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Margulis Intro To Hydrology 2017a
Margulis Intro To Hydrology 2017a
MARGULIS
Introduction to
Hydrology
Cover photo credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stöckli (land surface, shallow water, clouds). Enhancements by Robert Simmon (ocean
color, compositing, 3D globes, animation). Data and technical support: MODIS Land Group; MODIS Science Data Support Team; MODIS Atmosphere Group;
MODIS Ocean Group Additional data: USGS EROS Data Center (topography); USGS Terrestrial Remote Sensing Flagstaff Field Center (Antarctica); Defense Me-
teorological Satellite Program (city lights).
Throughout the text I have attempted to provide credit to the author/creator/reference from which any graphics
were obtained. Most of the graphics that are not original creations for this text were taken from the publicly-
available COMET (MetEd) program. Others were taken from the public-domain and/or from credited sources. I
apologize for any omissions and would greatly appreciate being informed of them for correction in future versions.
i
The structure of the course is based on 4 lecture-hours per
Preface week with a 2-hour discussion section for review and example
problems. This e-textbook is an attempt at organizing all of
This open-access “e-textbook” is the third iteration in an the material in one format for students in the class (as well as
experiment designed to provide a novel tool for learning the any others who may find the topic and material useful). It
basic concepts in hydrologic science. I hope it is a tool that would be relatively easily adaptable to either quarter-based or
will be useful to the hydrologic community at large. It is semester-based courses. Some material beyond that which is
expected that the book and accompanying codes will be a covered in the course is provided in the book for completeness.
dynamic entity that will continue to evolve going forward. The It could also be useful as a reference text for other
book is optimized for use as an electronic book on an iPad (or undergraduate or graduate hydrology courses.
other iBooks platform) to take full advantage of multimedia,
search capability, web links, etc. However, for those without The book is organized into ten main sections: 1. The
access to those platforms we also offer a PDF version (which Hydrologic Cycle, 2. Atmospheric Composition and
will not have the full functionality of the iBooks version). Thermodynamics, 3. Radiation Processes, 4. Large-scale
Note: To be able to play the embedded multimedia Atmospheric Circulation, 5. Precipitation Processes, 6. Snow
links in the PDF you will need to view the document Processes, 7. Unsaturated Flow and Infiltration, 8.
Evaporation Processes, 9. Groundwater Flow and Well
using the freely available Adobe Reader program
Hydraulics, 10. Runoff and Streamflow. The chapters in the
(www.adobe.com).
book are organized based on this topic list. A final chapter is
The material in the book is primarily derived from notes and used to develop and present a distributed watershed model
other material used in the undergraduate Civil & developed from concepts covered throughout the previous
Environmental Engineering (CEE) 150: “Introduction to chapters of the book. The model is meant to show how
Hydrology” course offered in the Department of Civil and modular hydrologic concepts can be built-up to form a fully
Environmental Engineering at UCLA. CEE 150 is a 10-week functional watershed model. Each chapter comes with a set of
course designed to provide a survey of the hydrologic cycle. Learning Objectives that explicitly lay out the key things you
The format of the course and topical coverage owes much of should know by the end of that chapter. Sample conceptual
its genesis to a similar course taught at MIT by Dara questions and sample problems are also provided to assist in
Entekhabi. I have taught the course at UCLA for over 10 the learning of the material.
years and it has undergone a significant evolution over those
It is my strong belief that the most important aspect of the
years.
course is building student’s knowledge base through realistic
ii
problem solving. Weekly homework assignments provide a The book benefits greatly from figures and animated videos,
significant amount of hands-on problem solving, with a many of which were created or inspired by others. In
particular emphasis on realistic problem solving using particular the textbooks of Bras (1990), Mays (2005),
numerical modeling and applications. For numerical problems Marshall and Plumb (2007), and Dingman (2008) are
I use MATLAB (http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab) referenced extensively throughout the text. Additionally, the
as a framework since it is taught to all CEE undergraduates resources posted at the MetEd site (www.meted.ucar.edu)
earlier in their curriculum and is a relatively accessible and provide a fantastic set of modules for learning many of the
user-friendly numerical tool. If not freely available in a concepts covered here (as well as many other related to
student computer lab, the student version of MATLAB provides meteorology and associated fields). The MetEd site is
a useful alternative. maintained by the COMET program (www.comet.ucar.edu)
with the primary goal of assisting education through advanced
A novel aspect of the book is a companion set of MATLAB learning materials. Many of the figures and movies used in the
functions. The functions are presented with each chapter as text are those provided by MetEd. I am greatly appreciative
modular units for doing associated numerical calculations and of this resource and would strongly encourage students to
modeling. The functions are ultimately pieced together to explore the MetEd learning modules in more detail on their
form a simple distributed watershed model for educational own.
usage. Together, the set of functions and model are described
as the Modular Distributed Watershed Educational Toolbox I greatly acknowledge the teaching assistants over the years
(MOD-WET). Apart from specific applications using (in particular Michael Durand, Bart Forman, Keith
individual codes, MOD-WET aims to illustrate for students Musselman, Manuela Girotto, Laurie Huning, Mahdi Navari,
how modular codes are useful because they can be reused in Elisabeth Baldo, and Gonzalo Cortes) who have significantly
many applications (not just in this course, but other related contributed to the development of the material into its current
courses) and built-up to form more complicated analysis and form. In particular, Laurie and Manuela have greatly helped
modeling frameworks. The code along with the book and a in the development of the initial version of the book and the
model tutorial are available for download at: http:// integrated watershed model. Additionally Ben Wong was very
aqua.seas.ucla.edu/margulis_intro_to_hydro_textbook.html. helpful in updating and standardizing many of the MOD-
Many chapters have a section with MOD-WET problems, WET codes.
which when put together take the student through the setup
Any errors (typographical or otherwise) or omissions in the
and analysis of a watershed simulation.
text are attributable to me. Bringing them to my attention
would be greatly appreciated and allow for continued
iii
improvement of the text. I would be happy to add other
relevant problems to the book, watershed simulations, and/or
functions to MOD-WET based on user contributions.
iv
Section 1: Learning Objectives ........................................65
Table of Contents Section 2: Basics of Radiation .........................................66
Section 3: Shortwave vs. Longwave Radiation ..................69
Section 4: Radiative Properties of Media .........................71
Preface ..........................................................i
Section 5: Modeling Top-of-Atmosphere Shortwave
Chapter 1: The Hydrologic Cycle .................8 Fluxes ...................................................................74
Section 1: Learning Objectives ..........................................9 Section 6: Modeling Surface Shortwave Fluxes ................82
Section 2: Motivation ......................................................10 Section 7: Modeling Longwave Fluxes at the Surface .......93
Section 3: The Hydrologic Cycle ......................................13 Section 8: Net Radiation at the Surface ...........................97
Section 4: Unique Properties of Water .............................15 Section 9: MOD-WET Codes ...........................................99
Section 5: Mass balance, fluxes, and units .......................19 Section 10: Conceptual Questions ..................................100
Section 6: Global Hydrologic Cycle and Average Section 11: Sample Problems .........................................101
Mass Balance.........................................................23 Section 12: MOD-WET Problems ..................................105
Section 7: Watershed Mass Balance .................................27 Chapter 4: Atmospheric Circulation ..........108
Section 8: MOD-WET Codes ...........................................33
Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................109
Section 9: Conceptual Questions ......................................34
Section 2: Global Distribution of TOA Net Radiation ...110
Section 10: Sample Problems ...........................................35
Section 3: Atmospheric Motions Driven by
Section 11: MOD-WET Problems ....................................38
Latitudinal Energy Imbalance .............................113
Chapter 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics ..41 Section 4: Summary of Key Characteristics of
Section 1: Learning Objectives ....................................... 42 Circulation ..........................................................119
Section 2: Atmospheric Composition .............................. 43 Section 5: Fundamental Equations of Atmospheric
Section 3: Atmospheric States .........................................45 Motion ................................................................125
Section 4: Metrics for Water Vapor Concentration Section 6: Conceptual Questions ....................................131
in Air.....................................................................48 Section 7: Sample Problems ...........................................132
Section 5: Vertical Profiles of Atmospheric States ...........53 Chapter 5: Precipitation Processes ............134
Section 6: MOD-WET Codes ...........................................58
Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................135
Section 7: Conceptual Questions ......................................59
Section 2: Thermodynamics of Cloud Formation ............136
Section 8: Sample Problems .............................................60
Section 3: Cloud Microphysics .......................................141
Section 9: MOD-WET Problems ......................................63
Section 4: Meteorology of Precipitation .........................148
Chapter 3: Radiation Processes ..................64 Section 5: Precipitation Climatology and Extremes .......158
v
Section 6: Precipitation Measurement ............................162 Section 9: Conceptual Questions ....................................252
Section 7: MOD-WET Codes .........................................174 Section 10: Sample Problems .........................................253
Section 8: Conceptual Questions ....................................175 Section 11: MOD-WET Problems ..................................256
Section 9: Sample Problems ...........................................176 Chapter 8: Evaporation .............................257
Chapter 6: Snow Processes ........................180 Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................258
Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................181 Section 2: Basics of Evapotranspiration .........................259
Section 2: Surface Energy and Mass Balance .................182 Section 3: Mass-transfer Model for Evaporation ............261
Section 3: Snowpack Characteristics ..............................185 Section 4: Transpiration ................................................269
Section 4: Snowpack Accumulation and Section 5: Additional ET Models ...................................276
Metamorphism ....................................................190 Section 6: MOD-WET Codes .........................................282
Section 5: Snowmelt ......................................................198 Section 7: Conceptual Questions ....................................283
Section 6: Impact of Vegetation .....................................202 Section 8: Sample Problems ...........................................285
Section 7: Snow Climatology .........................................205 Section 9: MOD-WET Problems ....................................285
Section 8: Snow Measurement ........................................208 Chapter 9: Groundwater Flow ...................288
Section 9: MOD-WET Codes .........................................214 Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................289
Section 10: Conceptual Questions ..................................215 Section 2: Basic Groundwater Characteristics ................290
Section 11: Sample Problems .........................................216 Section 3: Development of Groundwater Flow
Section 11: MOD-WET Problems ..................................218 Equation .............................................................295
Chapter 7: Unsaturated Flow and Section 4: Groundwater Flow to Pumping
Infiltration.........................................220 Wells ...................................................................301
Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................221 Section 5: Superposition of Groundwater
Section 2: Unsaturated Zone Characteristics ..................222 Solutions .............................................................308
Section 3: Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media ...............228 Section 6: Conceptual Questions ....................................318
Section 4: Modeling Unsaturated Zone Flow Section 7: Sample Problems ...........................................319
Dynamics ............................................................235 Chapter 10: Runoff and Streamflow ..........322
Section 5: Infiltration ....................................................238 Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................323
Section 6: Infiltration Capacity Models ..........................242 Section 2: Basic Runoff and Streamflow Definitions .......324
Section 7: Modeling Actual Infiltration ..........................245 Section 3: Runoff Generation Mechanisms .....................327
Section 8: MOD-WET Codes .........................................251 Section 4: Streamflow Hydrographs ...............................334
vi
Section 5: Unit Hydrograph Rainfall-Runoff Modeling ...338
Section 6: Physically-based Rainfall-Runoff Modeling ....352
Section 7: Streamflow Routing: Unsteady Flow ..............358
Section 8: Streamflow Routing: Hydrologic Routing .......366
Section 9: Measurement of Streamflow ...........................368
Section 10: Conceptual Questions ..................................371
Section 11: Sample Problems .........................................372
Section 12: MOD-WET Problems ..................................375
Chapter 11: A Simple Watershed
Model ................................................376
Section 1: Learning Objectives ......................................377
Section 2: MOD-WET Model Development ....................378
Section 3: MOD-WET Model Implementation ...............386
Section 4: Example MOD-WET Model Applications ......392
Section 5: Example MOD-WET Hydrograph
Characteristics ....................................................406
Section 6: MOD-WET Codes .........................................410
Section 7: Conceptual Questions ....................................411
Section 8: Sample Problems ...........................................412
Chapter 12: MATLAB Basics ......................413
Chapter 13: References .................................418
vii
Chapter 1
The
Hydrologic
Cycle
S ECTION 1 10. Construct a watershed from topographic data for use in
hydrologic analysis
Learning Objectives
By the time you finish this chapter you should be able to:
9
S ECTION 2 function of elevation (i.e. high precipitation occurs in the
Sierra Nevada). Understanding how and why this variability
Motivation exists will be a key component of this course.
12
S ECTION 3
13
T ABLE 1.1. E STIMATES OF STORAGE IN PRIMARY feeds surface water bodies via lateral flow and runoff. The
GLOBAL HYDROLOGIC RESERVOIRS (B RAS , 1990). atmospheric water is replenished via evaporation from the soil
and open water surfaces and transpiration from vegetation.
VOLUME
RESERVOIR % TOTAL WATER Fluxes and storage are directly linked via mass balance as
(km3) described in more detail below.
Oceans 1,322,000,000 97.2
A key aspect of the hydrologic cycle is the fact that it is
Ice caps & glaciers 29,199,700 2.1 driven by energy inputs (primarily from the sun; Figure 1.3).
Groundwater (near-surface) 4,171,400 0.31 At the global scale, the system is essentially closed with
respect to water; negligible water is entering or leaving the
Lakes & Rivers 130,700 0.017
system. In other words, there is no external forcing in terms of
Soil Moisture 66,700 0.005 a water flux. Systems with no external forcing will generally
eventually come to an equilibrium state. So what makes the
Atmosphere 12,900 0.0009
hydrologic cycle so dynamic? The solar radiative energy input,
dynamic (mobile) freshwater reservoirs, groundwater is by far which is external to the system, drives the hydrologic cycle.
the largest. The relatively small fraction of water stored in Averaged over the globe, 342 W m-2 of solar radiative energy
lakes and rivers, soil moisture, the atmosphere, and biosphere is being continuously input to the system at the top of the
misrepresents their importance as they tend to be the most atmosphere. This energy input must be dissipated, and this is
dynamic parts of the hydrologic cycle as will be described in done, to a large extent, via the hydrologic cycle. Due to this
more detail below. fact, the study of hydrology is not isolated to the study of
water storage and movement, but also must often include
Water moves between these various reservoirs via fluxes. study of energy storage and movements.
Some of the key hydrologic fluxes include: precipitation (either
in liquid or solid form), evaporation and transpiration
(together referred to as evapotranspiration), infiltration,
recharge, and runoff. Precipitation and evapotranspiration are
the key fluxes between the atmosphere and surface (land and
oceans). Precipitation may accumulate when it falls as snow
while rainfall is partitioned at the surface into infiltration and
surface runoff. Percolation of water through the unsaturated
soil zone recharges groundwater aquifers which ultimately
14
S ECTION 4
SPECIFIC HEAT
TEMPERATURE DENSITY
CAPACITY
(ºC) (kg m-3)
(J kg-1 K-1)
0 999.87 4216
15 999.13 4184
30 995.67 4177
16
water to regulate the body’s temperature within the small
range needed for healthy functioning. E XAMPLE 1.4.1
Another key set of properties of water are the so-called How much energy would be released if all of the
latent heats associated with phase transformation. While heat atmospheric water vapor were condensed?
capacity is the energy required to change the temperature of a
According to Table 1.1, the volume of water in the
given substance (i.e. liquid water), the latent heats are the
atmosphere is approximately equal to 12,900 km3. The
energy associated with a constant temperature (isothermal)
equivalent amount of mass (using a density of water of
phase change. The latent heat of vaporization (Lv) is the
1000 kg/m3) is then given by:
energy consumed in transforming liquid water to water vapor
(or released in converting vapor to liquid) and has a value (at (1000)3 m 3
Mass = (12,900 km )(1000 kg m )
3 -3
T = 0ºC of Lv = 2.5×106 J kg-1. This property has a slight 1 km 3
variation with temperature (e.g. equals 2.25 x 106 J kg-1 at = 1.29 × 1016 kg
100ºC), but for most applications we can use this nominal
value. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the energy consumed in The equivalent amount of released energy is obtained by
transforming solid water (ice) to liquid water (or released in multiplying the mass by the latent heat of vaporization
converting liquid to ice) and has a nominal value of Lf = 3.34 (Lv). Hence the amount of energy is:
×105 J kg-1. Note that this is almost an order of magnitude
Energy = (1.29 × 1016 kg)(2.5 × 10 6 J kg -1 )
less than the latent heat of vaporization. The latent heat of
= 3.225 × 10 22 J
sublimation (Ls) is the energy consumed in transforming ice to
water vapor (or released in converting vapor to solid) and has This is a large amount of energy. Despite the atmosphere
a nominal value of Ls = 2.85×106 J kg-1. The large amounts of only containing relatively “little” water compared to
energy required to break the hydrogen bonds between water other reservoirs, this amounts to enough energy to power
molecules make these properties very high compared to other over 1 trillion 100 W light bulbs for over 10 years! The
substances. The fact that these latent heats are so large for key point is that the water in the atmosphere is a
water, coupled with the fact that phase transformations are significant potential latent heat source (or sink) when
quite common in the Earth system, result in significant energy phase changes occur. This energy, which is due to the
sources and sinks in the hydrologic cycle. Specifically, latent high latent heat of water, is one of the primary
heating is critical in energy transfer between the surface and mechanisms for energy transport in the atmosphere.
atmosphere and in global heat transport.
17
E XAMPLE 1.4.2
(1000)3 m 3
Mass = (1,322, 000, 000 km )(1000 kg m )
3 -3
1 km 3
= 1.322 × 10 21 kg
Due to the large heat capacity of the ocean (and its large
mass) there would be an imperceptible change in
temperature due to this large energy input. This is
illustrative of the large buffering capacity of water.
18
S ECTION 5 Properties of the fluid are denoted as either extensive or
intensive. Extensive properties are those that are in some way
Mass Balance, Fluxes, and related to the total mass of the system, including mass (m),
momentum (mV), and energy (E). Intensive properties are
19
which simply states that the rate of change of mass storage in In the context of mass-balance (or other) applications,
the control volume (mass/time) is exactly balanced by the net several forms of fluxes are used and it is important to be able
rate of mass outflow across the control surface. Several to differentiate between them and the units associated with
simplifying assumptions can be made to Equation (1.5.2), them. Mass fluxes (i.e. used in Equation (1.5.2)) have units of
including constant density (often appropriate in the case of mass/time (e.g., kg s-1). Volume fluxes (i.e. used in Equation
liquid water flow/storage problems) in which case: (1.5.4)) have units of volume/time (e.g., m3 s-1). To convert
d between the two, the density of the fluid can be used, i.e. for
∫ dV = −CS∫ V ⋅dA
dt CV
(1.5.3) water:
kg 1 m3
× = ; ρw = 1000 kg m −3
s ρw s
which can then simply be written as:
dS
= ∑ I i − ∑Oi (1.5.4) Often a flux density is used in place of a flux, which is simply
dt i i
either a mass or volumetric flux normalized by an appropriate
cross-sectional area across which the flux is occurring, i.e.
where S is the volume storage and the right-hand-side is the
sum of volumetric flux inflows (Ii) minus the sum of kg 1 kg
Mass: × → 2
volumetric flux outflows (Oi) across the control surface of the s A ms
control volume. A key point is that only fluxes across the m3 1 m mm m
Volume: × → (or , , etc.)
control surface need be considered in the mass balance s A s d y
equation. Internal fluxes do not contribute to mass/volume
where as shown above, if the mass flux density is known,
storage changes. This fact is often used in the construction of
volume flux density can be obtained by dividing by the
a control volume to eliminate fluxes that are unknown by
density of water. The volume flux density is a common way of
making them internal fluxes. Hence for the equation to be
expressing fluxes in hydrology. For example, the annual
meaningful, a control volume must be explicitly defined.
average rainfall in Los Angeles is 15 inches/year, which is
Another simplified case is that of steady-state in which case
implicit over a given area. To get the actual volume flux
the storage term is equal to zero, yielding:
would require multiplying this flux density by the surface area
∑ I = ∑O
i i (1.5.5) of Los Angeles over which the flux density occurs.
i i
20
As will be discussed in much more detail later, and has
been alluded to above, water and energy fluxes are often E XAMPLE 1.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
directly connected. The most relevant example is that the
be lined with concrete to prevent any drainage or
evaporation flux is tied directly to a phase change energy flux.
For example, the latent heat flux associated with phase seepage from the bottom. Using a water balance,
change is simply the mass flux density multiplied by the latent what volume (on average) of groundwater (in
heat of vaporization: cubic meters) must be added to the lake each
year to keep the pond at a steady-state level?
J kg
Energy flux density = Lv × Mass flux density → = Wm −2
kg m s
2
The first step to any mass balance is the definition of a
control volume. For this problem the control volume and
where the units of W m-2 are the most commonly used for relevant fluxes are shown below:
energy fluxes (actually flux densities) in hydrology.
