

1400

1200
R/C (max) (m/min)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-200
ALTITUDE (km)

From Graph of the variation of rate of climb with altitude, the absolute ceiling and the
service ceiling of the aircraft have been determined as discussed earlier.

Absolute Ceiling = 12 km

*/*9Service Ceiling = 11.7 km

11.3. RANGE AND ENDURANCE

Endurance= (1/c)(CL/Cd)ln(Wt/Wdry)

𝐶𝐿
( )max = 21.95
𝐶𝐷

Endurance =7.10 hrs

Range =Endurance × Vcruise × 3.6

Range = 5878.8 km

44
CHAPTER 12 V – n Diagram

12.1. V-n DIAGRAM

The V-n diagram provides a treasure trove of information regarding flight

performance for pilots. Basically, it is a graph depicting the variation of load factor
with the speed of the vehicle.

Limit Load Factor

This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one

or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load factor, the structure may
deflect during a maneuver, but it will return to its original state when n=1. If n is
greater than the limit load factor, then the airplane structure will experience a
permanent deformation, that is, will incur structural damage.

Ultimate Load Factor

This is the boundary associated with outright structural failure. If n is greater

than the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will break.

Table 12.1. Parameters to Calculate Coordinates for V – n Diagram

Sl. No. Parameter Values

1 K 0.0474
2 CD0 0.013918
3 Wing Area 235.89 m2
4 Neg CLmax -1.12
5 Pos CLmax 1.89
6 Wing Loading 6180.3 N/m2
7 Total Thrust 418140 N
8 MTOW 1457874.6 N
9 (L/D)max 19.46

45
 10 (TA/W)max 0.2868
11 Pos nmax 3.65
12 Neg nmax -1.43
13 ndive 2.22

12.2. GUST ENVELOPE

Gust envelope is the flight envelope of the aircraft during gust conditions. Gust is a
strong current of air that occurs according to the prevailing weather conditions. Gust
affects the flow field around the aircraft and hence its performance and stability. The
gust velocities vary according to the altitude and also the condition of the aircraft. As
specified by FAR 23.333, we will assume a vertical gust velocity of Ug=25 ft/s at the
dive speed VD, Ug=50 ft/s at the cruise speed VC, and Ug=66 ft/s at the maneuvering
speed VB.

Peak load factor due to gust n peak = n + ∆n

The increment in load factor due to gust is given by

46
 ρ ∗ V ∗ a ∗ Kg ∗ Ug
∆𝑛 = ( )
2W/S

Table 12.2. Gust Envelope Calculations

Velocity
Point Ug (m/s) ∆𝐧 npeak = n + ∆𝐧
(ms/)
A 0 0 0 1
B 172.61 20.1168 1.49362 2.493620189
C 230.5 15.24 1.511024 2.511023509
D 345.75 7.62 1.133268 2.133267631
E 345.75 -7.62 -1.13327 -0.133267631
F 230.5 -15.24 -1.39234 -0.392336028
G 150.08 -20.1168 -1.19666 -0.196657545
O 0 0 0 1

Gust envelope
3
B C
2.5
D
2
Load Factor, n

1.5
A
1
1

0.5

G E
0
0 50 100 150 200 F 250 300 350 400
-0.5

-1
Velocity, (m/s)

47
CHAPTER 13 Three View Diagram

FRONT VIEW

SIDE VIEW

48
TOP VIEW

49
BUSINESS CLASS SEATING ARRANGEMENT

ECONOMY CLASS SEATING ARRANGEMENT

50
FIRST CLASS SEATING ARRANGEMENT

51
52
CHAPTER-14

STABILITY AND CONTROL

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ANALYSIS OF STABILITY AND CONTROL OF THE AIRCRAFT

Longitudinal stick fixed stability
XC.G = 0.3 cm
Vht = 0.7
Ƞt = 0.9
𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝒉𝒂.𝒄 𝒂𝒕 𝝏𝜺
𝑪m= 𝒄𝒎. 𝒂. 𝒄 + 𝒂w. 𝜶{( − ) − ղ𝒕 𝒗𝒉𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝝏𝜶 )} − ղ𝒕 𝒗𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒕(𝜶 − 𝜺 − 𝒊𝒘 𝒊𝑻 +
𝒄̅ 𝒄 𝒂𝒘
𝝉 𝜹𝒆)
For the tail NACA 0012 airfoil is selected for this airfoil
at = 0.1/deg
For the wing NACA 63A-810 airfoil is selected for this airfoil
aw = 0.12/deg
for design c.g
( ) s,f = (0.3-0.267)+0.063-(0.7*0.83*(0.1/0.12)(1-0.4)
= -0.2665
STICK FIXED NEUTRAL POINT
No = -( ) f, n + (Vht Ƞt )
= 0.481

