Research Methodology

Psy313

Nature of the course Theory+ Practical Paper-III

Full Marks-100

Theory 75+Practical 25

Pass mark: 27, Practical 10

Lect: Theory: 113, 37

Group A (Theory):

Unit: 2 Basic Concepts in Scientific Research

Concept, Problems, Objectives , Hypothesis, Variables and its types, Operational definition,
Literature review, Ethics in psychological research , Ethnocentrism, Experimenter‘s bias.

1. Concepts

The title of the research problem, the research objectives of the study, the investigative questions
and the hypotheses consists of concepts. Concepts should be accurately defined. This is an
important step in the formulation of the research problem. It is the definition of concepts that
determine the information needed of the study.

A concept is thus, an abstract symbol representing an object, a property of an object or a certain

phenomenon eg, book , person, intelligence , and meeting.

―A concept is in reality, a definition in short hand of a class or group of facts‖ –Young, Pauline
V

―The purpose is to present in simplified form the thinking about phenomena, event and
processes‖-Ibid

Characteristics of Concepts

 Concepts are a symbols

 Concepts represent only one part of the reality.
 Different people hold different concepts of the same things
 Concept also represent various degrees of idea

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Types of concepts

Concepts is divided into two types

 Concrete concepts: symbolize material objects, which can be seen , touched and felt,
e.g., book table ,building
 Abstract concepts: refers to properties or characteristics of objects, e.g., attitude,
intelligence , leadership.

Problems in defining concepts:

1. Concept developed from shared experience

2. Term used to denote scientific concept may also have meaning in other frame of
reference
3. A term may refer to different phenomena
4. Different terms may refer to the same phenomena
5. A term may have no immediate empirical referent
6. Meaning of concept may change

2. Research Problem:
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be of selecting and properly defining
a research problem. Problem is the discrepancy between the current state and desired state. A
research problem in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
―A problem is a question purposed for solution.‖ – J C Townsned,1953

―A problem is an inteogetive sentence or statement that ask what relations exist between two or
more variables.‖ FN Kerlinger,1986

A problem is any question which is placing for the solution. For example, to study about the
level of stress among the BSW students. We can state the components of a research problem as
under:
 There must be an individual or group which has some difficulty.
 There must be some objectives to be attained at.
 There must be alternatives for obtaining the objectives.
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives.
 There must some environments to which the difficulty pertains.

Characteristics of research problem:

 It should be express clearly and unambiguously.
 It should express a relation between two or more variables.

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  It should be such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing.
 It should be allied with the chain of thinking or research already in existence.
 It should be within manageable limits or practically feasible.
 It should possess some direct utility.
Selection of Research problems:

 Interest
 Experimenter‘s aptitude
 Problem should be significant
 Problem should be measurable
 Related to the field already worked on.
 Expanses and time
Types of research problems: There are two types of research problems:
 Those which relate to the states of nature.
 Those which relate to the relationships between variables.

Techniques for defining a research problem: The research problem under taken for study
must be carefully selected. At the very outset the researcher must decide the general area of
interest or aspects of particular subject matter. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be setup. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific inquiry. Too narrow and too vague problems should be
avoided. The importance of the subject, qualifications and trainings of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a
problem. The major steps are:
A. Statement of the problem in a general way.
B. Understanding the nature of the problem.
C. Surveying the available literature.
D. Developing the ideas through discussions with experts.
E. Rephrasing the research problem.

Necessity of the defining the research problem: (Importance) Quite often we all hear that a
problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.
 It helps researcher to be on the track.
 It helps to discriminate relevant data from irrelevant ones.
 It helps choosing tools for data collection.
 It helps design research.
 It helps in the analysis of data for relations to be explored.
Source: C.R. Kothari, M.L Singh.
Sources of the problem

 By study of related literature

 By contact between the researcher and professor
 By replication of previous researches

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  By scientific observation of existing researches
 Researcher‘s own Experience
3. Objectives:

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a reader
of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly
and specifically. Research objective is a specification of the ultimate reason for carrying out
research in the first place. The expected answers to research queries are the objectives of the
study. A thing aimed at or wished for a purpose is objective. It is the goal of the study.