E XAMPLE 1.5.1
21
E XAMPLE 1.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
2
! 1m $
Apond = 40000 ft #
2
& = 3718 m
2
" 3.28 ft %
mm 1 m
P = 260 × 3718 m 2 = 967 m 3 /y
y 1000 mm
in 2.54 cm 1 m
E = 105 × 3718 m 2 = 9916 m 3 /y
y 1 in 100 cm
m3
Qout −Qin = (0.0003 − 0.0005) ×
s
(3600 × 24 × 365) s
= −6307 m 3 /y
1y
22
S ECTION 6
23
equation: where this is expressed in terms of a volumetric flux density
(i.e. normalized over the surface of the Earth). Expressed as a
dS (1.6.3)
= Pland − Eland + Pocean − Eocean volumetric flux this would equal 1415 km3 day-1.
dt
We can think of the above flux as the average global rate
The question then becomes, if the averaging period is long of the hydrologic cycle. In other words this is the average
enough, can we say anything about any of these terms? Over amount of water moving through the various hydrologic
the long-term we can reasonably say that the (average) reservoirs. Note that the instantaneous fluxes at any given
storage change should be close to zero or at least much point and time may be very different than this (as will be
smaller than the average fluxes. This implicitly assumes some discussed later). Given this rate we can estimate average
stationarity in the system (i.e. it is steady-state in the long- residence time in the various reservoirs using the relationship:
term). In general, the longer the averaging period the more Volume of reservoir
Residence Time = (1.6.6)
accurate the assumption will be. At a minimum it should be Average volumetric flux rate
at least a full year to average over the seasonal cycle (i.e. most
regions have a “wet” season where water storage is increasing
which provides an estimate of the turnover time of water in a
and “dry” season where water stores are depleted). Anything
given reservoir. Given the estimates of reservoir volumes
less would be expected to violate the steady-state assumption.
(shown in Table 1.3), the residence times can be estimated
Taking the long-term average results in:
and are shown in Table 1.3. These residence times are
dS (1.6.4) indicative of how dynamic the different reservoirs are. For
≅ 0 = Pland − Eland + Pocean − Eocean = Pglobal − E global
dt example, a molecule of water will stay in the atmosphere for 9
days on average before precipitating out, while a molecule of
→ Pglobal = E global (1.6.5) water will spend 8 years on average flowing through
groundwater. So while the atmosphere and soil moisture
which should make sense because if these fluxes were not in reservoirs are among the smallest, they are the most dynamic
balance, water would either be accumulating over the long- based on their residence times and contribute to much of the
term in the atmosphere (if evaporation exceeded variability in the system.
precipitation) or in the land/ocean (if precipitation exceeded
evaporation). From data it is estimated that: It is very important to keep in mind that the above
numbers are global long-term averages. Significant variability
Pglobal ≅ 1 m yr -1 = E global exists in most hydrologic fluxes in both space and time. In
24
T ABLE 1.3. E STIMATES OF RESIDENCE TIME IN
PRIMARY GLOBAL HYDROLOGIC RESERVOIRS . T HESE
VALUES ASSUME A GLOBAL AVERAGE HYDROLOGIC
RATE OF 1 METER / YEAR (1415 km 3/day)
VOLUME RESIDENCE
RESERVOIR
(km3) TIME
25
F IGURE 1.9 Illustrative photo of the arid terrain of the Ata-
cama desert (from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paranal_360-degree_
Panoramic.jpg).
26
S ECTION 7 gauge exists). A watershed is simply the set of all points
(upstream) that would ultimately route water to the defined
Watershed Mass Balance outlet point. If one has topographic (i.e. elevation) maps, the
watershed can be defined using a relatively simple set of rules.
This process is generally referred to as “watershed delineation”
The last section used a global control volume to gain and traditionally was done by hand using hard-copy
some insight into long-term hydrologic fluxes at large scales topographic maps. Now it is more commonly done in an
and the corresponding residence times in key hydrologic automated way using digital representations of topography
reservoirs. In many hydrological analyses we are instead (discussed in more detail below). Watersheds come in all
shapes and sizes and any given watershed is made up of many
interested in some local or regional scale. The question then
smaller watersheds (sub-watersheds or sub-basins). Examples
becomes: How do we choose an appropriate control volume for
of some of the large watersheds covering the continental U.S.
such analyses? While any control volume can be chosen, one
are shown in Figure 1.11. Note that the full Mississippi River
that is physically-meaningful involves the concept of a
basin covers approximately 50% of the land area of the
watershed (or catchment or river basin). The watershed is in
recognition of the fact that topographic slopes are the primary
drivers of many (especially surface) fluxes. Physically
speaking, water is expected to flow down hill into a nearby
stream channel where that water will then flow downstream
through the river network. Smaller tributary streams merge
with other streams forming larger and larger streams that will
ultimately tend to flow into the ocean or other large water
bodies. The river network is simply the organization of
drainage patterns over the landscape.
27
continental U.S. The continental divide (Great Divide) along
the peak of the Rocky Mountains separates the watersheds
that drain to the Pacific Ocean or Gulf of California vs. those
that drain to the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. Of
particular relevance to California are the primary basins
draining the Sierra Nevada (Figure 1.12) and the Colorado
River (Figure 1.13), both of which provide the major water
supply to California. The western Sierra Nevada basins drain
into a large series of dams controlled by the California
Department of Water Resources (CADWR), which provides a
major supply of water to California, while two basins on the
eastern side of the Southern Sierra Nevada (Mono and Owens)
supply the Los Angeles Aqueduct. Water from the Colorado
River is conveyed via the Colorado River Aqueduct to
Southern California (Figure 1.14).
28
data on some coordinate grid system. (Such gridded data is
often called “raster” data). From the gridded data and a
specified outlet coordinate, one can derive the upstream pixels
that will ultimately flow to the specified outlet. A MATLAB
code for doing such watershed delineation is included in the
Modular Distributed Watershed Educational Toolbox (MOD-
WET) provided as part of the textbook. The specific code is
called: watershed_area_and_stream_delineation.
Geographic Information System (GIS) software (e.g. ArcGIS)
also generally have built-in functions for watershed analysis.
dS (1.7.2)
F IGURE 1.13 The Colorado River watershed (from ≅ 0 = P − E −Q
dt
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_River).
so that over the long-term the average basin yield (i.e. the
29
maximum amount of water that could be extracted) is given This simple form of mass balance is useful for a first-order
by: estimate of basin yield assuming long-term average
precipitation and evaporation are known. Other fluxes
Q = P −E (1.7.3) discussed previously (i.e. infiltration, percolation, groundwater
flow, etc.) are internal fluxes when the entire watershed is
used as a control volume and therefore do not contribute to
the mass balance in this context.
E XAMPLE 1.7.1
F IGURE 1.14 Map showing the key elements of the California A new dam is built to create a municipal
water system (from reservoir at the outlet of a watershed. The
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California_water_system.jpg).
average annual rainfall for the region is 1.0 m y-1.
30
E XAMPLE 1.7.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 1.7.1 ( CONTINUED )
Evaporation pans in the area indicate an average mass or volume since the water density is effectively
open-water evaporation rate of 1.1 mm d-1. The constant. The storage volume can be expressed as
river system brings an average inflow of 1.75 m3 the(constant) area multiplied by the reservoir height.
s-1 into the reservoir. The equation can then be written as:
made that will maintain the given reservoir level " 1000 mm % " 1 y %
-1 86400 s
! $ ! 365 d $ ! 1 $
at steady-state? Q = 1.75 m s #
3
&# & # 8 2 & = 0.55 m yr
-1
31
E XAMPLE 1.7.1 ( CONTINUED )
32
S ECTION 8 MOD-WET meteorological file pre-processing code:
process_met_file.m
MOD-WET Codes
Throughout the course, several of the equations and/or
concepts that can be applied numerically are implemented for
student use in MATLAB code. Together these functions are
referred to as the “Modular Distributed Watershed
Educational Toolbox” (MOD-WET). The MOD-WET codes
are available as a companion to the book and are provided to
help cement basic applied concepts for students. They are
generally implemented as functions (i.e. with inputs/outputs)
rather than scripts. This makes them modular in structure so
they can be used in conjunction with other MOD-WET codes
or additional codes you develop on your own. They are listed
at the end of each chapter where the relevant concepts are
introduced. The actual functions provide documentation
about the inputs/outputs/units and other details. The user
should carefully examine each code before applying it so that
you are aware of the details behind the calculations.
33
S ECTION 9 9. What property of water is used in the context of
evaporation to convert between a mass flux density and an
Conceptual Questions energy flux density?
1. Name at least four hydrologic reservoirs. 11. If a watershed is used as a control volume in a mass
balance problem, what generally are the relevant hydrologic
2. Name at least four hydrologic fluxes. fluxes in the mass balance?
3. Is water a polar or non-polar molecule? Explain. 12. If you wanted to estimate the long-term water yield of a
basin using mass balance, what assumption is often
4. How does one convert between a volumetric flux and a
invoked?
volumetric flux density? What are the typical units of each
type of flux? 13. What is the average rate of the global hydrologic cycle (in
meters/year)? How does that compare to the driest and
5. What is the largest global water reservoir? What is the
wettest places on Earth?
largest freshwater global reservoir? It it an active or
relatively static component of the hydrologic cycle? What is 14. What is the average residence time of water in the global
the largest active freshwater reservoir in the global system? atmosphere? How does it compare to the residence time in
the groundwater system?
6. What is the nominal density of liquid water? What is the
nominal density of ice? Which is bigger? What is the 15. Describe what a watershed is. What is a sub-watershed?
implication for a freezing lake?
16. What is a DEM?
7. Are the specific heat capacity and latent heats for water
generally large or small compared to other substances?
What are some of the implications of this?
34
S ECTION 10 energy (i.e. temperature) of the air brought in from outside.
The result is a lowering of the outside air temperature as it is
Sample Problems brought inside. The process tends to also increase the
humidity (vapor content) of the air. Hence it is an attractive
option in some semi-arid regions where outside air is very hot
and dry.
Problem 1.1. Answer the following questions based on your
textbook reading and/or ancillary sources. Make sure to
always cite your source.
a) Where does Los Angeles get its water from? How much
water comes from each source? For any external (non-local)
sources, how is the surface water transported to Southern
California?
35
energy input would be required to completely evaporate the d) An acre is an area that covers 4047 m2. In the U.S., a
water? commonly used unit of volume is the acre-ft. (AF) or the
volume of water required to cover one acre of land with water
c) Assuming all of the energy is taken from the internal
1 ft. deep. How many cubic feet in an acre-ft.? How many
energy (temperature) of the air, what would be the air
cubic meters?
temperature indoors? Assume the water to be at the outside
air temperature of 30 degrees Celsius. Hints: Keep in mind e) Another commonly used unit of volume is the U.S. gallon
that the air, which is being cooled, has a heat capacity about (264.17 gal = 1m3). The average US family has four people.
24% of water (0.24 x 4177 Jkg-1K-1). The density of air at 30 Assume the average family does 8 loads of laundry per week.
degrees Celsius is 1.16 kg/m3. If a top loading washing machine has a capacity of 4.5 ft3 and
a front-loading washing machine has a capacity of 28.4
Problem 1.3. Hydrologists throughout the world use a
gallons, how many cubic centimeters of water does the average
variety of units. Although SI units are fairly universal, it is family use per week for each of these washing machine types?
useful to be familiar with other common unit conventions. Assume there are eight million families in California, how
The following exercises should help achieve this familiarity. much water in cubic meters could California save if everyone
a) What are the SI units for a volumetric flux? a mass flux? used a front-loading washing machine instead of a top-loading
a volumetric flux density? a mass flux density? an energy flux washing machine?
density? How does one convert between a volumetric flux and Problem 1.4. A Palm Spring golf course has requested a
a volumetric flux density? permit to install a 40000 ft2 pond to enhance the beauty of its
b) The concept of volumetric fluxes is commonly expressed in facilities. Since the evaporation rates are very high in Palm
terms of a volume per unit area (flux density), or a depth. Springs, it is likely they will need to pump a lot of
This is generally the case in measuring rainfall over a known groundwater to keep the pond full. The city has hired you (a
area, like a river basin. Seattle, a fairly wet region receives water resources engineer) to determine how much water needs
(on average) about 37 inches of rainfall per year. How many to be pumped per year in order to keep the pond filled. There
meters of rain fall in the area per year? Compare this with is a small creek that discharges an average of 0.25 m3/s into
average rainfall in Los Angeles (look in your textbook). the pond. The outlet valve from the pond releases an average
rate of 0.30 m3/s (to keep the pond from getting stagnant).
c) For 37 inches of rainfall over a river basin that is 1000 km2 Precipitation on the pond is 260 mm/year, and the annual
in area, what is the volume of water received over a year in evaporation is estimated to be 105 inches/year. The pond will
cubic kilometers? be lined with concrete to prevent any drainage or seepage
36
from the bottom. Using a water balance, what volume (on the same dimension as the one in part c) in your tea. If the
average) of groundwater (in cubic meters) must be added to energy used to melt the ice came from the internal energy (i.e.
the lake each year to keep the pond at a constant level? temperature) of the tea, what is the lowered temperature of
your tea?
Draw a schematic of the problem to identify the control
volume and the relevant fluxes. Clearly write out/define your e) Suppose you do not drink the all of the tea, and you leave
water balance equation and variables along with any 50 ml in the cup. How much energy would be required to fully
assumptions you make. evaporate the remaining tea? If this energy came from the air
in a room surrounding the cup of tea, how would the air
Problem 1.5. The relatively unique properties of water are
temperature change, i.e. by what amount and as an increase
among the reasons why it plays such a key role in the Earth's or decrease? Assume the room has dimensions of 5 m x 5 m x
climate. Among those properties are the ones that relate 3 m and the air average density is 1.2 kg/m3.
energy and water processes. Provide all answers in standard
SI units.
d) Suppose you are making yourself 0.50 liters of tea but its
temperature is 75ºC, which is too hot for you to drink. In
order to cool its temperature, you immerse three ice cubes of
37
S ECTION 11 The textbook comes with sample watershed data for several
watersheds. The “MOD-WET Problems” throughout the
MOD-WET Problems textbook can be used with any of those watersheds or one
that you are interested in setting up and studying. To use the
MOD-WET watershed model, all that is needed is a raster
MOD-WET contains MATLAB functions for many of the grid for the DEM in order to delineate the watershed as
hydrologic processes that will be covered in this textbook (e.g. indicated in the MOD-WET tutorial and a meteorological
precipitation, evaporation, runoff, snow processes, radiation input file with the necessary forcing inputs. For the purposes
process, infiltration, etc.). These process-based functions are of generality, the problems in all MOD-WET Problems
sections of the textbook assume you are using DEM and
unified in a watershed model that can be used to model the
meteorological forcing files, named: watershed_dem_data.mat
hydrologic cycle at the watershed-scale. We will build up your
and met_forcing_data.mat. It is assumed that the
knowledge and understanding of the processes involved
simulation is performed over a full water year so that seasonal
throughout the textbook. The schematic shown below
variations can be examined, but the questions can be sub-
summarizes the key model inputs/outputs and hydrological
sampled to investigate shorter simulations.
processes that are modeled in MOD-WET.
Problem 1.1. In this problem you will setup a MOD-WET
simulation for the watershed and forcing data of interest.
38
Among the preprocessing function inputs, the first four flags watershed_output_data.mat
(i.e. terrain_flag, delineation_flag, slope_aspect_flag,
Note that descriptions of each output can be found in the
and shade_calc_flag) should be set to 1 in order to perform
MOD-WET User Guide.
the calculation for the delineation, slope/aspect and shade. If
you already have a pre-processed meteorological file set the c) Based on the figures generated during pre-processing,
fifth flag (i.e. met_file_process_flag) to 0; otherwise you qualitatively describe where the largest and smallest flow
can transform your meteorological forcing file to the proper accumulation values are found in the basin? How is the
format using the pre-processing function. Additionally, you predicted location of the streamflow network related to the
should specify the name of the file that is output from the flow accumulation values? How does the elevation of the
pre-processing code that contains all static inputs needed for upstream regions in the watershed compare to the elevation of
the MOD-WET model, e.g.: the outlet? What is the area (in km2) of the watershed you
delineated?
watershed_dem_and_delineation_data.m
Carefully read the code and text printed to screen to make d) Meteorological input data (i.e. precipitation, shortwave, air
sure you know what the pre-processing is doing. temperature, specific humidity, wind speed, and surface air
pressure) as specified in the file met_forcing_data.mat is a
b) Run the MOD-WET model for your watershed and key driver of hydrologic processes. The data should be
meteorological forcing for a one-year simulation. This assumes organized on a water year (WY) basis (and on UTC time). A
your meteorological forcing file contains one water year of WY differs from the calendar year since it starts on Oct. 1st
data. The primary model code wrapper is given by: and ends on Sept. 30th. This is the period over which the
MOD_WET_model_driver.m where the key model inputs simulation is performed. While you could analyze the input
including parameters, and input/output file pointers are file directly (which is at 15 minute time step) the
defined in the functions: meteorological inputs are also generated as hourly basin-
average outputs for your convenience in the
set_control_parameters.m and
disaggregated_forcing.timeseries structure array
set_static_physical_parameters.m
contained in the model output file. You will focus on the
The model wrapper calls many additional functions that are hourly precipitation forcing
part of MOD-WET. You will learn about those in more detail (disaggregated_forcing.timeseries.PPT in m/hr) in this
later in the textbook. The model generates a single output file problem.
that you should specify the name of in the input file, e.g.:
39
Compute and plot the hourly precipitation (mm/hr) vs. day the total (cumulative) runoff in m3/year and m/year? What is
of water year (DOWY). What is the hourly maximum the daily-average runoff over the year (m3/day and mm/day)?
precipitation (in mm/hr)? When does the hourly maximum
precipitation occur? What is the maximum daily precipitation c) Repeat the same procedure using the basin-averaged
rate (in mm/day) and on what DOWY does it occur? (instantaneous) hourly evaporation (fluxes.time_series.ET
Describe when (i.e. seasonally) the most/least precipitation in m/hr) to compute and plot the cumulative daily ET (m3)
occurs? (i.e. Are there distinct wet/dry seasons? When do time series vs. day of water year (DOWY). What is the total
they occur? Is rainfall spread almost equally over the entire (cumulative) evaporation in m3/year and m/year? What is the
year?) daily-average evaporation over the year (mm/day)? How does
the magnitude of the total (cumulative) evaporation at the
e) Compute and plot the cumulative volumetric precipitation end of the WY compare to the total precipitation and runoff?
over the watershed (in m3) vs. the day of water year
(DOWY). What is the total annual precipitation in m/year d) Finally, you will perform an annual water balance over the
and m3/year from the meteorological data? entire watershed. You will use the total daily precipitation
time series and the runoff and evaporation time series
Problem 1.2. In hydrology the concept of mass balance is respectively. Using the cumulative precipitation, evaporation,
important. In this problem you will analyze the mass balance and runoff time series for the water year, compute and plot
simulated for your watershed. the cumulative total watershed storage time series (in m3), i.e.
relative to the beginning of the water year vs. day of water
a) Write down the daily mass balance equation for this basin year (DOWY). Note that the storage simply corresponds to
in terms of precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and total water stored in all of the hydrologic reservoirs in the
storage. Draw a simple schematic with arrows that shows the watershed (soil moisture, groundwater, and snow). Describe
key inputs, outputs, and storage from the watershed control the variability and seasonality in the storage time series.
volume. What is the total storage change at the end of the water year
b) Using the instantaneous hourly streamflow at the outlet (in cm)? Is the overall storage change during this water year
positive, negative, or zero? Explain the meaning of the sign of
(fluxes.time_series.outlet_hydrograph in m3/s),
the storage term in this case. Is it a “small” or “large” change
compute and plot the cumulative daily runoff time series in
relative to the total precipitation over the year? If you had
m3 (i.e. cumulative sum of the runoff at the outlet for each
several years of data, what would you expect the long-term
day) vs. day of water year (DOWY). When during the year
change in storage to be and why?
does the majority of runoff occur in the watershed? What is
40
Chapter 2
Atmospheric
Thermody-
namics
S ECTION 1 8. Sketch the typical profiles of temperature, pressure, and
density in the atmosphere
Learning Objectives 9. State the typical lapse rate of temperature in the
troposphere
By the time you finish this chapter you should be able to: 10. State typical values for air pressure and density near the
surface
1. List the key constituents of the atmosphere, specifically
including the radiatively active components
2. Write down the ideal gas law (equation of state) for moist
air in terms of air temperature, density, pressure, and
water vapor content
3. Use the ideal gas law to compute the density of air from
the other states
42
S ECTION 2 T ABLE 2.1. P RIMARY C ONSTITUENTS OF THE
S TANDARD A TMOSPHERE IN THE T ROPOSPHERE
Atmospheric Composition GAS % BY VOLUME
composed almost entirely of nitrogen and oxygen (together Neon (Ne) 0.00182
equaling 99%). These two constituents and many others
Helium (He) 0.000524
(argon, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, and nitrous oxide)
represent the vast majority of the atmosphere and are Methane (CH4)* 0.00016
relatively constant in their concentration. Several components Krypton (Kr) 0.0014
vary as a result of natural or anthropogenic processes. The
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
most variable constituent is water vapor, which varies
naturally as a result of the hydrologic cycle. Carbon dioxide Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.000035
varies both naturally (due to photosynthesis and respiration) Ozone (O3)* 0 - 0.000007
and anthropogenically (due to the burning of fossil fuels). Of
Water (H2O)* 0-4
particular importance to climate and the hydrologic cycle are
those gases that are “radiatively active” (i.e. water vapor, *radiatively active gases
ozone, methane, carbon dioxide, and to a lesser extent
oxygen). have added a significant amount of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere and 2) it is a greenhouse gas. In fact, water vapor
A radiatively active gas is one whose molecular structure and methane are more radiatively active, but carbon dioxide
is such that it absorbs (and emits) radiative energy (this will gets the most attention because it is the one that is increasing
be discussed in much more detail in the next chapter). rapidly due to anthropogenic sources. The vertical profiles of
Radiatively active gases are often referred to as “greenhouse some of these constituents will be discussed below. The clear
gases”. The primary hypothesis for anthropogenic climate signature of both natural and anthropogenic effects on carbon
change has to do with the combined facts that 1) humans dioxide can be seen in measurements. An observatory on
43
in Figure 2.1 which is attributable directly to the
anthropogenic source from the burning of fossil fuel. As shown
in Figure 2.1, this source has led to a dramatic increase in
CO2 concentrations of approximately 25% in the last 50 years.