ZERO LIFT PITCHING MOMENT

Cm = cmo + [ ( )s,f * c cruise ]
Cmo + [-0.2665*0.774]
Assume cmo = 0
Cmo = 0.20557

TAIL SETTING ANGLE

(C mac) cruise = at * vht * Ƞt (iw+(ɛo –it)
0.20557 = 0.1*0.7*0.9(1+ (0-it)
53
It = 4.32 (downward)

LONGITUDINAL STICK FIXED CONTROL

Assume τe = 0.4
The rate at which the pitching moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with changes in
elevator deflection is called the ELEVATOR CONTROL POWER
𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑋𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀
Cm = Cmac + αwaw[( 𝑐𝑚 - )+( )f,n - 𝑎𝑤 (Vhtηt𝑎𝑤(1-𝑑𝛼)] + Cmo
𝑐𝑚 𝑑𝑐𝑙

Cmo = at* vht* Ƞt (iw +ɛ-it- τδe)

For δe = 0
Cmo = 0.1*0.7*0.9(1+0+4.32-0.4*0)
= 0.397404
δe Cmo

-15 0.845604

-10 0.696204

-5 0.546804

0 0.397404

5 0.248004
10 0.098604

15 -0.050796

𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑋𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀

= [( 𝑐𝑚 - )+( )f, n - 𝑎𝑤 (Vhtηt𝑎𝑤(1-𝑑𝛼)]
𝑐𝑚 𝑑𝑐𝑙

= [(0.3-0.267) +0.042-0.9*0.833(0.1/0.12) (1-0.4)]

= -0.29985

54
STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR DESIGN CONDITIONS

Cm vs α
0.8

0.6

0.4
-15 deg
0.2 -10 deg
Cm

0 -5 deg
0 5 10 15 20
0 deg
-0.2
5 deg
-0.4

-0.6
α (elevator deflection)

Fig 14.1 cm vs α graph

NEUTRAL POINT: STICK FIXED

𝐻𝑐𝑔 − ℎ𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀
+ ( 𝑑𝑐𝑙 )f, n – Vhtηt𝑎𝑤(1-𝑑𝛼)
𝑐𝑚

FOR X = 0.2
(0.2-0.267) +0.042-0.67*0.7*(0.1/0.102) (1-0.4) = -0.39985
FOR X = 0.25 =-0.34985
FOR X = 0.3 = -0.29985
FOR X = 0.35=-0.24985
FOR X = 0.4 = -0.19985
FOR X = 0.45 = -0.14985
FOR X = 0.5 = -0.09985
FOR X = 0.55 = 0.04985
FOR X = 0.6 = 0.00015
FOR X = 0.65 = 0.05015
FOR X = 0.7 = 0.10015
FOR X = 0.75 = 0.15015
FOR X = 0.8 = 0.20015

STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT CG LOCATIONS

55
 NEUTRAL POINT
0.8

0.6
0.3 cg
0.4
0.2 cg
0.2
0.4 cg
Cm

0
0 5 10 15 20 0.5 cg
-0.2
0.6 cg
-0.4 0.7 cg
-0.6 0.8 cg

-0.8
α

Fig 14.2 Neutral point graph

STICK FREE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑋𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀

Cmac + αwaw[( - )+( )f,n - (Vhtηt (1- )F] + Cmo
𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑑𝑐𝑙 𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝑤 𝑑𝛼

Free Elevation Factor:

𝑑𝑐𝑚
𝑑𝛼𝑡
F = 1-τ 𝑑𝑐𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝛿𝑒

= 1-0.4*(-0.002/0.005) = 0.84
X = 0.27971*0.84 = 0.2349564
Cmac = -0.03, aw = 0.12

STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR DESIGN CONDITIONS

56
 Cm vs α
0.8

0.6

0.4
-15 deg
0.2
Cm
-10 deg
0 -5 deg
0 5 10 15 20
-0.2 0 deg

-0.4 5 deg

-0.6
α (elevator deflection)

Fig 14.3 stick free cm vs α

MANEUVER POINT:
The stick‐fixed maneuver point is of vital importance in accelerated maneuvers of the
aircraft. Here, the load factor plays a major role.

Elevator Angle Required per g:

The elevator angle required per unit load factor is used in determining the stick‐fixed
maneuver point.
∂C
( 𝑚)
∂𝛿𝑒 ∂C𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 2𝑊 63𝑔𝑙𝑡
( 𝜕𝑛 ) =- ∂𝐶𝑚 ∗ – = 0.62
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑢𝑝 𝑆𝜌𝑉 2 𝜏𝑒𝑉 2
∂𝛿𝑒

STICK FIXED MANEUVER POINT:

Using the above formula and data, the variation of elevator deflection required per g with the
location of the C.G is plotted below.