Types of Objectives:
1. Broad/Main objective: It outlines the broad prospective of the study. The main objective
is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek to discover or established. For example, to
study about the level of stress among students.
2. Specific/Sub objective: It outlines the specific prospective of the study. The Sub
objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the
main framework of your study. They should be worded clearly. Make sure that each sub
objectives contains only one aspects of the study. Use action oriented words and verbs
when writing your objectives. The objectives should start with words such as ‗to
determine‘, ‗to find out‘, ‗to ascertain‘, ‗to measure‘, and ‗to explore‘. For example, to
study about the level of stress among female students of BSW at a particular college.

The way the main objectives and the sub objectives are worded determines how your
research is classified (eg descriptive, correlational or experimental).

Characteristics of Objectives:

The characteristics of objectives depend upon the type of research which are as follows.

1. Descriptive study: Clear, Complete and Specific. For descriptive study your main
objective should clearly describe the major focus of your study will be some
organization, the problems and service provided.
2. Correlational study: Clear, Complete and Specific and identified the main variables to
be correlated. For this types of study the objectives should include the main variable
being correlated along with other characteristics i.e, Clear, Complete and Specific. (Eg.
To ascertain the impact of migration on family role.)
3. Hypothesis testing studies: For hypothesis testing study, the wording of the main
objectives should also indicate the direction of the relationship being tested. (Eg. To
ascertain if an increase youth unemployment will increase the incidence of street crime.)

Importance of the objectives in the research:

 It helps researcher to be on the track.

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  It helps to discriminate relevant data from irrelevant ones.
 It helps choosing tools for data collection.
 It helps design research.
 It helps in the analysis of data for relations to be explored.
 It helps in tracing the conclusion.

4. Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question. Hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea which becomes the basis for action or investigation. It is tentative, because
its truth can be evaluated only after it has been tested empirically. Hypothesis is a tasteful
guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. The first step of a
psychological investigation is to identify an area of interest and develop a hypothesis that can
then be tested. While a hypothesis is often described as a guess, it is actually much more
specific.
―A hypothesis is a suggested answer of the problem.‖ – J C Townsend, 1953

―A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables.‖ - FN

Kerlinger,1986

―A hypothesis is a testable statement of potential relationship between two or more variables.‖ –

FJ McGuigan 1990

Characteristics of Hypothesis:
 Conceptual clarity. It should be clear and precise (accurate).
 Testability. It should be capable of being tested. (In accurate time)
 Specificity. It should be specific.(Limited in scope)
 Consistency. It should be consistent with most known facts.
 Objectivity. It should be free from personal judgment.
 Simplicity. It should be easily understandable.
 It should state relationship between variables.
 It should have theoretical relevance.

Sources of Hypothesis:
 Theory. For example, the major motivating factor of Nepalese people is money-
Maslow theory.
 Observation, Intuition and personal experience. Falling of an apple-Newton's
experience.
 Analogies.Similiarities between two phenomena. For example, similar types of
activities may be found in similar geography.
 Findings of studies.
 State of knowledge in the topic.
 Culture.

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  Continuity of research. The rejection of hypothesis leads to the formulation of new
ones.
Types of Hypothesis:

According to F.J. McGuigan,(1990) there are two types of hypothesis. 1. Universal hypothesis 2.
Existential

A. General Types:
 Positive hypothesis. For example, practice enhances learning.
 Negative hypothesis. For example, practice hinders learning.
 Zero hypothesis. For example, practice affects learning.