Moreover the trend is not linearly increasing, but accelerating
under present emission conditions. A major topic of ongoing
research is what impact does this significant increase in
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have on the global climate,
weather patterns, and extremes.
45
pd p p e (2.3.3) where in this case the moisture correction is embedded in the
ρ= + v = d +
RdT RvT RdT RvT virtual temperature definition. While virtual temperature can
be thought of simply as a definition, if one wishes to attach a
where pd and pv are the partial pressures of dry air and vapor physical meaning to it, it denotes the temperature a parcel of
respectively, and Rd and Rv are the dry air gas constant (287 J dry air would have to be at to have the same density as one
kg-1 K-1) and the vapor gas constant (461 J kg-1 K-1) with a vapor pressure e.
respectively. In many texts related to hydrology, the partial As will be discussed in more detail below, the total
pressure for water vapor (i.e. “vapor pressure”) pv is replaced pressure of the atmosphere varies greatly with height, but a
by e, which is what we will do here. Equation (2.3.3) can be typical value near the surface (at sea level) is 100,000 Pa or
rearranged noting that the total pressure is equal to the sum 1000 mb. Also note that the units required in the above
of the two partial pressures (i.e. p = pd + e) to form a more equations must be in SI.
compact equation of state (i.e. ideal gas law) for moist air:
p " e% Rd (2.3.4)
ρ= $1 − (1 − ε ) ' ; ε = = 0.622 E XAMPLE 2.3.1
RdT # p& Rv
What is the density of moist air at a pressure of
where the second term on the right-hand-side essentially 1000 mb, air temperature of 25ºC, and vapor
represents a correction for the presence of vapor. The ratio of pressure of 25 mb? How does the density change
vapor pressure to total pressure (e/p) represents the fraction as a function of vapor pressure?
of total pressure made up by the partial pressure of the water The virtual temperature under these conditions is:
vapor molecules. What Equation (2.3.4) also illustrates is that
an air parcel with more water vapor (i.e. higher e/p) will T (25 + 273.15) K
Tv = =
actually be less dense than a parcel of dry air with the same " e% " 2500 Pa %
$1 − (1 − ε ) ' $1 − (1 − 0.622) '
temperature and pressure. Without changing the above # p& # 100000 Pa &
equation, we can also define a new quantity called virtual = 300.99 K
temperature (Tv) so that we can write:
and the density is then given by:
T
p = ρRdTv ; where Tv = (2.3.5)
⎡ e⎤
⎢1 − (1 − ε )
⎣ p ⎥⎦
46
E XAMPLE 2.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
p 100000 Pa
ρ= = = 1.16 kg m -3
RdTv (287 J kg K )(300.99 K)
-1 -1
47
S ECTION 4 The units of mixing ratio are kg H2O/kg dry Air. It is
important to keep these explicit underlying units in mind, but
Metrics for Water Vapor because it is a ratio of masses the mixing ratio is often given
as a unitless quantity.
2. Mixing ratio (w): This is a mass-based metric representing Several other metrics exist that are relative in nature.
the Mass of vapor/Mass of dry air and can be expressed as: Before defining these, the upper limit (“water vapor holding
ρv e capacity”) of the atmosphere must be discussed. From
w= =ε (2.4.1) thermodynamic principles one can define the saturated vapor
ρd p −e
48
pressure (es), which simply represents the amount of vapor bottle with some air space above the liquid water. Given the
that would be in equilibrium with a bulk water surface. In temperature of the system in the bottle, the equilibrium
fact, the curve between liquid water and vapor shown in the amount of vapor in the air space would have a vapor pressure
pure water phase diagram (Figure 1.5) is illustrative of this equal to the saturated vapor pressure. In truth, some water
quantity. Note that the pressure in the phase diagram is for molecules will escape the liquid state and others will leave the
pure water meaning that the pressure on the y-axis is in fact vapor state and condense on the liquid. The saturated vapor
the vapor pressure of water (since for pure water the partial pressure is the equilibrium condition where the rate of
pressure is equal to the total pressure). It can be shown that vaporization of liquid water molecules is equal to the rate of
the saturated vapor pressure is given by the Clausius- condensation of vapor molecules. An analogous quantity can
Clapeyron equation, which is defined by: be defined over bulk ice and yields:
des Lv es (2.4.4) ⎛L ⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎞ (2.4.6)
= ei (T ) = es 0 exp ⎜ s ⎢ − ⎥⎟
dT Rv T 2
⎝ Rv ⎣T0 T ⎦⎠
This differential form (i.e. an ordinary differential equation with the primary differences being the substituted use of the
[ODE]) shows that the saturated vapor pressure is dependent latent heat of sublimation and that this is only relevant for
solely on temperature. If one ignores the relatively slight sub-freezing temperatures. The focus of the equations below
temperature dependence of Lv, the above can be solved via are on the saturated vapor pressure over water, but that for
separation of variables, yielding the integrated form of the ice becomes relevant in cold clouds and snow processes as
Clausius-Clapeyron equation: described in later chapters.
⎛L ⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎞ (2.4.5) In practice the saturated vapor pressure is to a very
es (T ) = es 0 exp ⎜ v ⎢ − ⎥⎟
⎝ Rv ⎣T0 T ⎦⎠ good approximation the upper limit to the actual vapor
pressure in air, i.e.:
where T0 and es0 are integration constants (273.16 K and 611
0 ≤ e ≤ es (T ) (2.4.7)
Pa respectively) chosen in the integration. Note that empirical
equations also exist that differ in form and take into account Based on the previous definition of specific humidity, we can
the temperature dependence of the latent heat of also define the saturated specific humidity:
vaporization. The physical interpretation of es can be thought ε
qs ≅ e ; with 0 ≤ q ≤ q s (T, p) (2.4.8)
of as the water holding capacity of air. Imagine a closed water p s
49
This upper limit to vapor content or “water vapor holding diurnal variability (even if the amount of actual vapor (i.e. the
capacity” will turn out to be very important in both numerator) is relatively constant).
evaporation and cloud/precipitation processes discussed later.
5. Dew point temperature (Td): This metric is defined as the
A key point that should be understood is that the actual
temperature at which air of a given vapor concentration (e or
amount of vapor (i.e. e or q) in an air parcel is in general
q) would need to be cooled (at constant pressure) to reach
different (less than) the saturated amount of vapor (i.e. es or
saturated conditions. This can be defined via the integrated
qs) except in the case of saturation. The saturated vapor
Clausius-Clapeyron equation:
pressure or specific humidity are theoretical (not measurable)
upper limits on the measurable quantities e or q. In other ⎡L ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ (2.4.10)
words, if the temperature of the air is known, you know its e = es (T = Td ) = es 0 exp ⎢ v −
⎜T T ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ Rv ⎝ 0 d ⎠⎥
⎦
water vapor holding capacity, but you have no knowledge of
the actual humidity in the air (unless saturation conditions
which can then be solved for Td :
exist).
−1
⎡ 1 Rv ⎛ e ⎞ ⎤ (2.4.11)
These newly defined saturation quantities allow for the Td = ⎢ − ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
definition of other metrics of vapor concentration in air: T
⎢⎣ 0 Lv ⎝ es 0 ⎠ ⎥⎦
4. Relative humidity (RH): This quantity is simply the ratio of Based on the definition of dew point temperature, you should
actual to saturated concentration, i.e.: be able to convince yourself of the following condition:
e q (2.4.9) Td ≤ T
RH = = (2.4.12)
es q s
6. Vapor pressure deficit (VPD): This metric is another
relative one that identifies how close the air is to saturated air
The above definition gives relative humidity as a fraction,
via:
however, RH can also be defined as a percentage. Based on
the above definitions, it is expected that the RH of air will VPD = δe = es − e (2.4.13)
generally vary between 0 (dry) and 100% (fully saturated air).
An important point to keep in mind is the strong temperature which by definition is equal to zero under saturated conditions
dependence of RH due to the denominator’s dependence on T and is positive under non-saturated conditions (when e < es).
via the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Since temperature varies It also highlights the fact that saturated vapor pressure and
strongly throughout the day, the RH generally has a strong actual vapor pressure are two different quantities.
50
7. Wet-bulb temperature (Tw): This metric is defined as the
temperature air would be cooled to by evaporating water into E XAMPLE 2.4.1
it (at constant pressure) until saturation is reached. It is
For a parcel of air with a vapor pressure of 1500
defined from the first Law of Thermodynamics as:
Pa, a temperature of 20ºC, and a pressure of
T −Tw L (2.4.14)
= v 98000 Pa, determine the following alternate
q s (p,Tw ) − q c p humidity metrics for the parcel:
51
E XAMPLE 2.4.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 2.4.1 ( CONTINUED )
c) The relative humidity requires that the saturated e) The vapor pressure deficit is given by:
vapor pressure first be calculated. Using Equation
(2.4.6), the saturated vapor pressure is: VPD = δe = 2368 Pa − 1500 Pa = 868 Pa
) 2.5 × 10 6 J/kg # where the larger the vapor pressure deficit the drier the
1 1 &,
es = (611 Pa)exp + % − (. air is (i.e. relative to saturation). Air with a relative
* 461 J/kg/K $ 273.16 K 293.15 K '-
humidity of 100% will have a vapor pressure deficit equal
= 2368 Pa to zero.
The relative humidity is just the ratio of the actual These answers can be confirmed with the MOD-WET
vapor pressure to the saturated vapor pressure, which in functions: vp_to_specific_humidity.m,
this case is equal to 63.4%. sat_vapor_pressure.m, vp_to_RH.m,
vp_to_dew_point_temperature.m, and
d) The dew point temperature is defined as the
vapor_pressure_deficit.m.
temperature that air would have to be cooled to so that
it reached saturation and is given implicitly by solving
for the temperature at which e = es, which can be
inverted to yield:
−1
) 1 461 J/kg/K # 1500 Pa &,
Td = + − ln % (.
* 273.16 K 2.5 × 10 J/kg $ 611 Pa '-
6
= 286.1 K = 13. C
52
S ECTION 5
53
both of which can penetrate the tropopause into the
stratosphere.
where in this empirical equation [Wp] = cm and [Td] = ºC. M OVIE 2.1 Illustration of hourly precipitable water pattern
Other empirical models for precipitable water exist including evolution (over the ocean) as measured from the AMSU satel-
lite (from sos.noaa.gov/videos/PrecipitableWater.mov).
the following by Prata (1996):
55
E XAMPLE 2.5.1 E XAMPLE 2.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
Estimate the precipitable water from the tropical Hence the integrated amount of water in the tropical
specific humidity profile in Figure 2.3. Assume a profile is equivalent to a depth of 4.4 cm of liquid water.
standard atmospheric pressure profile. How does Now we can compare this estimate to one obtained using
that estimate compare to the one from the the empirical equation. It should be noted that whenever
empirical expression shown in Equation (2.5.5)? you are using an empirical equation, it was developed
Without data for the specific profile, it can be from the specific dataset analyzed and therefore is not
approximated via a piecewise linear profile where at always generalizable to other cases. Also, in this case the
altitudes of 0, 3, 5, 7, and 9 km, the corresponding empirical expression relies only on near-surface humidity.
specific humidities are approximately given by 16, 5.5, This makes its application much easier since a full profile
2.5, 1.5, and 0.5 g/kg respectively. The atmospheric is not needed, but it implicitly depends on an assumed
pressures corresponding to each level can be roughly profile which may differ from the one being used. Based
estimated from the standard atmosphere shown in Figure on the surface specific humidity, the surface vapor
2.2 as 101300, 70120, 54050, 41110, and 30800 Pa pressure is given by:
respectively for the altitudes listed above.
pq (101300 Pa)(15.5 × 10 −3 kgkg -1 )
e = = 2524 Pa
The integral in Equation (2.5.4) can then be evaluated ε 0.622
numerically (i.e. using the trapezoidal rule):
The dewpoint temperature is then given by:
ps
1 1 1
Wp = ∫ q dp g ∑ 2 (q + qi )(pi+1 − pi )
−1
g i+1
) 1 461 J/kg/K # 2524 Pa &,
p i Td = + − ln % (.
* 273.16 K 2.5 × 10 6
J/kg $ 611 Pa '-
= [(16 + 5.5) × 10 −3(101300 − 70120)Pa +
= 294.2 K = 21. C
(5.5 + 2.5) × 10 (70120 − 54050)Pa +
−3
(2.5 + 1.5) × 10 −3(54050 − 41110)Pa + The precipitable water from Equation (2.5.5) is then
(1.5 + 0.5) × 10 (41110 − 30800)Pa] / 2 / 9.81 m s
−3 -2
given by:
= 44.4 kg m -2 = 4.44 cm
Wp = 1.12 exp(0.0614(21)) = 4.1 cm
56
E XAMPLE 2.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
57
S ECTION 6 Saturated vapor pressure (Clausius-Clapeyron) over wa-
ter:
MOD-WET Codes sat_vapor_pressure.m
Precipitable water (from profile data): Wet-bulb temperature (from vapor pressure):
precipitable_water.m vp_to_wet_bulb_temperature.m
Vapor pressure (from relative humidity): Vapor pressure (from wet-bulb temperature):
RH_to_vp.m wet_bulb_temperature_to_vp.m
Saturated vapor pressure (Clausius-Clapeyron) over ice: Precipitable water (empirical functions):
sat_vapor_pressure_ice.m Wp_from_near_surface_met_data.m
58
S ECTION 7 9. What is the dew point temperature a metric of? Does
knowledge of the dew point temperature generally tell you
Conceptual Questions anything about the actual temperature? Explain.
59
S ECTION 8 a) A parcel of moist air is at 870 mb, with a temperature of
12ºC and a relative humidity of 95%, what is the moist
Sample Problems density of the air in kg m-3?
61
thermodynamic state of the atmosphere is often characterized equation shown above? How would you convert from these
using radiosondes, which are essentially weather balloons that units to a depth (e.g. cm of water)?
take measurements as they ascend through the atmosphere.
Radiosonde data collected at Hilo, Hawaii on June 21, 2012 c) Suppose the observed water vapor density from the surface
showed that the virtual temperature of the air decreases to an altitude of 8 km is described by the following
linearly with a lapse rate of: exponential decay function:
ΓT = 5 K km -1 " z%
v ρv (z) = ρv 0 exp $− '
# H&
as the radiosonde altitude increases from the surface (0 km
above sea level [asl]) to 8 km asl. The observed surface virtual where the surface vapor density is equal to 11 g (H2O) m-3,
air temperature is equal to 28ºC. (Note: A linear decrease is and H is a length scale describing how quickly the variable
usually a reasonable approximation to the virtual air decays with height. What is the precipitable water (in cm of
temperature profile in the troposphere). Surface air pressure is water) of the 8 km atmospheric column observed by the
equal to 1000 mb. radiosonde in Hilo on June 21st?
a) Based on the derived pressure profile in the previous d) Increased greenhouse gases are expected to result in an
problem, plot the pressure profile for this case. What is the air increase in atmospheric temperature. The Intergovernmental
pressure at an altitude of 8 km? Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that the increase in
b) A common metric that is used to characterize the total the next 100 years may be between 0.6- 3.4 K. Conceptually,
what is the effect that the increase in temperature will have
amount of vapor is precipitable water:
on maximum water storage in the atmosphere (e.g. Is air
z
Wp = capable of holding more or less water?)? Comment on how
∫ ρ (z)dz
v
0 this might affect precipitation (frequency and rates).
62
S ECTION 9 temperature tend to be the highest/lowest? Provide reasoning
for the seasonality observed in each of the time series.
MOD-WET Problems
Problem 2.1 In this problem you will examine
meteorological variables and how they vary seasonally and are
distributed over the watershed.
63
Chapter 3
Radiation
Processes
S ECTION 1 9. Describe what factors at the surface will contribute to
variability in incoming shortwave radiation at a point (in
Learning Objectives addition to the basic Earth-Sun geometry effects that
determine TOA fluxes)
65
S ECTION 2
Basics of Radiation
Radiation is a form of energy that plays a crucial role in
hydrology. Radiative energy provided by the sun is the
external forcing of the system that drives the global
hydrologic cycle and atmospheric and oceanic motions. The
Earth’s surface and atmosphere reflect and absorb energy
from the sun as well as emit radiative energy of their own.
The absorbed energy and energy fluxes tends to drive water F IGURE 3.1 Electromagnetic spectrum showing shortwave
and longwave radiation regions as well as sub-regions of the
fluxes and transformations (i.e. phase changes). Due to the spectrum (i.e. visible, infrared, microwave, etc.).
importance of radiative fluxes we would like to understand the
mechanisms responsible for the variability in radiative forcing
and develop simple models for these fluxes. We will start with
a quick refresher on basic radiation physics. For a much more which shows that the speed of light can be used to convert
detailed treatment of radiation processes, the reader is between wavelength and frequency. A schematic illustrating
referred to Liou (1992, 2002). the electromagnetic spectrum, which simply corresponds to
the characterization of such radiation across the spectrum of
Radiation is a form of energy carried by electromagnetic wavelength/frequency is shown in Figure 3.1. Of particular
(EM) waves (or photons). These waves travel at the speed of relevance to hydrology are those waves between ultraviolet
light and can be characterized by either wavelength (the (nanometer scale) and microwave (centimeter scale) that
length of a single period of the wave) or frequency (the contain non-negligible amounts of energy.
number of periods of the wave passing a given point per unit
time). The relationship between the two is given by: From physics we know that the amount of energy
radiated per unit area per unit wavelength (i.e. spectral
λν = c (3.2.1) radiant emittance) by a so-called “blackbody” (i.e. a perfect
λ ≡ wavelength [m] emitter) is given by the Planck function:
c ≡ speed of light [3.0 × 10 8 m/s]
ν ≡ frequency [s −1 = Hz]
66
2π hc 2 (3.2.2) or frequencies and ii) is controlled solely by the physical
Rλ = B λ =
( )
λ 5 ehc/(K λT ) − 1 temperature of the emitting body. An illustrative example of
this dependence is shown in Figure 3.2. The key
which has SI units of W m-2 m-1 and where h is the Planck characteristics of the figure are that the peak is a strongly
constant (6.626×10-34 J s), K is the Boltzmann constant increasing function of temperature (note log-scale on figure),
(1.3806×10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1), and T is the physical while the center of mass of the spectrum shifts to shorter
temperature of the body. What this equation tells us is that: wavelengths with increasing temperature. For illustration, the
i) the emitted radiation occurs over a spectrum of wavelengths blackbody emission spectrum is shown for the Sun and Earth.
R = ∫ Bλ d λ (3.2.3)
λ
R = σT 4 [Wm −2 ] (3.2.4)
σ ≡ Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10 −8 W m −2 K−4
67
The spectral emissivity represents the efficiency of emission
(varying between 0 and 1), i.e. how close the body is to a
blackbody, at a given wavelength. Note that in general the
emissivity can be a strongly varying function of wavelength.
By definition a blackbody has an emissivity equal to 1.0 at all
wavelengths. The integrated flux from a graybody can be
obtained by integrating across all wavelengths as above
introducing a broadband emissivity:
R = εσT 4 (3.2.6)
ε ≡ broadband emissivity [−]
68
λ =4 µm
S ECTION 3
Shortwave: Rs = ∫ Rλ d λ
Radiation
Based on the Planck function it is evident that
temperature plays the key role in the intensity and
distribution of emitted radiative energy from a given body. In
the Earth system, we are generally dealing with two sources of
radiative energy: solar radiative fluxes (emitted by the sun)
and terrestrial radiative fluxes (emitted by the Earth’s surface
and atmosphere). The temperature of these two sources are
vastly different, with the temperature of the Sun’s surface F IGURE 3.3 Distribution of shortwave and longwave radia-
tion.
approximately 5800 K, while terrestrial temperatures are on
the order of 250 - 300 K. Based on these temperatures, the
relative spectral irradiance for solar (at the top-of-
atmosphere) and terrestrial sources are shown in Figure 3.3. when you see something, what your eye is really sensing is the
As expected, the location of the peaks are different (i.e. solar (visible) radiation being reflected from that object. The
approximately 0.6 microns for solar and approximately 10 object’s color corresponds to the wavelengths of the visible
microns for terrestrial). Moreover, what becomes clear is that light that are reflected (rather than absorbed).
there is very little overlap in the two spectra; i.e. the right tail
The terrestrial spectrum covers two different parts of the
of the solar spectrum becomes negligible around 4 microns
EM spectrum: infrared (thermal infrared and far infrared) and
and is approximately coincident with the left tail of the
microwave (in the tail of the distribution beyond 50 microns).
terrestrial spectrum.
The peak occurs in the thermal infrared (around 12 microns).