57
 MANEUVER POINT
2

Elevator angle required per g

1.5

1
v-200 m/s
0.5
v-300 m/s
0 v-100 m/s
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.5

-1
Xcg

Fig 14.4 maneuver point graph

14.1 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

Directional stability of the airplane is a measure of its tendency to produce
restoring moments when disturbed from an equilibrium angle of sideslip –
usually taken as zero. It is measured quantitatively by the variation of
yawing moment coefficient with sideslip angle.
𝑁
Cn =
𝑞∗𝑆∗𝑏
𝑑𝑐𝑛
In general, , should be negative for the airplane to have static directional stability. All the
𝑑𝛹
components of the aircraft contribute to the
𝑑𝑐𝑛
stability coefficient
𝑑𝛹

Contribution of wing:
The wing contribution to directional stability is quite small, as the cross
wind effects on the wing are very small. The critical factor is the sweepback
of the wing.

𝒅𝒄𝒏
( ) wing = (-0.00006) √𝜦 , ( √𝜦=sweep angle)
𝒅𝜳
= (-0.00006)√29.5
=-3.258*10^-4
Contribution of fuselage:

58
 𝑑𝑐𝑛 0.96𝑘𝑏 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑓 ℎ1 𝑤2 𝜕𝑐𝑛
( 𝑑𝛹 ) fuselage = 57.3
(𝑆𝑤) ( 𝑏 ) √ℎ2*𝑤1+∆ ( 𝜕𝛹 )w

=1.6920*10-3
Contribution of vertical tail:
The vertical tail is the stabilizing component in the aircraft as far as directional stability is
concerned.

𝑑𝑐𝑛 𝜕𝜎
( 𝑑𝛹 ) VT= -avvvήv (1-𝜕∈)
𝑆𝑣𝑡 𝑙𝑣𝑡 33.026 23.579
Vv= *l = * = 0.0764
𝑆𝑤 𝑏 235.89 43.168
𝑑𝑐𝑛
( 𝑑𝛹 )Vt=-0.1*0.9*0.0764(1-0.05)
-3
=-6.5322*10

𝑑𝑐𝑛
( 𝑑𝛹 )slip stream=-0.0003
𝑑𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑐𝑛
( 𝑑𝛹 ) airplane = ( 𝑑𝛹 )wing+ ( 𝑑𝛹 )fuselage+ ( 𝑑𝛹 )VT + ( 𝑑𝛹 )slipstream
𝑑𝑐𝑛
( 𝑑𝛹 )airplane=-3.258*10^-4 +1.6920*10^-3 -6.5322*10-3 -0.0003
=-5.466*10^-3

Directional Control:

𝑑𝑐𝑛
Cn=Cno+ (
𝑑𝛹
) ∗Ψ
Cno=-avvvήvτrδr
δr Cno

59
-30 0.08251

-20 0.055008

-10 0.027504

0 0

10 -0.027504

20 -0.055008

30 -0.08251

Cn vs 𝛹
0.25
0.2
0.15 -30 deg
0.1
-20 deg
0.05
-10 deg
Cn

0
-30 -20 -10 0 deg
-0.05 0 10 20 30
10 deg
-0.1
20 deg
-0.15
-0.2 30 deg

-0.25
𝛹(deg)

Fig 14.1.1 Cn vs 𝛹 graph

60
 variation of Cno vs velocity
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
Cno

0.04
yaw moment co
0.03
efficent
0.02
yaw angle
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200 250

velocity (m/s)

Fig 14.1.2 variation of Cno vs velocity

The point of interaction between yaw angle and yaw moment coefficient is called as critical velocity

Critical velocity is 65 (m/s)

14.2 LATERAL STABILITY:

When a small vertical disturbance causes the aircraft to roll to one side, as such,
the airplane will continue to roll at the same constant velocity. As such, the airplane is
neutrally stable in roll. However, due to the development of sideslip, the lift distribution
over the wings is altered, tending to produce restoring moments which restore the
aircraft to its original state. This effect is generally called the Dihedral Effect. Lateral
stability of the airplane is a measure of this tendency to produce restoring Moments
when disturbed in roll. It is measured quantitatively by the variation of rolling moment
coefficient with sideslip angle.
𝑳
Cl =
𝒒∗𝑺∗𝒃
𝑑𝑐𝑛
In general, should be positive for the airplane to have static lateral stability. All the
𝑑𝛹
𝑑𝑐𝑛
components of the aircraft contribute to the stability coefficient 𝑑𝛹