B. Statistical Types:
 Null Hypothesis: If we are compare method A with method B about its superiority
and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this
assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. It is generally symbolized as Ho.
 Alternative Hypothesis: We may think that the method A is superior and B is
inferior. It is termed as alternative hypothesis. It is generally symbolized as Ha.
Hypothesis are classified in several other ways like descriptive hypothesis, Relational
hypothesis, causal hypothesis, working hypothesis, common sense hypothesis, complex
hypothesis, analytical hypothesis etc.

Importance of Hypothesis: (Utility)

 It helps researcher to be on the track. It gives appropriate direction to proceed. It gives
point to enquire.
 It helps to discriminate relevant data from irrelevant ones. It helps in the selection of
pertinent facts.
 It helps choosing tools for data collection.
 It helps design research.
 It helps in the analysis of data for relations to be explored.
 It helps in tracing the conclusion.

5. Variables:

Variables are measurable attributes of beings, things or objects. Variables are characteristics
and conditions that are manipulated, controlled or observed by the experimentator. A logical
set of attributes is called variable. For example Intelligence, anxiety, aptitudes, income,
learning, achievement, practices etc. Research questions in psychology are about variables. A
variable is a quantity or quality that varies across people or situations. For example, the
height of the students in a psychology class is a variable because it varies from student to
student. The sex of the students is also a variable as long as there are both male and female
students in the class.

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―A variable is a characteristics or attribute that can take on a number of values.‖- Postman and
Egan, 1966

―Variable are the attributes or qualities which exhibit difference in magnitude, and which very
along some dimensions.‖-HE Garret, 1967

A quantitative variable is a quantity, such as height, that is typically measured by assigning a

number to each individual. Other examples of quantitative variables include people‘s level of
talkativeness, how depressed they are, and the number of siblings they have. A categorical
variable is a quality, such as sex, and is typically measured by assigning a category label to each
individual. Other examples include people‘s nationality, their occupation, and whether they are
receiving psychotherapy.

Types of Variables: There are mainly three variables.

A. Independent Variable: The independent variables represent inputs or causes, i.e.
potential reasons for variation. It is that variable on the basis of which the prediction
about the dependent variable is made. It affects dependent variable. This remains under
control or experiment. For example practice.
B. Dependent Variable: The dependent variables represent the output or outcome whose
variation is being studied. It depends upon the independent variables. For example
learning.
C. Intervening (extraneous) Variable: These are the variables besides that particular
independent variable which can affect the dependent variable. For example, home
environment, internet access, parental education etc.

Important considerations in the selection of variables:

A. Theoretical consideration: we should consider whether or not the variable is related to
theory.
B. Design consideration: Variables should be selected in view of the scope of design of the
experiment.
C. Practical consideration: Should limit the number of variables.

6. Operational Definition:

Operational definition is a full description of exactly how variables are defined, how they will be
manipulated, and how they will be measured. Once the sample is selected, researchers need to
measure the variables they are interested in. This requires an operational definition—a
definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured. Most variables can be
operationally defined in many different ways.

For example, depression can be operationally defined as people‘s scores on a paper-and-pencil

depression scale, the number of depressive symptoms they are experiencing, or whether they
have been diagnosed with major depressive disorder. When a variable has been measured for a
particular individual, the result is called a score, and a set of scores is called data.

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Another example, study habits and test anxiety are the two variables in this imaginary study. A
researcher might operationally define the variable ‗test anxiety‘ as the results on a self-report
measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. The variable ‗study habits‘ might be defined by
the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

Why do psychologists need to provide operational definitions for each variable? These specific
descriptions of each variable are important because many things can be measured in a number of
different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results
must be replicable. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and
manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

7. Literature Review:

Literatures are valuable writings regarding the subject matter. The researcher must examine all
available literature to acquaint with the selected problem. It is focused and directed towards
specific purposes. A literature review is an essential part of the research process and makes a
valuable contribution to almost every operational step. Before a researcher can begin, they must
choose a topic to study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then
conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. This review will provide
valuable information about what has already been learned about the topic and what questions
remain to be answered.