The solar irradiance distribution covers three primary The basic principle of “night-vision” goggles takes advantage of
parts of the EM spectrum: ultraviolet (in the left tail), visible this fact where the sensors are tuned to be sensitive to the
(around the peak), and near-infrared (on the right side of the thermal infrared region. So even though little visible light may
distribution). The human eye is only sensitive to visible light; be available, the thermal infrared signature is still apparent.
69
Due to these differences, we often treat the two fluxes
separately, in terms of both measurement and modeling. The
solar fluxes are referred to as “shortwave” radiation (spanning
approximately 0.1-4 microns) and terrestrial fluxes are
referred to as “longwave” radiation (spanning approximately
4-100 microns). Formally, the integrated fluxes can be written
as:
λ =4 µm
Shortwave: Rs = ∫
λ =0.1 µm
Rλ d λ
(3.3.1)
λ =100 µm
Longwave: Rl = ∫
λ =4 µm
Rλ d λ (3.3.2)
70
S ECTION 4 T ABLE 3.1. T YPICAL BROADBAND EMISSIVITY FOR
VARYING LAND SURFACE TYPES ( FROM A RYA , 2001)
Radiative Properties of Me- SURFACE TYPE EMISSIVITY
dia
Water 0.92-0.97
Snow (old) 0.82-0.89
Snow (fresh) 0.90-0.99
As shown above, an emitted radiative flux from a
particular body depends on its physical temperature and its Ice 0.92-0.97
emissivity. The broadband emissivity strongly depends on the Bare soil 0.84-0.97
media characteristics. For land surfaces, the surface type Grass (long, 1 m) 0.90
largely dictates the broadband emissivity (see Table 3.1) and Grass (short, 0.02 m) 0.95
typically ranges between 0.9-1.0. The broadband emissivity of
Agricultural crops 0.90-0.99
the atmosphere strongly depends on the concentration of
Forests 0.97-0.99
radiatively active gases, i.e. conceptually:
ε = f ([H 2O],[CO2 ],[CH 4 ],...) incident on the bottom of the atmosphere. We are interested
in what happens to these radiative fluxes as they interact with
Since the gas concentrations can vary in time and space, the media. To begin to quantify these interactions we define three
emissivity itself varies. The most variable radiatively active additional radiative properties of a media: the transmissivity
gas is water vapor and hence most models for the broadband (t), absorptivity (a), and reflectivity (r). Each of these
emissivity of the atmosphere depend explicitly on the water represent an efficiency of a particular radiative process.
vapor concentration. Examples will be discussed in more
Transmissivity represents the fraction of incident
detail in Section 7 where longwave flux modeling is discussed.
radiation that gets transmitted through a media. On a
While the emissivity is a radiative property that molecular level this represents photons (radiation) that do not
describes the efficiency of radiation emission, other radiative directly interact with the molecules in the media and therefore
properties are important in terms of how incident radiation directly passes through it. Absorptivity represents the fraction
interacts with media. For example, at the top of the of incident radiation that gets absorbed by the media, i.e. the
atmosphere, shortwave radiation is incident on the atmosphere time-averaged fraction of incident photons (radiation) that hit
in a downwelling direction. Another example is upwelling individual molecules and are absorbed. Reflectivity represents
longwave radiation emitted by the land surface that is the fraction of incident radiation that is scattered in all
71
directions, i.e. the time-averaged fraction of incident photons
that hit individual molecules and are reflected. It is important
to note that these properties are not independent, but linked
via energy conservation at a particular wavelength, i.e.:
t λ + a λ + rλ = 1 (3.4.1)
ts + as + rs = 1 (3.4.2)
As with emissivity in the atmosphere, each of these the figure include almost complete absorption of UV radiation
properties are functions of the greenhouse gas concentrations by ozone (O3), relatively little absorption in the visible region,
(where absorption by radiatively active gases is highly with the highest absorption occurring near 7 microns due to
dependent on wavelength). An illustration of the absorptivity water vapor, and key absorption features in the longwave due
of the atmosphere across both the shortwave and longwave to carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor (among others).
spectra is shown in Figure 3.4 along with the primary Not shown on the figure is the microwave region (above 100
molecules responsible for absorption. One can see that even microns), which has relatively low absorption. The
over relatively short wavelength intervals, the absorption can determinant of the atmospheric “windows” (i.e. relatively
vary from close to 100% to close to 0%. Key features seen in transparent due to low absorption) versus regions where the
72
atmosphere is opaque (high absorption) depend primarily on The land surface is essentially opaque to both shortwave and
the radiatively active gases in the atmosphere along with longwave radiation (i.e. the transmissivity is small) and
scattering due to molecules and aerosols. similar to the atmosphere, longwave reflectivity is small so
that:
Some rough approximations can be made for the
radiative properties in different parts of the spectrum and for as + rs 1 → as 1 − α (3.4.7)
atmosphere vs. land surface. In general in the atmosphere, α ≡ surface albedo
scattering within the longwave spectrum is considerably
smaller in the clear sky atmosphere compared to al 1 (3.4.8)
transmissivity and absorptivity, such that:
which simply states that the fraction of incident shortwave
tl + al 1 → tl 1 − al (3.4.4) radiation that is not reflected is absorbed and most of the
incident longwave radiation is absorbed.
which simply states that the fraction of longwave radiation
transmitted through the atmosphere is essentially equal to the
fraction that is not absorbed. This simple model explains one
of the primary mechanisms for global warming. As the
concentration of greenhouse gases increase, the (longwave)
absorptivity increases thereby decreasing the amount of
transmitted surface longwave radiation through the
atmosphere (that would otherwise ultimately leave the Earth
system at the top of the atmosphere). This absorbed radiation
is then re-emitted by the atmosphere, a fraction of which is
emitted toward the surface ultimately increasing the surface
temperature.
ts + as + rs = 1 (3.4.5)
tl + al + rl = 1 (3.4.6)
73
S ECTION 5
Modeling Top-of-
Atmosphere Shortwave
Fluxes
The solar radiation entering the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere is the key external driver of the Earth system.
Understanding how much of the radiation at the TOA is
absorbed by the atmosphere, reaches the surface, and is
reflected back to space provides a key basis for understanding
the temporal and spatial variability of the hydrologic cycle. As
stated earlier, the sun acts like a blackbody emitter at a
temperature of approximately 5780 K. Hence the amount of
F IGURE 3.5 Schematic showing general picture of a location
on Earth’s TOA relative to the incoming solar beam and the re-
radiation emitted by the surface of the sun is given by: sulting solar zenith angle.
σTsun
4
(5.67 × 10 −8 W m −2 K−4 )(5780 K)4 = 6.33 × 10 7 W m −2
This amount of energy is radiated in all directions. The Earth which would be the amount of radiative energy intercepted by
only intercepts a small fraction of this amount (the ratio of a surface perpendicular to the incoming beam (Figure 3.5).
the surface area of the Sun to the surface area of a sphere This amount of radiation then gets projected differently at
defined by the Earth’s distance from the Sun). The solar different locations on the globe as locations are more or less
beams are essentially parallel by the time they reach the top perpendicular to the incoming beam. Figure 3.6 illustrates
of the Earth’s atmosphere and the incoming radiation is this where the same flux density (i.e. W m-2) is projected over
generally referred to as the “solar constant” (I0): an area with a length scale of 1000 km near the equator, but
double that nearer the poles. Hence the amount of energy
I 0 = 1367 W m −2
(perpendicular to the TOA) is much less at higher latitudes
than it is at lower latitudes. This simple effect of geometry is
74
F IGURE 3.7 Schematic showing the solar position in terms of
zenith (angle from vertical) and azimuth (angle in horizontal
plane from North) angles.
F IGURE 3.6 Illustration of how an equal amount of energy
(i.e. the solar constant -- here scaled by the ratio of the inter-
cepted area to the global surface area) is distributed over larger
areas as one moves further from the location normal to the in- tangent plane) and 90º at the horizon (i.e. exactly parallel to
coming beam. the tangent plane). It is this angle which describes “how
perpendicular” the surface is to the incoming beam and
therefore how much the solar constant is reduced. The
to first-order responsible for most of the spatial and temporal azimuth angle is an angle in the horizontal plane, usually
variability seen in hydrology, weather, and climate. referenced to be 0º (or 360º) at due North and 180º at due
South.
The position of the sun relative to a location on the
Earth (either at the surface or TOA) can be uniquely defined Recall that the Earth is tilted (at approximately 23.5º)
by two angles: the solar zenith angle and the solar azimuth relative to the orbital plane around the Sun (Figure 3.8). This
angle (Figure 3.7). The zenith angle is a measure of the tilt combined with the orbit around the Sun is the reason for
departure of the incoming solar beam direction from the seasonal variability over the course of a year. Additionally, the
vertical at the point of interest. The solar zenith angle is 0º if orbit around the sun is not circular, but elliptical which
the sun is directly overhead (i.e. exactly perpendicular to the introduces another (relatively minor) mode of seasonal
75
provides an illustration of the diurnal progression of day-night
(the so-called terminator) over the globe on the winter
solstice. On this day, the Earth’s tilt (relative to the sun) is at
its maximum of 23.5º which shows up directly in the
terminator line angle. On either equinox, the terminator
would line up directly with the Earth’s axis of rotation. Of
particular note is that the south pole experiences daylight
throughout the day and the southern hemisphere experiences
a longer day compared to the northern hemisphere (the
opposite would be true for the summer solstice).
76
Figure 3.9 provides an illustration of the diurnal and For the Spring and Fall equinoxes, the sun is 50º above the
seasonal evolution of the solar position for a given location (in south horizon (i.e. a solar zenith angle of 40º) at solar noon
this case 40º North latitude). The details of how this position since there is no relative tilt between the Earth’a axis and the
is calculated is given below; here only the qualitative aspects axis of the orbital plane on those days.
are discussed. The sun is generally lowest in the sky at the
Based on the above factors, the amount of incoming
winter solstice: only 26.5º above the south horizon (i.e. a solar
shortwave radiation at any location/time at the TOA is a
zenith angle of 63.5º) at “solar noon”. Solar noon is simply the
function of Earth-Sun geometry which is completely defined
time corresponding to the highest point in the sky on a given
by: i) Latitude (i.e. location), ii) Hour of day (due to rotation
day (and is generally different that “local noon” which is
of the Earth), and iii) Day of year (due to tilted axis and
impacted by time zones, daylight saving time, etc.). At this
elliptical orbit around Sun). Several models for the TOA flux
location the sun is 73.5º above the south horizon (i.e. a solar
based on these inputs are available at varying levels of
zenith angle of 16.5º) at solar noon on the summer solstice.
precision. A relatively simple model for the flux at the
location perpendicular to the TOA is:
⎧ cos θ 0 (3.5.1)
⎪ I0 , daytime: θ 0 ≤ 90
Rs 0 = ⎨ d 2
⎪ 0, nightime
⎩
23.45π # 2π &
δ ≡ declination angle = cos % (172 − DOY )(
180 $ 365 '
λ ≡ latitude
T − 12
F IGURE 3.9 Schematic showing the seasonal evolution of so- τ ≡ hour angle = 2π h
24
lar position in the sky at a latitude of 40 degrees North.
# 2π &
d = 1 + 0.017 cos % (186 − DOY )(
$ 365 '
77
where in the above equations: DOY represents the day of year
(i.e. January 1st: DOY = 1 and December 31st: DOY = 365),
Th represents the solar hour of the day (midnight = 0, solar
noon = 12, 11pm = 23), and d represents the distance
between the sun and Earth normalized by the mean distance.
In applications, data are often tied to different time
coordinates including Universal Time Coordinate (UTC; same
as Greenwich Mean Time) or local time (which may or may
not include daylight saving time) rather than solar time. In
such cases, the time should be first converted to solar hour
before applying the above equations. MOD-WET functions for
Equations (3.5.1) and (3.5.2) are provided in solar_geometry
and TOA_incoming_solar.
E XAMPLE 3.5.1
23.45π " 2π %
δ= cos $ (172 − 172)' = 0.409 rad
F IGURE 3.12 Illustration of seasonal evolution of day length 180 # 365 &
at a particular latitude.
79
E XAMPLE 3.5.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 3.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
12 − 12 23.45π " 2π %
τ = 2π = 0 rad δ= cos $ (172 − 355)' = −0.409 rad
24 180 # 365 &
" 2π %
d = 1 + 0.017 cos $ (186 − 172)' = 1.0165 12 − 12
τ = 2π = 0 rad
# 365 & 24
" 2π %
d = 1 + 0.017 cos $ (186 − 355)' = 0.9835 rad
The cosine of the solar zenith angle is then given by # 365 &
(using radians for all angles, where the latitude is equal
to 0.593 radians): The cosine of the solar zenith angle is then given by
(using radians for all angles, where the latitude is equal
cos θ 0 = sin(0.409)sin(0.593) + to 0.593 radians):
cos(0.409)cos(0.593)cos(0)
cos θ 0 = sin(−0.409)sin(0.593) +
= 0.983 ↔ θ 0 = cos −1(0.983) = 0.185 rad = 10.6
cos(−0.409)cos(0.593)cos(0)
where because this is the summer solstice and at solar = 0.539 ↔ θ 0 = cos −1(0.539) = 1.002 rad = 57.4
noon the solar zenith angle is relatively low. Note: This
day/time corresponds to the lowest solar zenith angle where because this is the winter solstice and at solar
over the entire year. The TOA solar flux is then given noon the solar zenith angle is much higher. Note: This
by: day/time corresponds to the highest noon-time solar
zenith angle over the entire year. The TOA solar flux is
0.983 then given by:
Rs 0 = (1367 W m -2 ) = 1300.5 W m -2
(1.0165)2
0.539
Rs 0 = (1367 W m -2 ) = 761.7 W m -2
(0.9835)2
The earth-sun orbital parameters for DOY 355
(December 21) are given by: Note that this is less than 60% of the summer solstice
value. The projection of the solar constant at the much
higher zenith angle results in a significant reduction.
80
E XAMPLE 3.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
81
S ECTION 6
The coefficients in each equation represent the bulk Agricultural crops 0.10-0.25
broadband (i.e. integrated across the entire shortwave Forests 0.05-0.20
spectrum) atmospheric transmissivity, scattering efficiency,
to above. This is generally where the semi-empirical nature of
and surface reflectivity. The broadband albedo of the surface
the models show up, where models for these coefficients have
is primarily dependent on surface type (Table 3.2). The
been developed based on experimental data and that may be
transmissivity and scattering coefficient are expected to vary
used with data available at (or nearby) a given study site.
with atmospheric characteristics.
Many examples of such empirical models exist. Generally,
Putting the three equations together with the definition
clear-sky models are easier to develop so that clouds are dealt
of the total flux yields:
with via an additional attenuation factor, although physically
Rs↓ = ⎡⎣ts + β + βαts + β 2α ⎤⎦ Rs 0 (3.6.5) clouds tend to simply change the above defined coefficients
(i.e. decrease transmissivity and increase scattering). Models
which shows that the total incident shortwave at the surface is are also generally developed for flat horizontal surfaces, with
simply the TOA flux reduced by a multiplicative coefficient complex topography effects creating additional complexity.
that varies between 0 - 1. It is very important to keep in mind One such example (Dingman, 2008) uses:
that the coefficients shown in these equations must depend in
some way on atmospheric conditions and other factors alluded ts = τ sa − γ dust (3.6.6)
84
τ sa = exp(asa + bsa M opt ) optical depth, precipitable water, or dust).
asa = −0.124 − 0.0207Wp The model shown above is applicable to clear sky
bsa = −0.0682 − 0.0248Wp conditions. To take into account clouds, an additional
γdust ≡ attenuation due to dust ( 0-0.13) attenuation must be included. For the purposes of generality,
Equation (3.6.5) could be rewritten as:
For the summer solstice TOA value computed in β = 0.5(1 − 0.83 + 0.1) = 0.27
Example 3.5.1, estimate the incident shortwave
which indicates about 27% of the TOA shortwave flux
radiation on a short-grass surface for a clear-sky
will be scattered toward the surface. The total flux
day with an atmospheric precipitable water equal
reaching the surface is then given by:
to 3.5 cm and dust coefficient of 0.1.
Qualitatively, how would things change if the Rs↓ = [0.6 + 0.27 + (0.27)(0.26)(0.6) + (0.27)2(0.26)]Rs 0
atmosphere were more humid, more smoggy, or = [0.6 + 0.27 + 0.04 + 0.02](1300.5 Wm -2 )
cloudy? = 1208 Wm -2
Based on the solar noon zenith angle, the optical depth
which shows that about an equivalent of 93% of the
for this time is approximately equal to 1/0.983 = 1.02.
TOA flux reaches the surface via transmission, forward
The atmospheric shortwave transmissivity can be
scattering or backscattering (in decreasing level of
estimated by (Equation (3.6.6)):
importance). This fraction is relatively high because it is
asa = −0.124 − 0.0207(3.5) = −0.196 the summer solstice. For the winter solstice, the optical
bsa = −0.0682 − 0.0248(3.5) = −0.155 depth would be significantly larger which would decrease
the amount reaching the surface.
τ sa = exp((−0.196) + (−0.155)(1.02)) = 0.70
ts = 0.70 − 0.1 = 0.6 A more humid atmosphere would increase the
precipitable water and decrease the flux reaching the
which indicates about 60% of the TOA shortwave flux surface. A more smoggy atmosphere would decrease the
will be transmitted directly. The atmospheric scattering transmissivity and increase the scattering, but likely lead
coefficient can be estimated by (Equation 3.6.7)): to an overall surface flux reduction. A cloudy atmosphere
would also generally decrease the amount of radiation
as = −0.0363 − 0.0084(3.5) = −0.066
reaching the surface (see Equation (3.6.10)).
bs = −0.0572 − 0.0173(3.5) = −0.118
τ s = exp((−0.066) + (−0.118)(1.02)) = 0.83 All of the models described above provide estimates of
the downwelling surface shortwave on a horizontal plane. In
areas of complex topography (i.e. mountainous regions)
86
additional factors must generally be considered. The primary The slope (S) is the angle in the vertical plane between
impact of terrain on incoming shortwave flux is due to varying the tangent plane in the steepest descent direction and a
exposure to the sun. In the same way that the solar zenith horizontal plane. Based on this definition, a horizontal surface
angle relative to a tangent plane modifies the solar constant at has a slope of 0 degrees while a vertical surface has a slope of
the TOA (Equation 3.5.1), the local zenith angle due to a 90 degrees. The aspect (A) angle is the azimuth angle in the
sloping surface can enhance/reduce the amount predicted for horizontal plane between the steepest descent direction and an
a horizontal plane (Figure 3.15). The local illumination at a arbitrarily defined reference direction (usually North). So a
given point in space is a function of two parameters: the slope point that is facing due North, East, South, or West is
(or strictly the slope gradient) and aspect (or slope aspect) generally labeled with an aspect of 0, 90, 180, or 270 degrees
angles. respectively. Based on the slope and aspect angles, one can
define the local illumination (zenith) angle, which is simply
the zenith angle of the solar direct beam relative to the sloped
surface:
F IGURE 3.16 DEM illustrating the distribution of elevation F IGURE 3.17 Distribution of slope (in degrees) of the terrain
(in meters) over an example terrain. represented by the DEM in Figure 3.16.
88
snow accumulation. North facing slopes will generally have a
significantly longer persistence of snow on the ground
(sometimes weeks or months) due to the smaller snowmelt.
89
on the ground is either exposed to the sun or the sun’s to the horizontal resolution of the underlying DEM. In the
position is obstructed by neighboring topography. When the case of no shade and zero slope this reduces to Equation
sun’s position is obstructed the point will be in shade. This (3.6.2). The shading mask is a dynamic quantity that is equal
means that the direct beam flux is zero and any shortwave to 0 when the sun is below the local horizon for a given pixel
radiative flux input is due solely to diffuse and backscattered and is equal to 1 when the sun is above the local horizon. The
radiation (Equation (3.6.1)). Similar to the impacts described MOD-WET function topo_shade_calc can be used to
above relative to aspect, these patterns of shading can directly generate these dynamic maps.
impact the patterns of hydrologically relevant variables (snow,
For diffuse flux, the primary impact of topography has to
soil moisture, vegetation, etc.). So in areas of complex terrain,
do with the so-called sky view factor (SVF), which is an
the topography will have many direct impacts on hydrology
integrated measure of the amount of sky “seen” by the ground
(in addition to flow direction which will drive runoff as
at a given point. By definition, a horizontal plane has a SVF
described in Chapter 10).
of 1 and an infinitely deep and narrow canyon would approach
To quantify the impact of topography and shading, the
modified geometry can be accounted for to correct the
horizontal plane fluxes. Muller and Scherer (2005) formulated
the slope/aspect and shade effects into a single correction
term for direct beam flux received on a given unit area as:
" cos θs 1 % (3.6.16)
R↓
= tsRs 0 $maskshade '
s,dir
# cos θ 0
cos(S) &
90
a SVF equal to 0. An example of the SVF for the same
topography shown in Figure 3.16 is shown in Figure 3.20. The E XAMPLE 3.6.2 ( CONTINUED )
ridges, which have a horizontal tangent plane, have a SVF of
a) Note that at solar noon, the solar azimuth angle is
1, while some of the valleys have values of 0.7 or lower. The
180 degrees (i.e. due South). The cosine of the local
implication of having SVF less than 1.0 is that some of the
illumination (zenith) angle for this case would be:
sky that would otherwise contribute to forward scattered
shortwave radiation is obscured. The diffuse flux can be cos θs = cos(10.6 )cos(10 ) + sin(10.6 )sin(10 )cos(180 − 0 )
modified to account for SVF via (Muller and Scherer, 2005):
= 0.936 ↔ θs = cos −1(0.936) = 0.360 rad = 20.6
Rs,dif
↓
= β Rs 0SVF + Rs↑ (1 − SVF) (3.6.17)
So for this case the topography changes the solar zenith
where the first term represents the original scattered angle from 10.6 to 20.6 degrees. The direct beam flux is
contribution reduced by an obscured sky view, while the then given by:
second term represents a contribution from the reflected " cos(20.6 ) 1 %
shortwave radiation from the surrounding terrain (weighted by R↓
s,dir
= (0.6)(1300.5 W m )$(1)
-2
'
# cos(10.6 ) cos(10 )&
the terrain-obscured fraction: (1-SVF)). An equivalent
backscattered term (i.e. Equation (3.6.4)) could then be = (780.3 W m -2 )[0.967] = 755 W m -2
constructed. The SVF map can be computed using the MOD-
so that the direct beam flux is 97% of what it was for
WET function: compute_shade_lookup_table_and_SVF.
the horizontal plane. Since the sky view factor for this
case is 1.0, the diffuse flux will remain the same. In the
E XAMPLE 3.6.2 more general case where SVF < 1 the diffuse flux may
be reduced or increased depending on the reflected
For the case shown in Example 3.6.1, how would radiation from the surrounding terrain.
the incident surface radiation change if the
b) For the second case, the cosine of the local
surface had: a) a slope of 10 degrees and an
illumination (zenith) angle for this case would be:
aspect of 0 degrees (i.e. due North) and b) a
slope of 10 degrees and an aspect of 180 degrees cos θs = cos(10.6 )cos(10 ) + sin(10.6 )sin(10 )cos(180 − 180 )
(i.e. due South)? In both cases assume there is = 0.999 ↔ θs = cos −1(0.999) = 0.010 rad = 0.6
no shade and the sky view factor is equal to 1.0.