61
Aileron rolling control power
𝑝𝑏 2(1−𝜆)(𝑘23 −𝑘13 )+3𝜆(𝑘22 −𝑘12 )
= 2τa[ ] δatotal
2𝑣 𝜆+3

Assuming
x DEG(5) DEG(7.5) DEG (10) y p1 p2 p3
100 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.044642 0.066962 0.089283
110 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.049106 0.073659 0.098211
120 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.05357 0.080355 0.10714
130 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.058034 0.087051 0.116068
140 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.062498 0.093747 0.124996
150 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.066962 0.100444 0.133925
160 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.071427 0.10714 0.142853
170 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.075891 0.113836 0.151781
180 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.080355 0.120532 0.16071
190 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.084819 0.127229 0.169638
200 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.089283 0.133925 0.178566
210 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.093747 0.140621 0.187495
220 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.098211 0.147317 0.196423
230 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.102676 0.154013 0.205351
240 0.08722222 0.130833 0.174444 0.005118 0.10714 0.16071 0.21428

Rolling rate vs Velocity

0.25

0.2
Rolling rate

0.15
5 deg
0.1
7.5 deg
0.05 10 deg

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Velocity (m/s)

fig 14.1.3 rolling rate vs velocity

62
 CHAPTER 15

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING AND FUSELAGE

LIFT DISTRIBUTION FOR THE AIRCRAFT –SCHRENCK’S CURVE

While performing a structural analysis of the aircraft, it is of essence that we

investigate the effects of various loads acting on different parts of the aircraft. As such, the
lift force is the most important force acting on the aircraft – specifically the wing – and the
lift distribution on the wing is critical in determining several factors such as the shear force
and bending moment distribution along the span of the wing, the torque distribution on the
wing and so on.
The Schrenck’s curve is used to approximate the lift distribution along the span of the
wing. In obtaining the Schrenck’s curve, we assume that the actual lift distribution can be
approximated by considering the average of two types of distributions – one is a trapezoidal
lift distribution, in which, the lift per unit span at any section of the wing is assumed to be
proportional to the chord of the wing at that section; the other is an elliptic lift distribution,
which represents an ideal case of maximum wing planform efficiency (Ostwald planform
efficiency, e=1).

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING

Air Inertial Load Estimation

Elliptical wing load distribution is given by
Elliptical = 4𝑠 /𝜋𝑏 √1 − (2𝑦/ )2
Tapered wing load distribution is given by
Tapered = C root x [1-2𝑦/𝑏 (1- λ)]
Then the approximated span wise load distribution is the local average of the two
distributions.
schrenk’s = 1 /2 [ tapered + elliptic]
Wing Structural Load Distribution
Cx = A + Bx

Where,

63
 A and B are constants, which can be found using the boundary conditions
If X = 0, Cx = Croot
If X = b/2, Cx = Ctip
y = -0.0144x2 + 0.0767x + 6.771

schrenk’s curve

schrenk's curve
9
8
7
lift magnitude

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
span(m)

trapezoidal elliptical avg chord

Fig 15.1 schrenk’s curve

lift elliptical, LE = 4L/πb √(1-(2y/b)2)

lift trapezoidal, LT =2L/b(1+λ) *[1-(2y*(1-λ)/b)]
Resultant=L-W

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

S.no Weight of Weight of fuel Weight of engine

wing and landing gear
1 2543.649 1779.417 0
2 2403.208 1679.892 0
3 2266.755 1583.232 0
4 2134.29 1489.435 0
5 2005.814 1398.502 43736.24
6 1881.324 1310.433 0
7 1760.823 1225.229 0

64
8 1644.31 1142.888 39053
9 1531.785 1063.411 0
10 1423.247 986.7975 0
11 1318.698 913.0483 0
12 1218.136 842.163 0
13 1121.562 774.1416 0
14 1028.976 708.9842 0
15 940.3781 646.6906 0
16 855.768 587.261 0
17 775.1458 530.6953 0
18 698.5115 476.9935 0
19 625.8651 426.1556 0
20 557.2066 378.1816 0
21 492.536 0 0
22 431.8532 0 0
23 375.1584 0 0
24 322.4515 0 0
25 273.7324 0 0
26 229.0013 0 0

RESULTANT
200000
180000
160000
140000
force(N)

120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
span (m)

Fig 15.2 resultant graph

65
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR THE
WING

Generally, the shear force and bending moment variation along the span of the wing are of
significance. The wing has the spars and ribs as major structural elements, along with
stringers. Since the wing is subjected to bending as a result of all the forces acting on it, the
shear force and bending moment variations help us to predict structurally critical locations on
the wing, and accordingly provide sufficient factor of safety.