During the write-up your report it helps you to integrate your findings with existing knowledge
–that is, to either support or contradict earlier research. A literature review might involve looking
at a considerable amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back
decades. The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented in the
introduction section of the final published study results.

Literature review has the following functions:

 It provides a theoretical background to your study.

 It helps you establish the link between what you are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
 It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession. It helps you to integrate your research findings into the
existing body of knowledge.

Types of Literature review:

A. The conceptual literature: Concerning concepts and theories.
B. The Empirical literature: Consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the
one proposed.

Sources of Literatures:
 Books. Text books, reference books etc.
 Research and academic journals: Published monthly, quarterly, half yearly or annually.
 Reports: Government reports, seminar reports, conference proceedings etc.

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  Research dissertations and theses.
 Newspapers.
 Movies.
 Good library.
 Bibliographies. A list of books or articles about any particular subject.
 Internet: Websites, Wikipedia, Encyclopedia.
Literature Review Procedure: (Steps). It involves three steps.
 To decide what information is useful and what is not useful.
 To determine how to record what is gathered from a published material.
 To set up an orderly recording or note taking system.
Importance of Literature Review in Research: (purposes)
 It helps to gain background and up to date knowledge of the research topic.
 It helps to identify concepts.
 It helps to understand problem.
 It helps to identify research gaps in the field.
 It helps to avoid duplication.
 It helps to develop hypothesis and research objectives.
 It helps researcher to be on the track.
 It helps to identify appropriate methodology.
 It helps to identify data sources.
 It helps in the design of research.
 It helps for analysis of data and report writings.

8. Ethics in psychological research:

Ethics: The branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality. Ethics is also a set of
principles and practices that provide moral guidance in a particular field. Ethics is the branch
of philosophy that is concerned with morality—what it means to behave morally and how
people can achieve that goal. It can also refer to a set of principles and practices that provide
moral guidance in a particular field. There is an ethics of business, medicine, teaching, and of
course, scientific research. As the opening example illustrates, many kinds of ethical issues
can arise in scientific research, especially when it involves human participants.
Ethics are a set of moral principles used to guide human behavior. It tends to be used to
develop moral behavior among professionals. It determines what is right and wrong,
acceptable or unacceptable.
Scientists often confront important ethical questions in the course of their work. For example,
was it morally defensible for physicists to develop atomic bomb during the 1940s? Can
research on human embryos be justified? Should scientists participate in the development of
chemical weapons that could potentially kill millions of people? All these questions about the
ethics of scientific research are hard to answer, because there are good arguments for and
against each programme of research. There are probably more major ethical issues associated
with research in psychology than in any other scientific discipline. The reasons are:
First, all psychological experiments involve the study of living creatures.
Second, the findings of psychological research may reveal unpleasant or unacceptable facts
about certain groups within society. Possibility of political abuse is high. It inflames people's

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 prejudices. For this reason, it is useful to begin with a general framework for thinking through
these issues.

APA Ethics Code for Psychological research (Standard 8: Research and Publication).
1. Institutional Approval: When institutional approval is required, psychologists provide
accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to
conducting the research. They conduct the research in accordance with the approved
research protocol.
2. Informed Consent to Research: When obtaining informed consent as required in
Standard Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the
research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to participate and to
withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences
of declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to
influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse
effects; (5) any prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for
participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research
participants‘ rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask
questions and receive answers.

3. Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research: Psychologists obtain
informed consent from research participants prior to recording their voices or images for data
collection unless (1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places,
and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal
identification or harm, or (2) the research design includes deception, and consent for the use
of the recording is obtained during debriefing.

4. Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants: When psychologists

conduct research with clients/patients, students, or subordinates as participants, psychologists
take steps to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or
withdrawing from participation. b. When research participation is a course requirement or an
opportunity for extra credit, the prospective participant is given the choice of equitable
alternative activities.

5. Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research: Psychologists may dispense with informed
consent only
6. Offering Inducements for Research Participation
7 . Deception in Research
8. Debriefing

The British Psychological Society has issued a code of ethics in psychology that provides
guidelines for the conduct of research. Some of the more important ethical issues are as follows:
i. Consent: Participants should be informed of the objectives of the investigation. It is the
special safeguarding procedure. Researcher should take permission for participants
verbally or in the writings.
ii. Deception: Intentional deception (dishonesty) of the participant over the purpose and
general nature of the investigation should be avoided wherever possible. Avoid faking.

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 iii. Debriefing: Participants must be thoroughly debriefed at the end of the study. They must
be asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered honestly as
fully as possible. Researcher should provide feedback to all participants and clear their
misconceptions.
iv. Confidentiality: Participants and data gained from them must be kept anonymous unless
they give their full consent. No names must be used in a research report. We should
maintain privacy.
v. Withdrawal from the investigation: From the very start of an investigation, participant
must be aware of their right to stop participating in the study. Even at the end of the study
the participant has a final opportunity to withdraw the data they have provided for the
research.
vi. Protection of Participants: Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research
will not be caused distress. Researcher should participants from physical and mental
harm during the research.
vii. To Give advice: If the researcher believes that the participants future wellbeing may be
endangered on the basis of participants activities during investigation the researcher must
provide appropriate advice for the participants future wellbeing.

Ethnocentrism: This refers to the belief that one‘s own group (eg; ethnic, social, cultural) is the
most important and superior to that of others. As individuals & groups we find it hard to think
beyond our own cultural experience. This means that research may be biased: psychologists may
design research or draw conclusions that makes sense or applies to their own cultural group only.
Much research is based on American / European groups. Eg: Piliavin‘s observations on helping
behaviour were limited to observations of New Yorkers. Research into stress: Holmes & Rahe, &
Kanner assumed that life events & daily hassles apply universally. The DSM-V may be biased &
lack validity when applied to non-Western countries.

Ethnocentrism is a belief that your society, group, or culture is superior to all others. It is judging
another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. The ethnocentric
individual judges other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture
especially with concern to language, behavior, customs and religion. These ethnic distinctions
and sub-divisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity.
The term ethnocentrism was coined by William G. Summer, upon observing the tendency for
people to differentiate between the in-group and others. One's own group is the center of
everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. It leads pride, vanity, beliefs
of ones own group's superiority.
Examples of ethnocentrism: My culture is the most important culture in the world. My cultures
beliefs are more valid.
Impact of ethnocentrism in psychological research: Ethnocentrism has great impact in
research. Ethnocentric viewpoint of the researcher and the participants affect research process.
Ethnocentrism influences our behaviors and thoughts, including how we interact with
individuals from other cultures. Psychologists are also concerned with how ethnocentrism can
influence the research process. For example, a study might be criticized for having an
ethnocentric bias.

Strengths:

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  Allows us to discover the diversity of behaviour & experience throughout the world.
 Encourages researchers to be alert of assuming their culture is superior and making
biased conclusions about human behaviour.
 By understanding the mechanisms of ethnocentrism, we may be able to improve society.
(eg; Reicher & Haslam)
 It may allow us to discover which behaviours are inherited and which are learned (cross-
cultural studies) (eg; Autism is found in all cultures, social groups, etc.)

Weaknesses:

 Difficulty in comparing cultures with diverse philosophies. (see Chadda & Ahuja, 1990)
 Language/interpretation difficulties in crosscultural research
 Samples from studies may be small and unrepresentative, & difficult to generalize. Eg:
Mental illness in Indian subcontinent (‗Dhat‖), diagnosed with depression. Only 7
participants (Chadda & Ahuja, 1990).