91
E XAMPLE 3.6.2 ( CONTINUED )
Note that because the slope is facing due south the local
illumination is exactly equal to the difference between
the solar zenith angle and the slope angle. If the slope
had been 10.6 degrees the local zenith angle would be 0.
" cos(0.6 ) 1 %
R↓
s,dir
= (0.6)(1300.5 W m )$(1)
-2
'
# cos(10.6
) cos(10
) &
= (780.3 W m -2 )[1.033] = 806 W m -2
92
S ECTION 7 Rl↓ = εa,clrσTa4 (3.7.2)
εa,clr ≡ effective clear-sky atmospheric emissivity
Modeling Longwave Fluxes Ta ≡ effective atmospheric temperature
which is to say that the downwelling flux depends on the by Brutsaert (1975):
atmospheric emissivity (which itself depends on the 0.14
concentrations of radiatively active gases), the temperature εa,clr = 1.24 (ea /Ta ) ; [ea ] = mb; [Ta ] = K (3.7.4)
profile, and the characteristics of any clouds present. To fully
by Satterlund (1979):
model these fluxes at a given point requires the use of a
(T 2016)
radiative transfer model and inputs of all the necessary εa,clr = 1.08(1 − exp(−ea a )); [ea ] = mb; [Ta ] = K (3.7.5)
profiles. Because the atmosphere is rather absorptive of
longwave radiation, most of the downwelling radiation and by Prata (1996):
reaching the surface is that emitted from the lower layers of εa,clr = 1 − (1 +Wp )exp(− 1.2 + 3Wp );[Wp ] = cm (3.7.6)
the atmosphere. So semi-empirical models are often used to
model the downwelling flux in terms of more readily available along with many others (Flerchinger et al., 2009). Again, it is
near-surface meteorological measurements. In particular, the essential to recognize that empirical equations are not
clear-sky flux, using the physically-based bulk flux equation necessarily dimensionally consistent (i.e. it is important to use
introduced above, can be written as: specified units!). Such equations are most valid for the
locations and conditions in which they were developed. This is
in part why there are so many different emissivity models.
93
The above model is for clear-sky downwelling radiation. The solar index is usually calculated based on the ratio
To account for clouds, a similar approach to that used in the between measured downwelling shortwave radiation and the
shortwave case can be used, i.e.: expected downwelling shortwave radiation in clear-sky
conditions, i.e.:
Rl↓ = εaσTa4 (3.7.7)
s = Rs↓ / Rs,clr
↓
(3.7.10)
where the effective atmospheric emissivity contains a cloud
correction. An important note is that while clouds attenuate where the clear-sky shortwave radiation is usually estimated
shortwave radiation, they actually enhance longwave based on some simplifying assumptions for the transmissivity
radiation. This is because clouds significantly increase the and scattering terms in Equation (3.6.5).
concentration of water in the overlying atmosphere which
For the upwelling longwave flux from a surface, a similar
increases the effective emissivity. One example of such an
bulk emission model is often used, i.e.:
empirical augmentation factor (in terms of fractional cloud
cover, C) is that by Kustas et al. (1994): Rl↑ = ε sσTs4 (3.7.11)
εa = (1 + 0.22C 2 )εa,clr (3.7.8) ε s ≡ surface broadband emissivity
Ts ≡ surface temperature
which indicates no augmentation for zero cloud cover (C = 0)
and an increase in longwave by 22% for full cloud cover (C =
1). This particular equation makes no effort to model different The surface upwelling radiation is generally simpler than
types of clouds which will undoubtedly introduce some error. the downwelling radiation in that the emissivity is essentially
For example, two conditions might exist with full cloud cover, constant (since it depends on land surface type) or varies at
but one a very thin cirrus cloud at considerable height above significantly longer time scales than the atmospheric
the surface and the other a thick fog cloud in contact with the emissivity. Typically tabulated values are used depending on
surface. Such a case would be expected to yield significantly the surface type (Table 3.1).
different cloud impacts on longwave flux. Other models
Strictly speaking, the longwave fluxes described above
attempt to account for cloud water thickness via a solar index
are for a flat horizontal plane. While not generally as
(s; e.g. Crawford and Duchon, 1999):
important as with shortwave fluxes, the longwave fluxes can
εa = (1 − s) + sεa,clr (3.7.9) also be impacted by terrain. The primary impact is due to
variable sky view factor (SVF) defined in the previous section.
which implicitly assumes the cloud emissivity is equal to 1.0. The implication of having SVF less than 1.0 is that some of
94
the area contributing to downwelling longwave flux at a given
location is due to the emitted radiation of the surrounding E XAMPLE 3.7.1
surfaces. This is often modeled using a weighted average of
For the air with characteristics described in
the flux from the atmosphere itself and the surrounding
terrain, i.e for clear-sky flux.: Example 2.4.1, estimate the clear-sky
downwelling longwave radiation using the
Rl↓ = (SVF)εaσTa4 + (1 − SVF) εsσTs4 (3.7.12) Brutsaert, Satterlund and Brunt emissivity
models. How do the estimates differ and,
where the brackets on the second term simply denote the
qualitatively, how would they change in cloudy
average emitted longwave flux from the surrounding terrain
conditions? Also compute the upwelling longwave
(which may differ from the locally emitted flux). In the case of
flat terrain (SVF = 1) this reduces to Equation (3.7.2). This radiation from the surface assuming it is covered
can also be modified to account for cloud effects as described by a short-grass surface with a surface
above. temperature of 28ºC.
95
E XAMPLE 3.7.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 3.7.1 ( CONTINUED )
εa = 0.605 + 0.048(15 mb)0.5 = 0.79 smallest in cloudy conditions where the effective
atmospheric emissivity will approach 1.0 (as indicated by
so that for these conditions the estimates are reasonably Equation (3.7.9)). In winter conditions with snow on the
similar with a percent difference of less than about 5% ground and cold surface temperatures, the incoming
across the models. This will directly propagate to the longwave flux may be larger than the outgoing flux,
clear-sky longwave radiation which for each of the especially in cloudy conditions.
respective models are:
Rl↓ = (0.81)(5.67 × 10 −8 )(293.15 K)4 = 339 W m -2
96
S ECTION 8 Rl↓ − Rl↑ (3.8.2)
Net Radiation at the Sur- where in most cases the outgoing longwave flux is larger than
the incoming flux since the surface emissivity is generally
higher than the atmospheric emissivity and the temperatures
face are comparable. Hence the net longwave radiation is often
negative.
The previous two sections provided physical descriptions
and relatively simple models for the key shortwave and Putting the two together we can write the net radiation
longwave fluxes occurring at the land surface. While it is at the surface as:
convenient to model each flux individually based on the Rn (x,y,t) = Rs↓(1 − α ) + Rl↓ − Rl↑ (3.8.3)
different physical relationships, the key radiative input is the
net (or integrated) radiation absorbed by the surface. It is this where the spatial and temporal dependence is shown for
net flux that will drive hydrologic processes at the surface. emphasis. The spatial/temporal variability comes through the
The net radiation can be written simply as: various factors that determine the individual fluxes (albedo,
emissivity, near-surface meteorological data, etc.). Since net
Rn ≡ net radiation ≡ net shortwave + net longwave
radiation is defined as the absorbed radiation by the surface, a
positive quantity denotes a net gain of energy input (that will
The net shortwave radiation is the downwelling shortwave (as
cause the surface to warm) and a negative quantity denotes a
described by Equation (3.6.9) for horizontal terrain) minus the
net loss of energy (that will cause the surface to cool).
upwelling shortwave radiation. By definition there is no
emission of shortwave by the land surface, so the only “source” In terms of temporal variability, it is important to keep
of upwelling shortwave is simply the amount of incident in mind two key “periodicities” embedded in Equation (3.8.3).
radiation that is reflected. The reflectivity is exactly defined The seasonal cycle is driven by the Earth’s orbit around the
by the albedo so that the net shortwave is given by: sun, which yields seasonal variability in the TOA shortwave
Rs↓ − Rs↑ = Rs↓ − α Rs↓ = Rs↓(1 − α ) flux as a function of latitude (Figure 3.11). This seasonal cycle
(3.8.1)
generally then imprints itself on the meteorological and
which simply states that whatever fraction of incident surface states that control the longwave fluxes. Diurnal
shortwave radiation is not reflected is being absorbed. The net variability also plays a key role. The incident solar radiation is
longwave radiation is the downwelling minus upwelling zero at night and varies throughout the day with a peak at
longwave fluxes: solar noon. The incoming longwave is determined by air
97
temperature, humidity, and clouds, which can also have a magnitude, provide a positive energy input to the surface. At
strong diurnal cycle. Movie 3.2 shows an example of the night (and at high latitudes during winter) radiative cooling
diurnal evolution of downwelling shortwave and longwave generally occurs due to the absence (or limited amount) of
fluxes over the central U.S. during the summer (on a cloudy shortwave radiation inputs.
day). The diurnal cycle is clearly seen and is modulated by
the presence of clouds, which strongly control the patterns.
These patterns will directly propagate to the surface net
radiation. During the day and especially during summer, the
shortwave fluxes generally dominate the net radiation and
since the longwave fluxes are generally comparable in
98
S ECTION 9 Slope and aspect determination for a given DEM:
generate_slope_and_aspect_from_DEM.m
99
S ECTION 10 8. Describe in words the processes that attenuate downwelling
solar radiation between the TOA and surface.
Conceptual Questions 9. Name the three components that make up the incoming
shortwave radiation at the surface. At midday during the
summer, which component would you expect to be the
1. Name the respective sources of “shortwave” and “longwave” largest? Just before sunset, which component would expect
radiation fluxes. What part of the spectrum is covered by to be largest? Explain.
each? At what wavelength does the peak for each occur?
10. Describe in words the meaning of aspect.
2. According to the Planck function, name the physical
variable controls the magnitude (and distribution) of 11. In the northern hemisphere (above 23.5 degrees North),
emitted (blackbody) radiation. Name the additional which aspect (north or south facing) will generally get more
physical parameter that describes how close an actual body incident solar radiation? Explain. How do things change in
is to a blackbody. the Southern Hemisphere? Explain.
3. Name at least two atmospheric radiatively active gases that 12. What atmospheric variable is primarily responsible for
absorb solar radiation. Name at least two atmospheric determining the effective atmospheric emissivity? What
radiatively active gases that absorb longwave radiation. additional variable is primarily responsible for surface
downwelling longwave flux?
4. Define in words what surface albedo represents. What land
surface types generally have the smallest and largest 13. What land surface types generally have the smallest and
broadband albedo and what are their typical values? largest broadband emissivities and what are their typical
values?
5. Name the variables are needed to determine the TOA
incoming shortwave flux. 14. Name the four components that make up the net radiation
at the surface. What surface and/or atmospheric variables
6. Define in words what the declination angle represents. and parameters are generally needed to compute net
radiation at a given location/time.
7. What is the maximum possible value of incoming shortwave
radiation at the TOA? Where on the globe will this 15. When/where will net radiation generally be positive?
generally occur? negative?
100
S ECTION 11 approximately what fraction of the incoming direct beam solar
radiation is attenuated by the atmosphere? Qualitatively, how
Sample Problems would this change if the amount of water vapor increased? So
if all else is equal, would you expect more direct beam solar
radiation to reach the surface in an area with a dry climate or
one with a humid climate?
Problem 3.1. In this problem, you are asked to examine the
influence of the atmosphere on the shortwave radiative flux c) What is the predicted scattering coefficient of the
incident at the earth’s surface. Incoming solar radiation in the atmosphere on June 21st based on the precipitable water
short-wavelength spectra (shortwave) at the top of the value you estimated in the sample problem in the last
atmosphere (TOA) is partially absorbed and scattered chapter? How do the transmissivity and scattering coefficients
(reflected) by atmospheric molecules and particulates. As a compare, i.e. which is larger/smaller, etc.? Qualitatively, how
result, only a fraction of the TOA flux actually reaches the would the scattering coefficient change if the amount of water
surface. Answer the following questions using the equations vapor (i.e. cloud cover) increased?
provided in Sections 5 and 6.
d) Using Equation (3.6.5) and the coefficients and variables
a) Compute declination angle, zenith angle, and incoming computed above, compute the incoming shortwave radiation
top-of-atmosphere (TOA) solar radiative flux for solar noon at the surface in Hilo, at noon on June 21st. Assume a surface
on December 21st, 2011 (winter solstice), and June 21st, 2012 albedo of 0.24.
(summer solstice) in Hilo, Hawaii (19.73ºN). For this latitude
and days of the year (and time of day), is the sun in the Problem 3.2.
southern sky, northern sky, or directly overhead? [Hint: You a) Compute the top of atmosphere (TOA) solar radiation over
can answer this by comparing the latitude to the declination a location in the Sierra Nevada (latitude of 36.535 degrees)
angle]. Is the sun in the same part of the sky throughout the for solar noon on October 17th (Day of Year 290). Note: The
year? Justify your answer. TOA flux we use (given by the equation) is that perpendicular
to the TOA. As part of your solution, clearly indicate the
b) What is the predicted shortwave direct beam
solar zenith angle. What fraction of the solar constant is
transmissivity of the atmosphere on June 21st? To estimate
coming in perpendicular to the TOA at this time? Explain
precipitable water assume the surface dewpoint temperature is
(using physical arguments) why the fractions are less than 1.0.
25ºC. Assume there is attenuation due to dust using a
reasonable parameter value. Based on your answer,
101
b) Assuming that a transmissivity of 0.52 is representative for b) What is the outgoing longwave radiation from the surface
this day over the Sierras, what is the magnitude of the direct (assume a surface thermal emissivity of 0.96)?
beam flux incident on a horizontal plane at the surface?
c) What is the incoming atmospheric longwave radiation? Use
c) Assuming a scattering coefficient of 0.185, what is the the Brunt model for atmospheric emissivity.
magnitude of the diffuse flux incident on a horizontal plane at
the surface? d) What is the net radiation at the surface?
d) Assuming the average surface albedo is 0.25 in this region, e) This radiation must be dissipated at the surface. Assuming
what is the magnitude of the backscattered shortwave flux half of this net radiation goes into vaporization of water at
incident on a horizontal plane at the surface? the surface, what would the evapotranspiration rate be in
mm/day? If the “latent heat” later condenses in the
e) What is the total shortwave radiation incident on a atmosphere, how much energy (in W m-2) will be released/
horizontal plane at the surface? How do the three components consumed? Specify whether the condensation corresponds to a
compare in magnitude? release or consumption of energy.
f ) What is the net shortwave radiation absorbed by the Problem 3.4. In order to plan the day’s irrigation rate, a
surface? farmer needs to estimate the maximum potential water loss
rate by estimating the absorbed radiative energy at the
Problem 3.3. The following information are measured over a surface. Over the irrigated field at noon, the ground
vegetated surface during a clear sunny day: temperature is generally 41ºC and the air temperature is
Net solar radiation: 510 Wm-2 33ºC. The air dew point temperature is 16ºC. Assume a
surface albedo of 30% and surface emissivity of 0.95. Based on
Air Temperature at 2 meters: 22.7ºC
location and day (Day 186), the cosine of the solar zenith
Air relative humidity at 2 meters: 80.0% angle at noon is estimated to be 0.974. Assume the
Ground surface temperature: 25.5ºC atmospheric direct beam shortwave transmissivity at this time
Air pressure: 980 millibars is 0.6, the diffuse shortwave scattering coefficient is 0.1 and
the sky is cloud-free.
a) What is the outgoing solar radiation at the surface? a) Determine the net radiation at the surface.
Assume a surface albedo of 15%.
102
b) Qualitatively, how would cloud presence impact your only one incoming flux (solar radiation) and two outgoing
estimate? Be specific. fluxes (outgoing (reflected) solar radiation, and emitted
longwave radiation). Here you will examine the impact of the
c) Assuming 65% of the net radiation goes into atmosphere on the radiative equilibrium.
evapotranspiration (i.e. latent heat flux) at the surface, how
much water should the farmer apply (in mm/day) to balance a) First suppose there was no atmosphere overlying the
the evapotranspiration flux? surface of the Earth. For this case, write the radiative
equilibrium equation at the surface in terms of the solar
Problem 3.5. Some estimates of global warming estimate constant, the Earth’s surface: temperature, albedo, and
that surface air temperatures will increase by 3ºC over the emissivity, and the radius of the Earth. The radiative
next 100 years. What would the change in incoming thermal equilibrium equation should consider the total energy fluxes
(longwave) radiation at the surface be under this global (i.e. in W), not the flux densities (which are in W m-2). In
warming scenario if the nominal air temperature before the other words, you will need to consider the area over which
warming effect is 20ºC and the relative humidity of the each respective flux occurs. As indicated in the figure shown
surface air remains at 60%? above, an area equal to the projected cross-sectional area of
the Earth intercepts the incoming solar radiation, while the
Problem 3.6. To a large degree, the climate of Earth is
outgoing longwave flux is emitted across the full surface area
controlled by radiative fluxes. Radiative equilibrium consists
of the Earth. The reflected shortwave radiation occurs over
of the balance of net solar (shortwave) radiation, which is an
the same area as the intercepted shortwave.
external input to the system, and net terrestrial (longwave)
fluxes, which generally depend on the Earth’s surface and its b) Using the above equation, derive an expression for the
atmosphere. A schematic picture of the global radiative energy Earth’s surface temperature. Your expression should be in
balance is shown in the figure below. Radiative equilibrium terms of the variables listed above and (and the Stefan-
refers to the condition where the net radiative energy is equal Boltzmann constant). Given the known value for the solar
to zero (i.e. total energy in minus total energy out equals constant, and assuming typical values for the Earth’s surface
zero). albedo and emissivity are given by: 0.3 and 0.97 respectively,
what would the predicted surface temperature be for this no-
Related to this, and of particular relevance, is the “greenhouse
atmosphere case? How does this compare to the observed
effect” which is generally used to refer to the impact of
(global average) value of ~290K that exists as a result of
(radiatively active) atmospheric gases on the Earth’s
having an atmosphere?
equilibrium temperature. On the global scale there is generally
103
d) Based on the longwave transmissivity of the atmosphere,
what is the expression for the longwave radiation emitted by
the Earth’s surface that makes its way to the top of the
atmosphere?
Next, you will consider the impact of having atmosphere with f ) Combining the surface and TOA equations you can
greenhouse gases. For simplicity, suppose the atmosphere can eliminate the dependence on atmospheric temperature. Do so
be conceptualized by one layer characterized by a single to derive an expression for the Earth’s surface temperature in
atmospheric temperature and atmospheric emissivity (both of terms of the other parameters in the problem. What is the
which are generally different then the surface values). Also, for predicted surface temperature for an atmosphere with an
simplicity, assume the atmosphere is transparent to shortwave emissivity (absorptivity) equal to 0? Equal to 1.0? What must
radiation (i.e. shortwave transmissivity equal to 1.0), but the atmospheric emissivity equal to match the observed
absorbs longwave radiation (with negligible longwave globally-averaged surface temperature mentioned above?
scattering). Recall according to Kirchoff’s Law that the
longwave absorptivity is equal to the longwave emissivity.
a) Plot the spatially-averaged time series of daily-averaged d) Compute the minimum and maximum values of the slope
incoming shortwave radiation at the surface. The variable of the terrain in the watershed. Describe where steeper/
disaggregrated_forcing.maps.Rs contains the daily- shallower slopes are located in the watershed.