SHEAR FORCE
4000000
3500000
3000000
Shear force (N)

2500000
2000000
1500000 shear
1000000
500000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
span b (m)

Fig 15.2 shear force graph

BENDING MOMENT
35000000
Normal Bending Moment (N-m)

30000000

25000000

20000000

15000000
bending
10000000

5000000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance along wing tip from wing span (m)

Fig 15.3 bending moment graph

66
Max bending moment = 30324668.15 Nm
Design B.M = max B.M *safety factor*load factor
Design B.M = max B.M *1.5*3.5018
M= 1140081401.580 Nm

Material selection
S.NO AL alloy Yield strength (Mpa) Ultimate strength
(Mpa)
1 Al 2024-T35 280 470
2 Al 2024-T3 276 427
3 Al 7075-T6 476 538
4 Al 7075-T651 462 538
5 Al 6061-T6 241 290

The material selected for the design case is Al 7075-T6

WING SPAR AND STRINGER DESIGN

The bending stress is given by the equation,

𝜎 = 𝑀𝑦 /𝐼 ⇒ 𝜎 = 𝑀𝑦 /𝐴𝑦2
Where, σ is yield strength.
A –total cross-sectional area (spar area and stringer area)
y -half of the thickness at c.g point of the mean aerodynamic chord aerofoil section
M -design bending moment
The maximum bending moment from bending moment diagram is 30324668.15 N.m
σ = 476 MPa (for Aluminium alloy)
Overall area A = 0.81396 m2

67
SPARS
From overall area a= 0.81396 m2
60% of area for spars and 40% of area for stringers
Area of spar= 0.48837 m2
Area of stringers =0.3255 m2
Spars: 60% area for front spar and 40% area for rear spar
Area of front spar = 0.293026 m2
Area of rear spar = 0.19535 m2
Area of top flange in front spar = 0.293026 m2
Area of bottom flange in front spar = 0.19535 m2
Area of top flange in rear spar = 0.11721 m2
Area of bottom flange in rear spar = 0.07814 m2
Bw=√area/3.82
Bw at T.F of F.S = 0.2318 m
Bw at B.F of F.S = 0.1892 m
Bw at T.F of R.S = 0.1892 m
Bw at B.F of R.S = 0.1545 m
BF=1.8*BW
BF t T.F of F.S = 0.41724 m
BF at B.F of F.S = 0.3405 m
BF at T.F of R.S = 0.3405 m
BF at B.F of R.S = 0.2781 m
Tw= 0.04 Bw
Tw at T.F of F.S = 0.009272 m
Tw at B.F of F.S = 0.007568 m
Tw at T.F of R.S = 0.007568 m
Tw at B.F of R.S = 0.00618 m
TF =Tw

STRINGERS
Total no.of stringers= 70

68
 Top stringers = 35
Front stringers = 09
Bottom stringers = 26
Perimeter of the circle = π*t/2
= = 0.1570 m
Wtop=perimeter/ no.of stringers+1
= 0.11675
Wbottom= 0.10896 m
Wfront= 0.12609 m
σ =(kc*π*E/12*(1-г)2)(t/w)2
Kc=15 for T.S,
Kc=17.50 for F.S
Kc=13.069 for B.S
W is spacing
Г=0.3(poisons ratio)
E=71.7G.pa
Now, thickness for skin is 4.579*10^-3 m
Tw = 4.579*10^-3 m
σ =0.388e*(Tw/Bw)2
Bw= 0.03515 m
BF =Bw= 0.03515m
TF=Tw/0.8
Thickness of flange is 6.6625*10-3m

69
CALCULATION OF SHEAR FLOW FOR WING

𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑥
q= (Axy) - (Axx)
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝑦𝑦

Ixx =Ay2-Ay’2
Iyy = Ax2-Ax’2
Ixy= Axy – Ax’y’
Sy = L*1.5*n, L= ½*ρ*V2*S*CL
Sx= D*1.5*n, D= ½* ρ*V2*S*CD
𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝐼𝑥𝑦
Sy−Sx( ) Sx−Sy( )
Vy= 𝐼𝑦𝑦 Vx= 𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝑥𝑦2 𝐼𝑥𝑦2
1− 1−
𝐼𝑥𝑥∗𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝑥𝑥∗𝐼𝑦𝑦

x bar -0.71219
y bar 0.21926
Ixx
0.498609
Iyy
2.698634
Ixy
-0.07543
sy 5399618
sx 333295.6
vy 5431903
vx 1155039