Experimenter Bias:

Errors in a research study due to the predisposed notions or beliefs of the experimenter.
Experimenter bias, also called Research bias, is a process where the researchers performing the
research influence the results, in order to represent a certain outcome.
1. Design Bias: Design bias is introduced when the researcher fails to take into account the
inherent biases liable in most types of experiment. Some bias is inevitable, and the researcher
must show that they understand this, and have tried their best to lessen the impact, or take it into
account in the statistics and analysis. Another type of design bias occurs after the research is
finished and the results analyzed. This is when the original misgivings of the researchers are not
included in the publicity, all too common in these days of press releases and politically motivated
research.
For example, research into the health benefits of Acai berries may neglect the researcher‘s
awareness of limitations in the sample group. The group tested may have been all female, or all
over a certain age.

2. Selection/ Sampling Bias: Sampling Bias occurs when the process of sampling actually
introduces an inherent bias into the study. There are two types of sampling bias, based around
those samples that you omit, and those that you include:

i. Omission Bias: This research bias occurs when certain groups are omitted from the
sample. An example might be that ethnic minorities are excluded or, conversely, only ethnic
minorities are studied. For example, a study into heart disease that used only white males,
generally volunteers, cannot be extrapolated to the entire population, which includes women and
other ethnic groups. Omission bias is often unavoidable, so the researchers have to incorporate
and account for this bias in the experimental design.

ii. Inclusive Bias: Inclusive bias occurs when samples are selected for convenience. This
type of bias is often a result of convenience where, for example, volunteers are the only group
available, and they tend to fit a narrow demographic range. There is no problem with it, as long

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as the researchers are aware that they cannot extrapolate the results to fit the entire population.
Enlisting students outside a bar, for a psychological study, will not give a fully representative
group.

3. Procedural Bias: Procedural bias is where an unfair amount of pressure is applied to the
subjects, forcing them to complete their responses quickly. For example, employees asked to fill
out a questionnaire during their break period are likely to rush, rather than reading the
questions properly. Using students forced to volunteer for course credit is another type of
research bias, and they are more than likely to fill the survey in quickly, leaving plenty of time to
visit the bar.

4. Measurement Bias: Measurement bias arises from an error in the data collection and the
process of measuring. In a quantitative experiment, a faulty scale would cause an instrument bias
and invalidate the entire experiment. In qualitative research, the scope for bias is wider and much
more subtle, and the researcher must be constantly aware of the problems. Subjects are often
extremely reluctant to give socially unacceptable answers, for fear of being judged. For example,
a subject may strive to avoid appearing homophobic or racist in an interview. This can skew the
results, and is one reason why researchers often use a combination of interviews, with an
anonymous questionnaire, in order to minimize measurement bias.
Instrument bias is one of the most common sources of measurement bias in quantitative
experiments. This is the reason why instruments should be properly calibrated, and multiple
samples taken to eliminate any obviously flawed or aberrant results.

5. Interviewer Bias: This is one of the most difficult research biases to avoid in many
quantitative experiments when relying upon interviews. With interviewer bias, the interviewer
may subconsciously give subtle clues in with body language, or tone of voice, that subtly
influence the subject into giving answers skewed towards the interviewer‘s own opinions,
prejudices and values. Any experimental design factors this into account, or use some form of
anonymous process to eliminate the worst effects.

6. Response Bias: Conversely, response bias is a type of bias where the subject consciously, or
subconsciously, gives response that they think that the interviewer wants to hear. The subject
may also believe that they understand the experiment and are aware of the expected findings, so
adapt their responses to suit. Again, this type of bias must be factored into the experiment, or the
amount of information given to the subject must be restricted, to prevent them from
understanding the full extent of the research.

7. Reporting Bias: Reporting Bias is where an error is made in the way that the results are
disseminated in the literature. With the growth of the internet, this type of bias is becoming a
greater source of concern. The main source of this type of bias arises because positive research
tends to be reported much more often than research where the null hypothesis is upheld.
Increasingly, research companies bury some research, trying to publicize favorable findings.
Unfortunately, for many types of studies, such as meta-analysis, the negative results are just as
important to the statistics.

Thank you

13 Class note BSW_II_ Dr. Narendra Thagunnna, PhD.