105
e) Plot and compare the spatial maps of incoming shortwave net radiation during the winter compare to that of the spring
radiation at the surface (W/m2) on December 21 and June 21 and summer? What implications does this have in terms of
(the winter and summer solstices respectively). For each day, cooling/warming the land surface/snowpack during the
describe/explain the spatial variability of the incoming various seasons? Discuss the seasonality observed in the net
shortwave radiation at the surface within the watershed. radiation time series. Describe when the maximum and
minimum net radiations occur.
f ) Consider two specific pixels within the watershed of varying
aspect values. (Note: You will use these pixels in other MOD- b) Plot the basin-averaged diurnal cycle (vs. UTC) of net
WET Problems as well.) What is the aspect (in degrees) of radiation at the surface for the winter and summer solstices
the pixels at each of these locations? Which compass direction (December 21st and June 21st respectively). The net radiation
(i.e. aspect) are the slopes at these two pixels facing? is stored in fluxes.time_series.Rn. Compare the diurnal
cycles of the flux on the two days. Describe how the values of
g) For the two pixels identified in part f), plot the daily- the maximum net radiation change between the two days. At
averaged incoming solar radiation time series. Plot/compare approximately what time of the day in local solar time does
the two time series. Does one location tend to receive a net radiation provide the largest energy input to the surface?
greater amount of incoming solar radiation at the surface than Describe how the net radiation values during the daytime
the other? Provide reasoning for this. What are the maximum compare to those during the nighttime? Explain the impact of
daily-averaged incoming solar radiation values of the two the net shortwave and net longwave radiative fluxes on the
pixels and how do they compare? Compare the daily-averaged daytime/nighttime net radiation.
incoming solar radiation time series for each of these pixels
with the basin averaged time series you plotted in part a). c) Plot the spatial maps of daily-averaged net radiation
Explain differences among the time series. Does each of the (fluxes.maps.Rn in W/m2) on December 21st and June 21st.
time series exhibit similar patterns in seasonality, etc.? For each day, describe/explain the spatial variability of the
net radiation across the watershed. How do the slope and
Problem 3.3 In this problem, you will analyze the aspect of the watershed impact the spatial patterns observed
seasonality, diurnal (daily) cycle, and spatial distribution of on these two days? Describe the relationship between the
surface net radiation in the watershed. daily-averaged net radiation maps on these two days and the
daily-averaged incoming shortwave radiation maps for these
a) Plot the spatially-averaged time series of daily-averaged net
same days.
radiation (in W/m2) at the surface. Describe the seasonality of
the net radiation at the surface. Qualitatively, how does the
106
d) Plot the annual cycle of daily-averaged net radiation time
series for the two pixels within the watershed selected above.
The daily-averaged net radiation is stored in fluxes.maps.Rn.
Compare the two time series. Does one location tend to have
a larger energy input at the surface than the other? Does this
vary seasonally? Explain. When do the maximum daily-
averaged net radiation values occur and how do they compare
at the two locations? Compare the daily-averaged net
radiation time series for each of these pixels with the basin-
averaged time series you plotted in part b). Explain
differences among the time series. Does each of the time series
exhibit similar seasonality patterns?
107
Chapter 4
Atmospheric
Circulation
S ECTION 1
Learning Objectives
By the time you finish this chapter you should be able to:
109
S ECTION 2
" π R2 %
1367 Wm $$
−2 E
'
2 '
= 342 W m −2
# 4 π RE &
Atmospheric Motions
Driven by Latitudinal En-
ergy Imbalance
Given the implied heat transport discussed in the
previous section, the primary question is how does the
atmospheric transport work? Here we will focus primarily on a
qualitative description of the key characteristics of the
atmospheric motion, i.e. the so-called “general circulation”. It
is important to note that the general circulation we will be F IGURE 4.4 Zonally-averaged distribution of atmospheric
discussing is representative of the long-term average. Hence, temperature as a function of height. Red arrows indicate ex-
pected vertical motions at equator and poles.
the general circulation is responsible for much of the
climatology on Earth, while individual weather events
(including extremes) can be quite different than the mean.
The instantaneous state and motion of the atmosphere can (“warm air rises”) with cold air aloft at the top of the
differ markedly from the general circulation. troposphere generating sinking motion at the poles. If these
were the only factors, they would imply a single circulation
The primary impact of the net radiation distribution cell as shown in Figure 4.5, with surface flows from pole to
shown in Figure 4.2 is that, within the troposphere, warmer equator, upward flow at the equator, return flow aloft, and
air exists in the tropics relative to the poles (Figure 4.4). downward flow near the poles. This simple convection cell
Thermal expansion of the tropical air columns (relative to model would have the desired trait of transporting warm air
those at the poles) leads to a sloping pressure surface aloft toward the pole and cool air to the equator, effectively
(also seen in the temperature isotherms) which would be redistributing the net radiation imbalance. In fact, early
expected to drive air toward the poles aloft. Additionally, air conceptual models of the Earth’s atmospheric flow proposed
near the surface in the tropics would be expected to be this model (Marshall and Plumb, 2007). However, an
warmest, which due to buoyancy would generate an uplift
113
apparent force associated with the rotating reference frame
that tends to “deflect” air parcels to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere). As
a result, wind moving toward the equator would be deflected
creating so called “easterly” surface winds (i.e. from the east
moving westward) in the polar and equatorial regions.
Another consequence of rotation is that air parcels moving
poleward are closer to the axis of rotation and tend to
The impact of angular momentum, and other factors F IGURE 4.6 Schematic of expected three-cell thermally-
driven atmospheric general circulation on a rotating planet.
related to the Earth’s rotation, introduces a more complicated
(from http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/circulation.html).
general circulation. One of these key factors is the Coriolis
force (discussed in more detail in Section 5), which is an
114
therefore accelerate in order to attempt to conserve often referred to as the Intertropical Convergence Zone
momentum. The result is a general circulation that features (ITCZ). The Ferrel cell has descending air at latitudes around
three overturning circulation cells of varying intensity (rather 30ºN/S and poleward movement along the surface before
than just one) as shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7. The three cells rising around a latitude of 60ºN/S and returning toward the
are referred to as the Hadley (in the tropics on either side of midlatitudes aloft. Finally, the Polar cell has the same sense of
the equator), the Ferrel (at midlatitudes) and the Polar (near circulation as the Hadley cell, but exists between the poles
the poles) cells. These types of figures attempt to and latitudes around 60ºN/S. Movement of air from the
simultaneously show the circulations occurring in cross-section surface to aloft (i.e. at the equator and poles) is typically
in the atmosphere as well as along the surface. associated with lower than average surface atmospheric
pressure, while regions of air moving toward the surface from
The Hadley cell consists of warm air rising from the aloft are typically associated with higher than average surface
surface at the equator, moving poleward aloft until around pressure. These so-called “lows” and “highs” tend to be
30ºN/S, and descending toward the surface before returning persistent features of the general circulation as seen in Figure
along the surface. The upwelling limb of the Hadley cell near
the equator is the primary driver of persistent tropical clouds
F IGURE 4.7 Cross-section of northern hemisphere circula- F IGURE 4.8 Mean annual surface pressure distribution show-
tion superimposed on net radiation distribution. Arrows on the ing areas of typically high and low pressure (used with permission
surface indicate direction of surface winds. from Marshall and Plumb, 2007).
115
4.8. These areas of high/low pressure are directly associated transport. Another mechanism is chiefly responsible for the
with certain climate zones as will be discussed below. additional transport between the midlatitudes and the poles
as will be elaborated on below.
It is very important to note that not all three of the
circulation cells are of equal importance or strength. The The other key features to note in Figures 4.6 and 4.7 are
Hadley cell is far and away the most persistent and influential the surface winds. Due to the Coriolis force, the winds in the
in terms of the energy transport described above. Evidence of surface branch of the Hadley cell are deflected, becoming
the circulation cells, with the prominence of the Hadley cell is easterly winds (or “easterlies”, i.e. from the east). In the
shown in Figure 4.9. As can be seen, the Hadley cell in each tropics, the easterlies are often called “trade winds” as their
hemisphere is consistent with the net transport of energy persistent nature was taken advantage of to construct trade
poleward (albeit only to the midlatitudes). In fact, the Ferrel routes used by sailing ships. As part of the Ferrel cell, the
and Polar cells are much less important in terms of energy surface winds are deflected, becoming westerlies. It is these
winds that form the onshore flow seen in the western U.S.
Finally the surface winds associated with the Polar cell consist
of easterlies. Another important point has to do with the
relative speed of the winds. To conserve its angular
momentum, an air parcel at higher latitudes would generally
need to travel at a faster speed (since it is closer to the axis of
rotation) than it does at lower latitudes. Hence the winds at
higher latitudes tend to be faster than the trade winds, which
are persistent but relatively mild.
F IGURE 4.10 Schematic showing frontal systems at midlati- M OVIE 4.2 Animation of the wind field over the Northern
tudes that result in mixing of cold and warm air via horizontal Hemisphere and over North America from the NASA MERRA
eddies and frontal uplift (used with permission from Marshall and dataset. Wind vectors are shown at three levels in the atmos-
Plumb, 2007). phere: 300 mb (blue), 500 mb (white), and 850 mb (black)
(from NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio;
svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003700/a003733/index.html).
117
form and dissipate, with life cycles on the order of days to a
week. These can be seen in Movie 4.2 which shows an
example of the dynamic wind fields over the Northern
Hemisphere (based on a combination of observations and
model output). The general circulation discussed above is
essentially a time average of what is seen in the animation and
is discussed in more detail in the next section.
118
S ECTION 4
119
• Fast (i.e. 30-50 m/s) westerly winds in the subtropics (i.e.
subtropical jet) and midlatitudes (i.e. polar or midlatitude
jet)
120
F IGURE 4.14 Mean annual zonally averaged plot of wind F IGURE 4.15 Illustration of typical position and magnitude
showing large jet streams (used with permission from Marshall and of the midlatitude jet stream over the continental U.S. (from
Plumb, 2007). www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/circulation.html).
jet migrates significantly (Figure 4.15) and its shift in the circulation feature which spans the entire globe. It should also
winter to lower latitudes is primarily responsible for storms be noted that its position is quite dynamic, the magnitude
(i.e. just the eddies discussed previously) migrating toward varies in time, and there are many cyclonic circulation
lower latitudes. Since these jet streams are often responsible features that are generated by and advected by the jet stream.
for advection of storms they are often referred to as the
“storm track”. It should be noted that they not only migrate Figures 4.16, 4.17, and 4.18 further summarize/
seasonally, but can vary significantly from day-to-day. This is conceptualize the key aspects of the general circulation. There
shown more explicitly in Movie 4.3 which shows an animation are two main mechanisms responsible for the transport of
of the atmospheric flow with an emphasis on the jet stream. energy needed to equilibrate the latitudinal distribution of net
The animation shows the large spatial extent of this radiation: the Hadley overturning cell that transports energy
between the tropics and midlatitudes and horizontal eddies
121
relative to evaporation tend to occur at the equator where
water vapor is plentiful and the upwelling limb of the Hadley
cells resides (Figure 4.18). Conversely, the downwelling limb of
the Hadley cells corresponds to the location of most of the
great deserts of the world, where evaporation far exceeds
precipitation. For example, this is the primary reason, for the
dry Southern California climate despite its proximity to a
large body of water and an onshore flow.
122
aspect is transport of energy via latent heat fluxes. Water
vapor evaporates via the input of net radiation (occurs most
prevalently in the tropics where net radiation is high). This
energy input is then carried by the atmosphere in the form of
vapor until the vapor condenses (i.e. forms clouds). At that
point the same amount of energy that was consumed in the
vaporization process is released in the condensation process.
This is precisely why the process is called latent heating, as
123
M OVIE 4.4 Animation of model output showing seasonal evo-
lution of precipitable water (white colors) and precipitation (or-
ange) (from vets.ucar.edu/vg/CCM3T170/index.shtml).
124
S ECTION 5 where the variables x, y, and z denote the coordinate position
of an air parcel and T represents the transpose operator. As
Fundamental Equations of such typically u, v, and w represent west-east, south-north,
and vertical velocity components.
where the above is a vector equation which in this case has which acts only in the vertical direction. Hence, in a non-
three components. In a non-rotating reference frame the rotating reference frame the governing momentum equation
relevant forces (per unit mass) are those due to: pressure can be written concisely as:
gradient, viscosity (friction), and gravity effects so that one dV ∂V 1
can write: = + (V i ∇)V = − ∇p + ν∇2 V − g (6.5.13)
dt ∂t ρ
dV ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
= + (V i ∇)V = + + (6.5.9)
dt ∂t ∂t press ∂t visc ∂t grav
In a rotating reference frame an additional “apparent” force,
i.e. the so-called Coriolis force, becomes relevant. The rotation
where the pressure gradient term is given by: is characterized by the rotation vector:
T
∂V 1 1 $ ∂p ∂p ∂p ' (6.5.10) Ω; Ω = ω = 2π rad/day (6.5.14)
= − ∇p = − & , , )
∂t press ρ ρ % ∂x ∂y ∂z (
which points in the direction of the axis of rotation. For a thin
126
atmosphere such as on Earth, the Coriolis term acts almost where the subscript refers to geostrophic conditions and the
exclusively in the horizontal plane and is given by: vector Ug contains only the horizontal velocity components (u
$ fv ' and v). The equation can be rearranged to show:
$ v sin λ ' (6.5.14)
∂V &
= −2Ω × V 2ω & −u sin λ
)
2
& ) 1
) = ω & −fu ) Ug = k × ∇h p (6.5.17)
∂t coriolis ρf
&% 0 )( &
% 0 (
)
F IGURE 4.19 Geopotential height map (in meters) at 400 mb The conservation of air mass equation can be written as
in the atmosphere over the continental U.S. The vertical vector the balance between local mass change and convergence of
(out of the page), geopotential height gradient, and geostrophic
mass flux:
flow vectors (not to scale) are shown at a given point.
∂ρ
= −∇ i (ρ V) = −(V i ∇)ρ − ρ∇ i V (6.5.20)
∂t
128
which can be rearranged in terms of the total derivative to dql Sevap Scond (6.5.25)
get: =− +
dt ρ ρ
dρ
= −ρ∇ i V (6.5.21)
dt Note that aside from the vapor diffusion in Equation (6.5.24)
the two water conservation equations share the same source/
sink terms, but that they are of opposite sign. In other words,
In the atmosphere it is often valid to assume that the left- evaporation from cloud droplets will be a source for vapor,
hand-side is much smaller than the right-hand-side so that the but will be a sink for liquid/ice. Similarly, condensation of
air mass conservation equation could be replaced by: vapor will be a sink for vapor, but a source for liquid/ice.
∇ i V = [∂u ∂x + ∂v ∂y + ∂w ∂z ] = 0 (6.5.22) Finally, based on the 1st Law of Thermodynamics one
which is simply stating the flow is non-divergent. can derive the conservation of energy equation in terms of the
so-called potential temperature:
The conservation of atmospheric water vapor can be
T dθ
written in terms of specific humidity as: ρc p = νθ ∇2θ − ∇Rn − LvSevap + LvScond ; (6.5.26)
θ dt
dq (6.5.23)
−R /c
#p& d p
= ∑ body sources/sinks θ = T %% (( ; p0 = 100000 Pa
dt p
$ 0'
νθ ≡ thermal conductivity of air
where the body source/sink terms typically correspond to
vapor diffusion, an evaporative source from liquid/solid water where the terms on the right-hand-side represent diffusive
(Sevap, [Sevap]= kg m-3 s-1) and condensation sink from liquid/ heat flux, convergence of net radiation, evaporative cooling,
solid water (Scond, [Scond]= kg m-3 s-1) from clouds respectively. and latent heating. Note that the latter two terms are the
This can be written more explicitly as: same sources/sinks in the water conservation equations, but
dq " ∂2q ∂2q ∂2q % Sevap S (6.5.24) converted to equivalent energy fluxes associated with phase
= νq $ 2 + 2 + 2 ' + − cond
dt # ∂x ∂y ∂z & ρ ρ change. The net radiation convergence is essentially related to
the absorption/emission of radiative fluxes across the
atmospheric profile. Hence that term depends on the water
Similarly, a conservation equation for liquid/ice water content
vapor profile (along with other radiatively active gases). The
(ql) can be written:
potential temperature is a scaled temperature that accounts
129
for adiabatic temperature changes, i.e. the potential
temperature is conserved (constant) under adiabatic changes.
130
S ECTION 6 8. What high-level atmospheric circulation feature consists of
a high velocity westerly wind near the top of the
Conceptual Questions troposphere?
131
S ECTION 7 OUTGOING
PLANETARY LONGWAVE
LATITUDE
Sample Problems ALBEDO (%)
(W M-2)
a) Plot the planetary albedo as a function of latitude. Explain -52 43.54 209.9
the physical reason for the latitudinal dependence of planetary -44 38.25 220.6
albedo. Note: Planetary albedo is the bulk (combined effects -36 31.46 235.3
of surface and atmosphere) reflectivity representing what -28 27.62 248.3
fraction of incoming TOA shortwave radiation will be reflected -20 24.79 254.6
back into space.
-12 23.02 254.3
Explain the physical reason for the latitudinal dependence of 4 19.39 248.9
outgoing TOA longwave flux. Note: The outgoing TOA 12 21.26 250.5
longwave flux is the combined flux emitted by the atmosphere 20 25.50 254.6
and the flux emitted by the surface that is transmitted to the 28 29.47 249.5
TOA.
36 33.26 235.7
c) Compute the annual mean TOA incident solar radiation for 44 37.75 225.0
all the latitudes tabulated below and plot the annual solar 52 40.63 213.8
incident radiation as a function of latitude. The MOD-WET 60 44.05 206.1
code TOA_incoming_solar.m may be useful. 68 48.04 197.3
76 58.19 191.6
d) Compute and plot the net TOA shortwave as a function of
84 60.92 182.9
latitude. On the same figure plot the net TOA longwave. Also
compute, and plot on the same figure, the total net TOA 90 59.47 192.6
132
radiation as a function of latitude. What are the maximum/ d) In what direction does a “westerly” wind blow? Are the so-
minimum net TOA radiations and where are they occurring? called “trade winds” in the tropics easterlies or westerlies? In
terms of the general circulation of the atmosphere, are the
e) If you were to integrate the total incoming and outgoing
surface winds in southern California typically easterlies or
fluxes over the areas over which they occur (to get the net
westerlies?
energy fluxes at the TOA), how would you expect the
magnitudes of the incoming and outgoing fluxes to compare? e) How does the jet stream shift seasonally, i.e. what is its
Explain your answer. relative position in summer vs. winter in the Northern
Hemisphere and how does this migration impact climate in
Problem 4.2.
this part of the world?
a) The distribution of net radiation is responsible for
atmospheric motions. Explain why motions are initiated as a
result of the distribution. Sketch the Northern Hemisphere
atmospheric general circulation patterns and identify/label the
key features of the circulation. While the general circulation
can exhibit three circulation cells, which one is most
persistent/important?
133
Chapter 5
Precipitation
Processes
S ECTION 1 9. Read and understand a typical surface weather map
1. Describe the primary cooling mechanism responsible for 12. List and describe the primary ways of characterizing
condensation of liquid water in air areal average precipitation over a region/watershed
2. Define the dry adiabatic lapse rate and state its value
135
S ECTION 2 saturated. Recall that the upper limit to specific humidity is
the saturated specific humidity (qs) as described by the
Thermodynamics of Cloud Clausius-Clapeyron equation (Equation (2.4.5)) and that this
water holding capacity is primarily dependent on air
137
3 km. It should be kept in mind that the location of the cloud
base depends on the initial temperature and humidity
contained in the near-surface air parcel. For example if the air
was starting at a warmer temperature at the surface (but had
the same specific humidity), it would take an additional
amount of uplift to reach saturation via adiabatic cooling.
Alternatively, if the air parcel was more moist to start (but
with the same temperature), it would reach saturation at a
lower altitude.
E XAMPLE 5.2.1
T(z) = Tsurf − γ z
139
E XAMPLE 5.2.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 5.2.1 ( CONTINUED )
the air were drier (i.e. it would have a higher LCL). For (9.8 × 10 −3 K/m)
Γs =
colder air, the parcel will also be closer to saturation and (2.5 × 10 6 J/kg)
therefore have a lower LCL. For example, if the surface 1+ (6.84 × 10 −4 kg/kg/K)
(1004 J/kg/K)
air had a temperature of 20ºC, the LCL would be = 3.6 × 10 −3 K/m = 3.6 K/km
reduced to approximately 950 m.
which shows how the saturated lapse rate is significantly
The saturated adiabatic lapse rate at the LCL can be
reduced relative to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. As
computed by first computing the temperature and
lifting (and cooling) continues, the derivative of the
pressure at the LCL and then the slope of the derivative
saturated specific humidity will approach zero and the
of the saturated specific humidity with temperature:
the saturated adiabatic lapse rate will approach the dry
TLCL = 298.15 K − (9.8K/km)(1.74 km) = 281.1 K adiabatic lapse rate.
9.81 m s -2
! 281.1 K $(287 J/kg/K)(5×10−3 K/m)
pLCL = (100000 Pa) # &
" 298.15 K %
= 66860 Pa
140
S ECTION 3
Cloud Microphysics
While cooling via adiabatic uplift is generally necessary
for cloud formation, it is not sufficient. Several microphysical
processes are responsible for the formation, growth, and
ultimate conversion of vapor to precipitation.