70
 Area X Location Y Location AX AY q
0.1172 2.1015 0.58842 0.246296 0.068963 1357300
0.00464 1.98475 0.58842 0.009209 0.00273 51210.96
0.00464 1.868 0.58842 0.008668 0.00273 48631.67
0.00464 1.75125 0.58842 0.008126 0.00273 45998.24
0.00464 1.6345 0.58842 0.007584 0.00273 43310.66
0.00464 1.51775 0.58842 0.007042 0.00273 40568.95
0.00464 1.401 0.58842 0.006501 0.00273 37773.1
0.00464 1.28425 0.58842 0.005959 0.00273 34923.11
0.00464 1.1675 0.58842 0.005417 0.00273 32018.98
0.00464 1.05075 0.58842 0.004875 0.00273 29060.71
0.00464 0.934 0.58842 0.004334 0.00273 26048.3
0.00464 0.81725 0.58842 0.003792 0.00273 22981.75
0.00464 0.7005 0.58842 0.00325 0.00273 19861.06
0.00464 0.58375 0.58842 0.002709 0.00273 16686.23
0.00464 0.467 0.58842 0.002167 0.00273 13457.27
0.00464 0.35025 0.58842 0.001625 0.00273 10174.16
0.00464 0.2335 0.58842 0.001083 0.00273 6836.912
0.00464 0.11675 0.58842 0.000542 0.00273 3445.526
0.00464 8.05E-16 0.58842 3.73E-18 0.00273 2.39E-11
0.00464 -0.11675 0.58842 -0.00054 0.00273 -3499.67
0.00464 -0.2335 0.58842 -0.00108 0.00273 -7053.47
0.00464 -0.35025 0.58842 -0.00163 0.00273 -10661.4
0.00464 -0.467 0.58842 -0.00217 0.00273 -14323.5
0.00464 -0.58375 0.58842 -0.00271 0.00273 -18039.7
0.00464 -0.7005 0.58842 -0.00325 0.00273 -21810.1
0.00464 -0.81725 0.58842 -0.00379 0.00273 -25634.6
0.00464 -0.934 0.58842 -0.00433 0.00273 -29513.2
0.00464 -1.05075 0.58842 -0.00488 0.00273 -33446
0.00464 -1.1675 0.58842 -0.00542 0.00273 -37432.9
0.00464 -1.28425 0.58842 -0.00596 0.00273 -41474
0.00464 -1.401 0.58842 -0.0065 0.00273 -45569.2
0.00464 -1.51775 0.58842 -0.00704 0.00273 -49718.5
0.00464 -1.6345 0.58842 -0.00758 0.00273 -53922
0.00464 -1.75125 0.58842 -0.00813 0.00273 -58179.6
0.00464 -1.868 0.58842 -0.00867 0.00273 -62491.4
0.00464 -1.98475 0.58842 -0.00921 0.00273 -66857.3
0.293 -2.1015 1 -0.61574 0.293 -7261769
0.00464 1.90026 0.9396 0.008817 0.00436 83082.62
0.00464 1.723322 0.76604 0.007996 0.003554 60833.05
0.00464 1.591928 0.5 0.007387 0.00232 35202.05
0.00464 1.522024 0.17364 0.007062 0.000806 8758.632
0.00464 1.522024 -0.17364 0.007062 -0.00081 -17959.8
0.00464 1.591928 -0.5 0.007387 -0.00232 -45267.8
0.00464 1.723734 -0.76604 0.007998 -0.00355 -72647.8
0.00464 1.90026 -0.9396 0.008817 -0.00436 -97425.2
71
0.00464 2.1015 -1 0.009751 -0.00464 -114999
0.1953 -2.1015 -0.58842 -0.41042 -0.11492 2261781
0.00464 -1.99254 -0.58842 -0.00925 -0.00273 51381.14
0.00464 -1.88358 -0.58842 -0.00874 -0.00273 48979
0.00464 -1.77462 -0.58842 -0.00823 -0.00273 46529.71
0.00464 -1.66566 -0.58842 -0.00773 -0.00273 44033.26
0.00464 -1.5567 -0.58842 -0.00722 -0.00273 41489.66
0.00464 -1.44774 -0.58842 -0.00672 -0.00273 38898.9
0.00464 -1.33878 -0.58842 -0.00621 -0.00273 36260.98
0.00464 -1.22982 -0.58842 -0.00571 -0.00273 33575.91
0.00464 -1.12086 -0.58842 -0.0052 -0.00273 30843.68
0.00464 -1.0119 -0.58842 -0.0047 -0.00273 28064.3
0.00464 -0.90294 -0.58842 -0.00419 -0.00273 25237.76
0.00464 -0.79398 -0.58842 -0.00368 -0.00273 22364.07
0.00464 -0.68502 -0.58842 -0.00318 -0.00273 19443.22
0.00464 -0.57606 -0.58842 -0.00267 -0.00273 16475.22
0.00464 -0.4671 -0.58842 -0.00217 -0.00273 13460.05
0.00464 -0.35814 -0.58842 -0.00166 -0.00273 10397.74
0.00464 -0.24918 -0.58842 -0.00116 -0.00273 7288.265
0.00464 -0.14022 -0.58842 -0.00065 -0.00273 4131.636
0.00464 -0.03126 -0.58842 -0.00015 -0.00273 927.8523
0.00464 0.0777 -0.58842 0.000361 -0.00273 -2323.09
0.00464 0.18666 -0.58842 0.000866 -0.00273 -5621.18
0.00464 0.29562 -0.58842 0.001372 -0.00273 -8966.43
0.00464 0.40458 -0.58842 0.001877 -0.00273 -12358.8
0.00464 0.51354 -0.58842 0.002383 -0.00273 -15798.4
0.00464 0.6225 -0.58842 0.002888 -0.00273 -19285.1
0.00464 0.73146 -0.58842 0.003394 -0.00273 -22819
0.078 0.84042 -0.58842 0.065553 -0.0459 -443794