F IGURE 5.2 Early in cloud formation “large” particles serve
It turns out that while condensation is generally as nuclei for water vapor to condense on (from
weathergamut.com/wp-content/uploads/2001/10/nuclei.jpg).
observed when an air parcel reaches saturation, water vapor
alone is often insufficient to form hydrometeors. Rather,
particulates that are pervasive in the atmosphere (aerosols,
ash, salt, etc.), which are often referred to as cloud such condensation easier and such droplets more stable. In
condensation nuclei (CCN), are at the heart of the initial cases where the number of CCNs is limiting, the cloud may
conversion of water vapor to hydrometeors. These CCNs are actually be “super-saturated” whereby the relative humidity in
typically on the order of 0.2 micrometers in diameter the cloud is greater than 100% (generally by no more than a
compared to a water molecule which is on the order of 0.3 few percent). This cloud droplet initiation process is the
nanometers (i.e. three orders of magnitude smaller). The theoretical basis for “cloud seeding” where artificial
process of water vapor molecules spontaneously joining particulates (often silver iodide) are introduced into the
together via condensation to form a liquid droplet (or ice atmosphere in an attempt to increase cloud formation with
crystal) is called homogeneous nucleation. While this is the hope of increasing precipitation.
theoretically possible, the small size of a water molecule,
The difference between a precipitating vs. non-
combined with the surface tension effects as a function of
precipitating cloud is simply a reflection of the size of the
radius (i.e. higher surface tension for a smaller radius), makes
hydrometeors in the cloud. Figure 5.3 shows the typical drop
such droplet formation relatively rare and/or inefficient.
sizes in a cloud, ranging from the CCNs (radius of 0.1
Instead, CCNs provide a nucleation site for the water vapor
microns) to a typical droplet of size 10 - 50 microns to a
molecules to condense onto via what is referred to as
typical rain drop of radius 1000 microns (1 mm). For
heterogeneous nucleation (Figure 5.2). The larger nuclei makes
precipitation to occur, cloud hydrometeors must grow to
141
uplift mechanism is responsible for the cloud existence in the
first place and therefore an updraft (vertical velocity) is
generally present. Small drops will generally be suspended if
their terminal velocity (proportional to their mass) is
comparable to the updraft, but if too small may be blown
upward by the updraft, often causing evaporation of the
droplet and dissipation of the cloud. The magnitude of the
updraft largely depends on the mechanism for uplift and will
be described in more detail below.
Once droplets
F IGURE 5.3 Illustration of typical relative sizes of various hy- of sufficient size exist
drometeors in a warm cloud (from geog.ucbs.edu/~joel/g110_w08/
lecture_notes/precip_processes/agburt07_02.jpg).
in the cloud, some
start to fall relative
to the updraft.
Bigger droplets will
sufficient size to: i) achieve terminal velocities (Vt) that are fall faster than
larger than the updraft velocity (Vup) in the cloud and ii) smaller ones,
survive evaporation between the cloud base and the surface. overtaking them
In warm clouds (i.e. those above freezing and populated (Figure 5.4). There
solely with liquid water and vapor) there are two primary will generally be
growth mechanisms. The first is simply a diffusional some collisions
condensation process. This is where individual water vapor between droplets and
molecules diffuse through the air (as a result of vapor some coalescence.
concentration gradients) and attach to a CCN or existing This collision/
droplet. In terms of speed, this process is slow since effectively coalescence growth
mechanism yields a F IGURE 5.4 Illustration of collision
one vapor molecule is being added at a time to an existing and coalescence process in a cloud
hydrometeor via diffusion. Assuming sufficient CCNs are much faster growth (from cmmap.org/images/learn/clouds/
rate and is generally cc.jpg).
present, this condensation process is a limiting factor early in
a cloud life-cycle. It is important to keep in mind that an responsible for the
142
unit volume of air per unit diameter bin. Figure 5.3 provides
some indication of this distribution, with small cloud droplets
being in large numbers (e.g., 106 droplets per liter of air in
this example) compared to much fewer large cloud droplets
(e.g., 103 per liter) and even fewer raindrops (e.g., 1 droplet
per liter). These values are just an example and the actual
distribution varies considerably from one cloud to another.
The most common DSD used to describe precipitating (warm)
clouds is the so-called Marshall-Palmer (1948) distribution:
development of large droplets. Ultimately, many of these will Based on the above definition, the dimension of the DSD is
leave the cloud base as precipitation (Figure 5.5). [-]/L3/L=L-4. Like most DSDs, the Marshall-Palmer
distribution implies a higher number of small droplets
The combination of these processes leads to a wide compared to large droplets. It is however a simplification of
spectrum of droplet sizes in a cloud. To quantify cloud reality in that it predicts non-zero numbers of zero diameter
properties, a drop size distribution (DSD) function (N(D)) is droplets (not physically possible). It is used however due to its
often used, which simply describes the number of droplets per analytical tractability and because the erroneous specification
143
zero-sized droplets generally does not introduce significant
error in other characteristics. More realistic DSDs that are E XAMPLE 5.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
often also used include Lognormal or Gamma distributions.
distribution with an average drop diameter of 0.5
The primary use of the DSD is that it can then be used mm. a) What is the total number of drops in the
to quantify other properties related to a given cloud. Some cloud (per cubic meter of air)? and b) What is
simple examples include the total number of drops in the the liquid water content (in grams per cubic
cloud, i.e.: meter of air)?
∞
Total # of drops = ∫ N(D)dD (5.3.3) Based on the average drop diameter, the Marshall-
0
Palmer DSD parameter is equal to:
∞
N 0 −cD ∞
which represents the mass of liquid water in the cloud per Total # of drops = ∫ N 0e −cD dD = − c
e
0
0
unit volume. The first part of the integrand is the mass of a
N0 N
droplet of diameter D, which is then multiplied by the number =− [0 − 1] = 0
c c
of drops of that size bin and summed up via the integration
−4 (100 cm)
4
across all sizes. The integration limits used are to cover all (0.08 cm )
= 1 m 4
= 8000 drops m -3
possible sizes although a physical upper limit would be drops 1000 mm
on the order of a few millimeters in diameter. 2 mm −1
1m
144
diameter corresponding to Vt(D = Dup) = Vup. Alternatively a
E XAMPLE 5.3.1 ( CONTINUED ) precipitation mass flux can be obtained by multiplying by the
density of water. The terminal velocity is usually
∞
D3 ρ πN0 ∞
parameterized in terms of the drop size, with the simplest
LWC = ∫ ρw π N 0e −cD dD = w ∫De 3 −cD
dD
0 6 6 0 (linear) form being given by:
ρw π N 0 3! ρw π N 0
= = Vt = αD (5.3.6)
6 c4 c4
(100 cm)4 The updraft velocity is a complicated function of many
(1000 kg m )π (0.08 cm )
-3 −4
which shows that there is less than 2 g of water per where the proportionality constants in Equations (5.3.6) and
cubic meter of air in the cloud. (5.3.7) must be estimated or specified.
∞
D3 (5.3.5)
Pb = ∫
Dup
π
6
N(D)[Vt (D) −Vup ]dD
where X(D) is a mass loss factor (Georgakakos and Bras,
1984) that varies between 0 and 1 (and is generally a function
of drop size diameter) and the lower integration limit is given
which will have dimensions of L T-1 and where Dup is the by:
145
Dmin = max[Dc ,Dup ] (5.3.9)
E XAMPLE 5.3.2
which bounds the integral such that only droplets that
contribute to the precipitation flux reaching the surface are Estimate the cloud-base precipitation rate (in
included. Note that not all water leaving the cloud base will mm/hr) for the cloud described in Example 5.3.1.
reach the surface, which is confirmed by the fact that First assume the prevailing updraft velocity is
Equations (5.3.5) and (5.3.8) imply that P is less than or negligible and for simplicity that the terminal
equal to Pb. velocity has a linear form as in Equation (5.3.6)
with a multiplicative parameter: 1 x 103 s-1.
To summarize the sequence of events that produce
Qualitatively, how would the answer change if the
precipitation (for warm clouds):
prevailing updraft velocity were 0.5 m/s?
1. Moist air is lifted (q = const.) and cooled at the dry Qualitatively, how would the precipitation rate at
adiabatic lapse rate the surface differ from that at the cloud base?
2. Condensation occurs at the cloud base or LCL (q = qs) The precipitation rate for negligible updraft velocity is
given by:
3. Additional uplift by the updraft causes parcel to cool at the
moist adiabatic lapse rate (and maintains q = qs with qs ∞
D3 π ∞
Pb = ∫ π N 0e [αD]dD = N 0α ∫ e −cDD 4 dD
−cD
decreasing) 0 6 6 0
π 4! 1
4. Droplet growth occurs via diffusional condensation = N 0α 5 = 4 π N 0α 5
6 c c
−4 (100 cm)
4
5. Falling drops overcome updraft velocity and grow due to = 4 π (0.08 cm ) (1000 s −1 ) ×
collision/coalescence mechanism 1m 4
1
6. Droplets leave cloud base where they enter a sub-saturated −1 5 (1000 mm)
5
(2 mm )
environment that starts to evaporate water from droplet 1 m5
surface (via diffusional mechanism) 1000 mm 3600 s
= 3.14 × 10 −6 m s −1 = 11.3 mm h -1
1m 1h
7. Those droplets that survive the path to the surface (i.e.
don’t fully evaporate) contribute to the surface precipitation For the case of a non-negligible updraft velocity, both
flux
146
It should be noted that the above description strictly
E XAMPLE 5.3.2 ( CONTINUED ) applies to warm cloud processes. In cold clouds (where
temperatures reach freezing) the basic concepts are the same,
the integrand and lower integration limit will change.
with a few modifications. First, a cold cloud generally consists
The lower limit is increased in order to not include the
of (at least initially) a mixture of ice crystals, super-cooled
smaller droplets that will be blown upward by the
liquid droplets, and vapor. The ice crystals can take on a
updraft, i.e.:
variety of shapes/sizes as discussed in more detail in the next
Vt (Dup ) −Vup = αDup −Vup = 0 chapter. The presence of super-cooled liquid occurs as a result
of the inefficiency of homogeneous freezing of existing liquid
Vup0.5 m s -1
→ Dup = = = 0.5 mm droplets that are lifted into the cold region of the cloud. An
α 1000 s -1
additional process occurs in cold clouds as a result of
The cloud base precipitation would then be obtained by: differences in the saturated vapor pressure over bulk water vs.
bulk ice as given by their respective Clausius-Clapeyron
∞
D3 equations (Equations (2.4.5) and (2.4.6) respectively). Droplet
Pb = ∫ π N 0e −cD [αD −Vup ]dD
Dup 6 or crystal growth/decay is driven by gradients in vapor
pressure between the surface of the hydrometeor and the
The integrand will generally be smaller due to the ambient cloud air. For sub-freezing temperatures the
subtraction of Vup and the integration range will be less saturated vapor pressure over liquid water is higher than that
as well. Both factors will reduce the amount of cloud over ice. So for the same ambient vapor pressure (and same
base precipitation. Note that this integral cannot be as size liquid and ice hydrometeors), the vapor pressure gradient
easily evaluated as the one where updraft is neglected. It will often be away from the liquid droplet and toward the ice
has to be done via integration by parts or done crystal. The end-result is that liquid droplets will decay via
numerically, i.e. using the trapezoidal rule. diffusion and ice crystals will grow. Depending on the time
If sub-cloud evaporation was also included, the integrand scale, this will ultimately lead to growth of ice crystals at the
would be further reduced (mass lost to evaporation) so expense of supercooled liquid droplets. For cold clouds, falling
that the surface precipitation will be even less than the crystals will collide and form conglomerated crystals (e.g.
answers obtained above. In the limit of saturated sub- snowflakes), and will melt and/or sublimate in the sub-
cloud air, the evaporation would be negligible and the saturated cloud layers.
surface precipitation would equal that at the cloud base.
147
S ECTION 4
Meteorology of Precipita-
tion
The previous two sections highlighted the need for an
uplift mechanism to initiate cloud/precipitation processes.
These mechanisms are generally the result of large-scale
meteorological processes, some of which are directly connected
to the general circulation features discussed in Chapter 4.
Here we will focus on the qualitative description of the four F IGURE 5.6 Schematic showing large-scale horizontal conver-
main mechanisms that provide vertical uplift in the gence leading to uplift. This mechanism is most likely to occur
at the ITCZ and/or in tropical low-pressure systems (copyright
atmosphere. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005).
149
storms (or those that form hurricanes) tend to dissipate on
the order of several days to a week depending on the
prevailing conditions.
150
Frontal systems are often shown schematically on surface
weather maps (Figures 5.12 and 5.13), where different colors/
symbols are used to denote the type of front. Note that the
systems tend to form via “cyclogenesis” where cyclonic/anti-
cyclonic motions centered around highs or lows initiate
movement of air masses. In addition to warm and cold fronts,
stationary fronts (where there is no relative motion of one air
mass to the other) or occluded fronts (where one front is
F IGURE 5.11 Schematic showing typical horizontal and verti- overtaken by another) often occur before the frontal storm
cal scales of a cold front.
153
tropical ocean air year-round and exhibit significant
topographic relief. The persistent trade winds move the moist
air up and over the islands showing a distinct rain shadow
effect. For example, in the big island of Hawaii, areas of the
windward (in this case eastern) side experience over 8 meters
of rainfall per year, while some of the coastal regions on the
leeward side experience less than 25 cm of rainfall (less than
the mean annual rainfall in Los Angeles). As one would
expect, this stark difference in rainfall has significant
implications on other aspects of the climate and surface
hydrology. Most notably one can see the differences in the
155
E XAMPLE 5.4.1
156
E XAMPLE 5.4.1 ( CONTINUED )
es (Tpeak1 )
q s,peak1 = ε
p peak1
# 2.5 × 10 6 J/kg # 1 1 &&
(611 Pa)exp % % − ((
$ 461 J/kg/K $ 273.16 K 296.2 K ''
= 0.622
95000 Pa
= 18.7 g/kg
es (Tpeak 2 )
q s,peak 2 = ε
p peak 2
# 2.5 × 10 6 J/kg # 1 1 &&
(611 Pa)exp % % − ((
$ 461 J/kg/K $ 273.16 K 291.2 K ''
= 0.622
90000 Pa
= 14.5 g/kg
es (Tpeak 3 )
q s,peak 3 = ε
p peak 3
# 2.5 × 10 6 J/kg # 1 1 &&
(611 Pa)exp % % − ((
$ 461 J/kg/K $ 273.16 K 286.2 K ''
= 0.622
85000 Pa
= 11.0 g/kg
157
S ECTION 5
Precipitation Climatology
and Extremes
Of particular interest to hydrologists is the expected
(climatological) precipitation, which relates directly to water
supply issues, and extreme precipitation (both positive and
negative), which relates directly to flooding or drought. Here
we focus on a brief summary of climatology and extremes.
The climatology of precipitation is simply the long-term M OVIE 5.1 Monthly global water vapor and precipitation
(from earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/).
average. As such it tends to simply be an expression of the
typical mechanisms described above that occur over a given (this will be discussed further in Section 6). According to
region. Movie 5.1 shows an animation of global monthly these results, the average annual global mean precipitation is
average water vapor (left panel) and precipitation (right approximately 2.7 mm/day (975 mm/year), which is relatively
panel) from 2002-2012 from various data sources. First and consistent with the global average of 1 meter/year described
foremost, precipitation requires the presence of water vapor as in Chapter 1. Of particular note is the clear signature of the
a source of condensate. This is clearly shown as there is a high ITCZ as a result of the Hadley cells (large-scale convergence)
correlation between the two maps. However, precipitation also centered around the equator, where annual mean rates of up
requires the presence of an uplift mechanism (described in the to 10 mm/day are seen. Localized areas of peak rainfall are
previous section) and other microphysical processes. Some of seen over India and the Indian Ocean (monsoon system), the
these large-scale mechanisms can clearly be seen, most Amazon, and other places. The signature of the high-pressure
notably in the form of the ITCZ. It should be noted that the zones is seen in the map around +/- 30º latitude (i.e. see
animation and other climatologies described below, especially correlation between Figure 4.12 and Figure 5.20), with a
at global scales, rely on models and remote sensing data for secondary peak at higher latitudes.
many areas since the in-situ network is sparse.
These large-scale climatological features can also be seen
Figure 5.20 shows a 30-year climatology for annual by taking the zonal average, which is show in Figure 5.21, and
average precipitation based on satellite-borne measurements
158
F IGURE 5.21 Zonal average of satellite-derived global precipi-
F IGURE 5.20 Global precipitation climatology as diagnosed tation estimates shown in Figure 5.20 showing precipitation
from satellite data from 1979-2010 (from NASA). distribution as a function of latitude (from NASA).
illustrates the average precipitation as a function of latitude. the continental U.S. Again, this climatology is a reflection of
The peak zonal average is almost 6 mm/day centered around the meteorological processes that occur with regularity in a
the equator. In the areas of high-pressure zone, the given region. For example, in the Western U.S. there is the
precipitation dips significantly below the global average. It clear signature of orographic effects (Sierra Nevada, Cascade,
rises above the global average at higher latitudes before and Rocky Mountain ranges). Much of this precipitation falls
dropping off considerably above +/- 60º latitude. The as snow as a result of frontal winter-time storms that result
latitudinal pattern is roughly symmetric, with asymmetry from cold systems moving southwesterly from the northern
primarily a result of the asymmetric distribution of land Pacific. In the non-mountainous regions, precipitation is
masses across the globe (and between northern and southern generally suppressed due to the persistent presence of a high-
hemispheres). The pattern is essentially a composite of where pressure cell off the coast of the Western U.S. during the
water is available, combined with where persistent uplift summer. The midwestern region tends to have higher
mechanisms exist. precipitation due to a combination of winter-time frontal
systems along with summer-time thunderstorms as a result of
To zoom in from the global scale, Figure 5.22 shows a convective activity. The Eastern U.S. precipitation patterns
30-year climatology for the annual average precipitation over
159
large precipitation events), the physics are the same, but often
involve some rare set of circumstances leading to above
average water vapor, uplift velocities, and hydrometeor
growth. In the case of droughts, the mechanisms are less well
known. In some cases they can be simply the result of the
natural variability in the system, but are also thought to be
related to feedbacks in the climate system, where a given state
(i.e. dry) is self-sustaining. A simple example of a proposed
feedback is that if there is initially a negative soil moisture
anomaly (i.e. below average conditions), this will lead to less
available water for evaporation. The reduced evaporation will
lead to reduced water vapor, which will lead to less
precipitation. Finally, the reduced precipitation will lead to
less soil moisture. Such a “positive feedback” mechanism is one
hypothesis for such sustained drought events. In general,
extreme events (both flood and drought) are much less
F IGURE 5.22 Mean annual precipitation climatology over the
continental U.S. predictable than climatology.
161
S ECTION 6
Precipitation Measurement
Climatology maps and IDF curves used for design
mentioned in the previous section are ultimately determined
via measurements of precipitation. The traditional method of
measuring precipitation is via a rain gauge, which is simply a
vessel open to the atmosphere that periodically or
continuously records the quantity of water it collects. Figure
5.24 shows an example of a rain gauge. Gauges come in a
variety of forms including: i) non-recording gauges (i.e.
collects cumulative amount that must be measured manually),
ii) weighing-recording gauges (vessel sits on a scale that
F IGURE 5.24 Photo of an all-weather precipitation gauge.
measures the cumulative amount of water via its weight), iii)
tipping-bucket gauges (water is routed to a small vessel of
known volume that tips when filled and records each tipping),
iv) optical gauges (measures disturbance of an infrared beam (Figure 5.24).
as a result of passing drops), as well as other varieties. These
A key aspect to remember is that a rain gauge is a point-
gauges are of varying complexity (and therefore cost) and
scale measurement. What is generally of most interest is the
provide varying information. The first two gauge types listed
spatial field, i.e. the spatial distribution of precipitation, or
above provide cumulative amounts (one manual and one
the spatial average (mean areal precipitation). If a network of
automated), but do not provide rainfall intensities (i.e. rain
gauges are deployed with sufficient spatial density, then it
per unit time), while the tipping bucket, optical, and other
would be expected to provide an accurate representation of
types provide the actual rainfall intensities. In using an in-situ
the spatial field, or at least its mean. Sufficient density in this
gauge one does not want the gauge to interfere with the
context is not an independent variable, but is tightly coupled
variable it is trying to measure. For this reason, many gauges
to the variability of the underlying field. For example, if a
have wind shields in order to minimize the prevention of
field has no spatial variability (i.e. is constant in space) then
raindrop collection due to turbulent flow around the gage
162
one gauge measurement would be sufficient to characterize it. mountainous regions, where a significant amount of
Precipitation however is a variable with a high degree of precipitation falls as snow (i.e. in the Western U.S.), is much
spatial variability, thus requiring a high density network to more limited than in other areas. The source of rain gauge
characterize it. However the number of gauges deployed is data is most commonly government agencies, examples of
limited due to both instrumentation and operating and which in the U.S. include the National Weather Service
maintenance costs. (NWS), National Climate Data Center (NCDC), etc.