72
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FUSELAGE

Similar to the previous section, here we perform the structural design of the aircraft fuselage.
There are two types of fuselage constructions using metals:
• Monocoque construction
• Semi‐monocoque construction
In the monocoque construction, the fuselage is a pure metal shell, with no stiffening members
in the axial direction. In this type of construction, all loads on the fuselage are taken by the
skin alone. This implies a very thick skin, which potentially increases the aircraft weight
greatly.
In the semi‐monocoque construction, the skin is relatively thin. It is stiffened using long, thin
members running along the length of the fuselage called stringers (longerons if fewer in
number). These members take, apart from stiffening the skin, also directly take some of the
bending loads acting on the fuselage.

FUSELAGE

S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT(N) X(m)

1 Nose tip 0 0
2 Instruments -7636.168 2.568
3 Pilots -2354.4 5.1369
4 Payload 1 -23544 5.547
5 Nose wheel -29157.49 6
6 Payload 2 -35316 6.2875
7 Crew members -4708.8 8.7327
8 Payload 3 -235440 14.794
Reaction of front
9 spar 320972.8 18.6363
10 Reaction of rear spar 320981.73 22.8393
11 Fuselage structure -218681.2 23.116
12 Lavatories -4859.58 42.63
13 Equipment -7363.168 45.2
14 Vertical tail -29157.49 46.36
15 Horizontal tail -43736.24 48.8

73
CALCULATION OF SHEAR FORCE AND BENDIG MOMENT FOR FUSELAGE

SHEAR
S.NO COMPONENTS WEIGHT(N) X(m) WX FORCE DEL X B.M
1 Nose tip 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 Instruments -7636.168 2.568 -19609.7 -7636.168 -2.568 19609.67942
3 Pilots -2354.4 5.1369 -12094.3 -9990.568 -2.5689 25664.77014
4 Payload 1 -23544 5.547 -130599 -33534.568 -0.4101 13752.52634
5 Nose wheel -29157.49 6 -174945 -62692.058 -0.453 28399.50227
6 Payload 2 -35316 6.2875 -222049 -98008.058 -0.2875 28177.31668
-
7 Crew members -4708.8 8.7327 -41120.5 102716.858 -2.4452 251163.2612
-
8 Payload 3 -235440 14.794 -3483099 338156.858 -6.0613 2049670.163
Reaction of front
9 spar 320972.8 18.6363 5981745 -17184.058 -3.8423 66026.30605
Reaction of rear
10 spar 320981.73 22.8393 7330998 303797.672 -4.203 -1276861.62
Fuselage
11 structure -218681.2 23.116 -5055035 85116.472 -0.2767 -23551.7278
12 Lavatories -4859.58 42.63 -207164 80256.892 -19.514 -1566132.99
13 Equipment -7363.168 45.2 -332815 72893.724 -2.57 -187336.871
14 Vertical tail -29157.484 46.36 -1351741 43736.24 -1.16 -50734.0384
15 Horizontal tail -43736.24 48.8 -2134329 0 -2.44 0

SHEAR FORCE
400000

300000

200000
Shear force (N)

100000

0
SHEAR FORCE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-100000

-200000

-300000

-400000
Distance along fuselage from nose (m)

74
 Bending Moment
2500000
2000000
bending moment (Nm)

1500000
1000000
500000
0 B.M
-500000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1000000
-1500000
-2000000
distance along fuselage from nose (m)

SHEAR FLOW OF FUSELAGE

area angle y y2 q
0.008205 6 2.746372 7.54256 -1009.81
0.008205 12 2.701155 7.296236 -993.18
0.008205 18 2.626343 6.897675 -965.673
0.008205 24 2.522756 6.364297 -927.585
0.008205 30 2.391529 5.719412 -879.335
0.008205 36 2.2341 4.991205 -821.45
0.008205 42 2.052194 4.211502 -754.566
0.008205 48 1.847804 3.41438 -679.414
0.008205 54 1.623169 2.634678 -596.819
0.008205 60 1.38075 1.906471 -507.684
0.008205 66 1.123203 1.261586 -412.988
0.008205 72 0.85335 0.728207 -313.766
0.008205 78 0.574148 0.329646 -211.107
0.008205 84 0.288655 0.083322 -106.135
0.008205 90 1.69E-16 2.86E-32 -6.2E-14
0.008205 96 -0.28866 0.083322 106.1349
0.008205 102 -0.57415 0.329646 211.107
0.008205 108 -0.85335 0.728207 313.7661
0.008205 114 -1.1232 1.261586 412.9875
0.008205 120 -1.38075 1.906471 507.6842
0.008205 126 -1.62317 2.634678 596.8186
0.008205 132 -1.8478 3.41438 679.4141
0.008205 138 -2.05219 4.211502 754.5658
0.008205 144 -2.2341 4.991205 821.4503
0.008205 150 -2.39153 5.719412 879.3348
0.008205 156 -2.52276 6.364297 927.5852
0.008205 162 -2.62634 6.897675 965.6727
0.008205 168 -2.70115 7.296236 993.1802

75
 0.008205 174 -2.74637 7.54256 1009.806
0.008205 180 -2.7615 7.625882 1015.368
0.008205 186 -2.74637 7.54256 1009.806
0.008205 192 -2.70115 7.296236 993.1802
0.008205 198 -2.62634 6.897675 965.6727
0.008205 204 -2.52276 6.364297 927.5852
0.008205 210 -2.39153 5.719412 879.3348
0.008205 216 -2.2341 4.991205 821.4503
0.008205 222 -2.05219 4.211502 754.5658
0.008205 228 -1.8478 3.41438 679.4141
0.008205 234 -1.62317 2.634678 596.8186
0.008205 240 -1.38075 1.906471 507.6842
0.008205 246 -1.1232 1.261586 412.9875
0.008205 252 -0.85335 0.728207 313.7661
0.008205 258 -0.57415 0.329646 211.107
200.008205 264 -0.28866 0.083322 106.1349
0.008205 270 -5.1E-16 2.58E-31 1.87E-13
0.008205 276 0.288655 0.083322 -106.135
0.008205 282 0.574148 0.329646 -211.107
0.008205 288 0.85335 0.728207 -313.766
0.008205 294 1.123203 1.261586 -412.988
0.008205 300 1.38075 1.906471 -507.684
0.008205 306 1.623169 2.634678 -596.819
0.008205 312 1.847804 3.41438 -679.414
0.008205 318 2.052194 4.211502 -754.566
0.008205 324 2.2341 4.991205 -821.45
0.008205 330 2.391529 5.719412 -879.335
0.008205 336 2.522756 6.364297 -927.585
0.008205 342 2.626343 6.897675 -965.673
0.008205 348 2.701155 7.296236 -993.18
0.008205 354 2.746372 7.54256 -1009.81
0.008205 360 2.7615 7.625882 -1015.37

76
 SHEAR FLOW OF FUSELAGE
1
59 60 2 3 4
57 58 1200 5
56 6
55 1000 7
54 8
53 800 9
52 10
51 600 11
50 12
49 400 13
48 14
200
47 15
46 0 16
SHEAR FLOW
45 17
44 18
43 19
42 20
41 21
40 22
39 23
38 24
37 25
36 26
35 34 27
33 32 30 29 28
31

77
 CONCLUSION

The design of the selected aircraft long range business jet was done in a step by
step method sticking to the basic rules. Calculations were performed with respect to
data and formulae obtained from available design books. Some problems aroused
during the process. However, they were solved by good teamwork. The conceptual
design done in this project meets the initial requirements that were set by us. It also
helped us to understand some basic things about the aircraft and its design. We saw
how the weight of an aircraft plays an important role in the design process. All the
other following parameters vary with weight. The estimation of weight was a very
crucial step and was also interesting. Then followed by the selection of an appropriate
airfoil and estimating the lift that could be obtained using it. Then, the estimation of
some critical performance parameters to finalize the conceptual design process and
selection of an appropriate powerplant. Finally, it ended with the three view diagram.
We would like to conclude saying that the experience that we got during the process
will be helpful and the moments will always be remembered by us.

78
 REFERENCES

1. Jackson, P. (Editor) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft 2006-2007”, Jane’s

Information group ltd., Surrey, UK, 2006.

2. Perkins, C.D. & Hage, R.E., “Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control”, John
Wiley 1949.

3. Anderson, Jr. J.D. “Introduction to Flight” McGraw Hill 2005.

4. Anderson, Jr. J.D. “Aircraft performance and design” McGraw Hill International
edition 2006.

5. Hoerner, S.F. “Fluid dynamic drag” published by Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Brick
Town, NJ, 1965

6. Abbott I. H. & Von Doenhoff A. E. “Theory of wing sections”, Dover, 1959.

7. JAVAFOIL Aerofoil parameter software.

8. MICHELIN tyre manual.

9. Flap data book (RAeS Data sheets).

10. ARC Technical Report R & M 2622

79