Figure 5.25 shows the global rain gauge network. The A classical problem in hydrology is the calculation of
key point is that the vast majority of gauges are in developed mean areal precipitation (MAP), i.e. over a watershed, from a
countries (U.S., Europe, Japan, Australia) due to costs. So set of discrete gauge measurements (Figure 5.26). This can be
when large-scale hydrology problems are of interest, this lack defined mathematically as:
of in-situ gauges can be a factor in characterizing
precipitation. While the U.S. has far and away the largest
network, what is not obvious from the figure is that even in
the U.S. the gage network is insufficient to fully characterize
precipitation. Note for example that the number of gauges in
F IGURE 5.25 Map showing global distribution of location F IGURE 5.26 Illustrative example of Thiessen polygon con-
(yellow dots) of precipitation gauges. struction -- basin with gauge locations.
163
1 (5.6.1) While an arithmetic average is very easy to compute, it is
A ∫∫
P̂(t) = p(x,y,t)dx dy
A often inaccurate for representing MAP. One would expect it to
be accurate if the gauges are relatively evenly distributed over
where A is the area of the region over which the averaging is the domain. But in many cases, often for practical reasons
taking place (i.e. the watershed area), p(x,y) is the true (i.e. accessibility), gauges are unevenly distributed. In such
precipitation field and x and y are spatial coordinates. It cases it is best to use a weighted average that takes this into
should be noted that the true precipitation field is never account.
known, instead it is only sampled at select (gauge) locations: In hydrology, one method often used to do this is a
pg=p(xi, yi, t). The primary methodologies used to estimate graphical method called the Thiessen polygon method. The
the MAP from the gauge data most commonly use a weighted graphical version aims to sketch out the area closest to each
average. A general weighted average equation can be written
as:
G
P̂(t) = ∑ wg pg (t) (5.6.2)
g =1
∑w = 1 and wg ≤ 1 (5.6.3)
g
g=1
164
gauge and use those sub-areas in the weighted average. In this called a triangular irregular network (TIN). In general the
way the method can be thought of as a nearest-neighbor border connectors between adjacent gauges are
method which can also be easily automated via a simple straightforward, but some interior connectors may seem
program (as will be described in more detail below). The ambiguous at first. The shorter distanced connectors are
Thiessen polygon method uses a weighting scheme with: generally those that should be used in the construction of
wg=ag/A, where ag is the subregion centered around each the TIN (Figure 5.27, 5.28).
gauge g that is closest to that gauge. The sub-areas can be
2. Perpendicular bisectors (i.e. at the midpoint) are drawn for
constructed via a simple algorithm:
each connector in the TIN. If being done graphically, it is
1. Adjacent gauges are connected to form a network of important to make sure to carefully draw the perpendicular
triangles (Figures 5.27 and 5.28). These triangles are often
F IGURE 5.28 Illustrative example of Thiessen polygon con- F IGURE 5.29 Illustrative example of Thiessen polygon con-
struction -- final TIN. struction -- perpendicular bisector construction.
165
bisectors. When the TIN and perpendicular bisectors are each gage and convincing yourself that it is within the
properly constructed, the bisectors will meet in the interior appropriate area for the closest gauge.
of each TIN (Figure 5.29).
5. Finally, determine the area surrounding each gage. When
3. The bisectors need to be connected and cleaned-up to form done graphically, this is most commonly done using a
the irregular (Thiessen) polygons surrounding each gage transparent graph paper overlay which allows for counting
(Figure 5.30). squares within each polygon (Figure 5.31). The weighted
average is then given by:
4. Check the constructed polygons to make sure they indeed
G ag 1 G
map out the nearest neighborhood areas. A simple check P̂(t) = ∑ pg (t) = ∑ a g pg (t) (5.6.5)
can be done by randomly selecting a few points surrounding g =1 A A g =1
F IGURE 5.30 Illustrative example of Thiessen polygon con- F IGURE 5.31 Illustrative example of Thiessen polygon con-
struction -- final Thiessen polygons. struction -- polygon area computation.
166
Rather than determining the total area and sub-areas in
Equation (5.6.5), they can simply be replaced by the total
number of squares and number of squares in each sub-area
respectively.
167
include isohyetal, kriging, inverse distance weighting (IDW),
and other methods (Dingman, 2008). E XAMPLE 5.6.1 ( CONTINUED )
1
E XAMPLE 5.6.1 P̂ = !"(15) + (10) + (14) + (11) + (10)#$
5
= 12. mm
For the basin and gage distribution shown in
Figure 5.26, assume the measured rainfall for a In this case there is about a 7% difference between the
given storm at gauges 1-5 was: 15 mm, 10 mm, two estimates. One would expect the Thiessen polygon
14 mm, 11 mm, and 10 mm respectively. method to be a better one as it accounts for the relative
Estimate the mean areal precipitation for the contribution of rainfall measured at each gage. In the
storm using the Theissen polygon approach. case where the Thiessen polygons have the same areas,
Compare the answer to that obtained from an the two estimates would be the same.
arithmetic average estimate.
The first step in the Thiessen polygon approach is the So far the discussion of the measurement of precipitation
construction of the polygons themselves. This has been has been limited to in-situ measurements via gauges and
done in Figures 5.27-5.31. The relative areas can be estimation of MAP using the Thiessen polygon method. As
determined by counting the squares in Figure 5.31. A alluded to above, the high degree of spatial variability in
graphical estimate generally will contain some error due precipitation fields makes it difficult for a sparse gauge
to partial squares. The number of squares associated network to accurately sample the fields (even using the
with each gage is approximately (rounded to nearest Thiessen polygon method). A lack of representativeness in
square): 18, 63, 29, 61, and 52, for a total of 223 squares. gauge measurements will end up propagating to the MAP
Hence the mean areal precipitation estimate is: estimates via Thiessen polygon or other methods. This has led
to a significant amount of research into how to better estimate
1 !
P̂ = "(18)(15) + (63)(10) + (29)(14) + (61)(11) + (52)(10)#$ precipitation and its spatial structure.
223
= 11.2 mm Chief among these newer methods are those under the
category of “remote sensing”. Remote sensing is becoming
The arithmetic average is instead:
pervasive in hydrology as an enabling technology beyond just
precipitation estimation. It refers to methods used to measure
168
(sense) a process without sampling it in-situ. This is most while remote sensing invariably provides an indirect
commonly done via the measurement of electromagnetic measurement that must be used to infer the process of
radiation (and its implicit interactions with media) from interest.
ground-based or satellite-based platforms. The primary benefit
One commonly used remote sensing technique for
of these techniques is that they explicitly map variables, thus
precipitation estimation is ground-based RADAR (radio
avoiding the point-sampling issues associated with in-situ
detection and ranging). This method uses pulses of microwave
measurement. That said, there are generally other tradeoffs,
radiation emitted by a transmitter to probe the atmosphere
chief among them that in-situ provides a direct measurement,
for clouds and precipitation (Figure 5.33). The basic idea is
that relatively large particles (or in this case hydrometeors) in
the atmosphere will significantly scatter the radiation, with a
measurable component backscattered to a receiver on the
platform. In simple terms, clear sky conditions will have little
to no backscatter, while an atmosphere populated by a
significant amount of hydrometeors will generate backscatter.
From this signal the precipitation can be inferred. The
169
RADAR rotates, sending out pulses and receiving
backscattered radiation in all directions, thus mapping out
precipitation patterns of the region. Movie 5.2 provides an
animation of the RADAR scanning process.
Z = ∫ D 6N(D)dD (5.6.6)
0
F IGURE 5.37 Example of daily precipitation map from F IGURE 5.38 Illustration of differing scale and methods of
satellite-based remote sensing. sensing precipitation.
172
Figure 5.38. Estimates from different sensors will also have
their own error characteristics. Future operational estimates of E XAMPLE 5.6.2 ( CONTINUED )
precipitation will likely be a combination of all these sensors
to take advantage of their strengths while minimizing their
∞
6!
Z= ∫D N e
6
0
−cD
dD = N 0
weaknesses. 0 c7
173
S ECTION 7
MOD-WET Codes
Relevant functions based on concepts introduced in
this chapter include:
thiessen.m
174
S ECTION 8 9. Describe what the drop size distribution of a cloud
represents and how it can be used to determine various
Conceptual Questions characteristics of the cloud.
2. Is the moist adiabatic lapse rate generally larger or smaller 12. What mechanism/s are primarily responsible for uplift
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate? (and hence cloud formation and precipitation) in the
midwestern U.S. Be specific in terms of season.
3. What type of surface air parcel characteristics (in terms of
humidity and temperature) will be expected to have the 13. Where on the globe (latitudinally) is precipitation
highest cloud base when lifted? generally largest? Explain why.
4. What is a CCN and describe its relevance to cloud 14. Where on the globe (latitudinally) are the world’s major
formation? desert bands located? Explain why.
5. What mechanism is responsible for cloud droplet growth 15. Name two commonly used weighted average methods for
early in a cloud life-cycle? estimating mean areal precipitation from gages.
6. What mechanism is responsible for cloud droplet growth 16. Describe the basic principle behind the remote sensing of
later in a cloud life-cycle? precipitation by RADAR.
175
S ECTION 9 Problem 5.2. Assuming spherical droplets, the total amount
of precipitation (volume of water per unit ground area per
Sample Problems unit time) reaching the surface from a cloud is:
∞
πD3
P= ∫
Dmin
X(D)N(D)
6
[VT (D) −Vup ]dD
176
goes from negative (updraft bigger than terminal velocity) to where p0 refers to the surface pressure, and the exponent term
positive (terminal velocity bigger than updraft velocity). includes the acceleration of gravity, dry air gas constant and a
Second, while the equation with the non-zero lower integration relevant linear lapse rate respectively. In the case of a rising
limit can be solved analytically (via integration by parts), you parcel, the lapse rate is given by the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
can (much) more easily evaluate it numerically, i.e. using The saturated specific humidity is simply a function of
numerical integration, e.g. with the ”trapezoidal method” temperature (which varies linearly with height) and pressure
being one approach. In MATLAB, you can use the trapz (which varies with height as shown above) so that the
function to perform this numerical integration]. saturated specific humidity as a function of altitude (of the
lifted air parcel) is given by:
d) For the most realistic case where sub-cloud evaporation εe (T(z))
occurs, explain (qualitatively only) how you would expect the q s (z) = s
p(z)
precipitation rate to compare to the values above.
178
b) Using the Marshall-Palmer distribution and a linear model longer dimensionally consistent so units must be used as
for terminal velocity along with a simplifying assumption that defined.) Based on this newly defined unit, invert the dBZ
terminal velocity is much larger than updraft velocity (VT>> equation to get an equation for precipitation (in units of mm
Vup), integrate Equation (5.3.5) to express precipitation hr-1) in terms of dBZ. For a measured reflectivity of 30 dBZ,
leaving the cloud base (Pb) in terms of the Marshall-Palmer what is the estimated precipitation in units of mm hr-1?
and terminal velocity parameters. Rewrite the equation to
express the Marshall-Palmer c parameter as a function of all
other variables.
e) If the units for Z are converted to mm6 m-3 and the input
units of P are converted to mm hr-1, the above power law
relationship yields:
Z[mm 6 m -3 ] = 325(P[mm hr -1 ])7 5
179
Chapter 6
Snow
Processes
S ECTION 1 10. Estimate the phase and snow water equivalent state
based on the peak snow water equivalent and the amount
Learning Objectives of cumulative energy that has been absorbed by the
snowpack
183
In general, a precipitation event will directly lead to snow
accumulation (assuming solid precipitation), runoff, and/or
infiltration into the soil depending on the state of the surface.
Evaporation/sublimation tends to be small during the
precipitation event (due to reduced net radiation), but may
play a large role during inter-storm periods. Mass balance will
be discussed in more detail in the context of snow
accumulation and unsaturated soil processes.
184
S ECTION 3
Snowpack Characteristics
In areas with sub-freezing temperatures, the processes
described in Chapter 5 can lead to solid-phase precipitation.
Such snowfall events generally require cold cloud processes
aloft along with sub-freezing air that extends all the way
down to the surface. Exceptions to this include hail storms
where there are cold cloud processes aloft (often due to
towering cumulus clouds), but above-freezing air in the sub- F IGURE 6.2 Examples of different shapes of solid precipita-
cloud layer. In such cases, the hail stones are generally large tion hydrometeors.
enough (and fall fast enough) that the above-freezing sub-
cloud temperatures are not sufficient to fully melt them before
they reach the surface. In the context of this chapter we will crystal nature of snow makes it such that the density of new
mostly be discussing the former case of snowfall leading to a fallen snow is not that of solid ice, but considerably less (this
variety of snowpack processes. For a more detailed discussion is most obvious in a dendritic snowflake where there are many
of snow processes, the reader is referred to Male and Gray open spaces that will form pores in the snow volume). The
(1981) and Armstrong and Brun (2010). relative density of new fallen snow compared to liquid water
can range from less than 5% to upward of 30% and varies
Snowfall generally consists of snow grains (or
based on the meteorological conditions (Figure 6.4). A
snowflakes), rather than droplets, that are often made up of a
common assumption is that new fallen snow has a density of
large collection of tiny ice crystals (Figure 6.2). A snowpack is
approximately 100 kg m-3 (i.e. approximately 10% that of
simply an accumulation of snow grains on the ground. These
liquid water). This is useful rule-of-thumb, but is most
grains come in various sizes and morphologies depending on
certainly a generalization that can be erroneous.
the atmospheric conditions in which they were generated.
Figure 6.3 shows some typical types (“habits”) of snow grain As a result of its constituents, snowpack is a granular
crystals as a function of atmospheric temperature. Unlike rain porous media (i.e. one that contains pores that can be filled
droplets which are essentially the density of liquid water, the with air/liquid water). Its porous nature, leads to the
185
that we are considering a unit area on the ground. The
snowpack volume (Vs) can be considered to be simply the sum
of the volumes of solid ice (Vi), liquid water (Vw), and air
(Va):
⎝ ρw ⎠ ⎝ ρw ⎠
solid icepack would have a porosity approaching 0%. The
liquid water content of a snowpack is given by: [ ρ ] = kg m -3
Vw
θ= (6.3.3)
Vs Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we can define the
variable that is typically of most interest to hydrologists,
namely the snow water equivalent (SWE). This is simply
where the liquid water content is zero for a dry snowpack and defined as the equivalent amount of liquid water mass that
positive for a wet snowpack. would result if the entire snowpack were melted and is given
The snow density is given by the ratio of mass of solid by:
ice and liquid water (where air mass is neglected) to the total (θ )Vs + (1 − θs )Vs ρi ρw
SWE = (6.3.6)
volume of snow, i.e.: A
M i + M w ρiVi + ρwVw
ρs = = = ρi (1 − θs ) + ρwθ (6.3.4)
Vs Vs where the numerator represents the liquid water in the
snowpack (first term) plus the equivalent liquid water bound
187
up in ice (second term) and is normalized per unit area to snow tends to be a stratified media, especially when deep,
give dimensions of depth of equivalent water. The above can such that all of the above properties may vary with depth in
be rewritten using the previous definitions as: the snowpack. An example is shown for illustrative purposes
in Figure 6.5, where snow at three different sites (at two
⎛ ρs ⎞ (6.3.7)
SWE = ⎣θ + (1 − θs ) ρi ρw ⎦ ds = ⎜ ⎟ ds
⎡ ⎤ different times: March and April) is characterized in terms of
⎝ ρw ⎠ density and temperature profiles. Mechanisms for some of the
trends (i.e. densification and warming between March and
which shows that the SWE is the snow depth multiplied by April) will be discussed in more detail in the next section. In
the ratio of snow density to liquid water density. By construct, such layered snowpack cases, the SWE may instead be
this shows that in general SWE is less than or equal to the determined via the summation of the water equivalent of each
snow depth. layer in the snowpack, i.e.:
E XAMPLE 6.3.1
188
E XAMPLE 6.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
! 200 kg m -3 $
SWE = # &(2 m) = 0.4 m = 40 cm
" 1000 kg m %
-3
ρs 200 kg m -3
θs = 1 − = 1 − = 0.78
ρi 917 kg m -3
189
S ECTION 4
1. Gravitational settling: This mechanism causes a F IGURE 6.7 Typical snow depth (upper panel) and snow den-
densification of the snowpack as a result of the weight of sity (lower panel) time series during accumulation season for a
overlying snow, which compacts the snowpack, reducing the high-elevation location with seasonal snowpack (in this case in
the Sierra Nevada).
porosity.
191
where the first term on the right-hand-side is just short-hand
notation for the saturated vapor pressure over a bulk surface
(i.e. the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation (2.4.6)). The second
term can be thought of as a correction for curvature (surface
tension) effects, with a small temperature (T) effect. The
result is a very high saturated vapor pressure for small radius
particles. This effect is the same one that prevents
homogeneous nucleation from occurring in clouds. A high
saturated vapor pressure drives vaporization, so that water
vapor molecules evaporate from these high curvature locations
and end up depositing on areas of less curvature. The end
result is a loss of small “pointy” grains and an increase in
larger more spherical grains, both of which tend to increase
the density of the snowpack. Because the mechanism occurs as
a result of small crystals, it typically only occurs in relatively
new snowpacks (i.e. with densities less than 250 kg m-3) or
near the top of snowpacks after new snow falls.
192
where since ei is solely dependent on temperature, the accumulation season. An example of grain metamorphism as a
existence of a temperature gradient implies a gradient in result of constructive and destructive mechanisms is shown in
vapor pressure. As we will see in Chapter 8, a gradient in Figure 6.9. The net result is a rounding of grains over time.
vapor pressure implies an evaporative (vapor) flux, where the
4. Melt metamorphism: This mechanism does not take place
flux goes from areas of higher vapor pressure to lower vapor
in the accumulation season (aside from intermittent events),
pressure. For a typical temperature profile (Figure 6.8), there
but typically during melt. Liquid water can be introduced
is generally a decreasing trend in temperature from the base
into the snowpack via melt near the surface or rain on
to the surface of the snowpack (with superimposed variability
snow. This liquid water will often migrate downward into
due to diurnal forcings) that drive vapor from lower in the
the snowpack, re-freezing at a given depth where the
pack to higher in the pack, or in general toward colder regions
snowpack is sub-freezing. The water moves through the
of the pack. This process tends to drive grain growth and is
open pores and so when it freezes it generally binds existing
often the dominant densification mechanism in the
grains together into a single larger aggregated grain. Small
grains are generally quickly merged into larger ones as a
result of this mechanism (Figure 6.10). Upon a re-freeze,
latent heat is released which goes into warming of the pack,
which can then accelerate constructive metamorphism.
193
E XAMPLE 6.4.2
de dei dei dT
= =
dz dz dT dz
de Ls ei ∂T Ls #L #1 1 && ∂T
F IGURE 6.10 Example of photograph of snow grain that has = = e exp %% s %% − ((((
dz Rv T ∂z RvT(z)
2 2 s0
$ Rv $T0 T(z) '' ∂z
undergone wet metamorphism. The larger grain is clearly made
up of what had been several smaller grains.
194
example of the evolution of albedo as a function of age of
E XAMPLE 6.4.2 ( CONTINUED ) snow. Typically new fallen snow has the highest albedo as
small grains increase volume scattering. As the grains increase
which when substituting the specific profile is given by:
in size, the reflectivity tends to decay. As such, albedo is often
modeled as a decaying function of time, where the time
de Ls ei mLs "L "1 1 %%
= m= e exp $$ s $$ − '''' variable is number of days since the last snowfall (Figure
dz Rv T 2
Rv (mz)2 s0
# Rv #T0 mz &&
6.11). Alternatively, physically-based models predict albedo
Given the negative temperature gradient (i.e. negative directly from grain size growth equations. When a new
value for m) the vapor pressure is largest at the soil- snowfall occurs, the albedo generally jumps back up to the
snow interface and smallest at the snow surface. The maximum value before decaying again. The decay rate can
vapor flux will generally be from areas of high vapor
concentration to low vapor concentration. In this case,
the vapor flux will be from lower in the snowpack to
higher in the snowpack. This vapor flux will drive the
constructive growth mechanism of grains due to vapor
flux. Note: Once the snowpack becomes isothermal
during the melt season (i.e. m = 0) the vapor gradient
will also be zero.
195
also be a function of liquid water content of the snowpack. where ki is the thermal conductivity (in this case for ice). The
Another factor that is sometimes accounted for in albedo energy balance can then be written as:
models (albeit often in a simplistic way) is the effect of ∂(ρiciT )
= −∇(Heat flux) + q (6.4.4)
contamination of the snow. Things like dust, soot, and other
∂t
aerosols, tend to all add low albedo constituents into the snow
as the snow ages and tend to produce a decrease in the
albedo. where the second term on the right-hand-side is simply using
the divergence operator (in general in three dimensions) and q
As described above, the metamorphism in the snowpack represents a source/sink (which also varies with z and t) and
is to a large extent driven by temperature profiles (and is associated with melt (sink) and re-freeze (source) events
specifically gradients). Since most of the transport of energy that consume or release energy respectively. If one only
(and vapor) occur in the vertical, the energy budget for the considers the vertical flux convergence then this equation
snowpack can be written schematically (i.e. for a given layer) simplifies to the well-known one-dimensional (1D) heat flow
as: equation:
Change in energy storage = Convergence of energy flux + ∂(ρiciT ) ∂2(kiT )
= +q (6.4.5)
source/sink ∂t ∂z 2
196
From Equation (6.4.6), it becomes clear that the primary the snowpack surface is emitting more radiation than it is
heating terms of the snowpack are the net shortwave radiation receiving). The net result is a sink of energy at the surface
(where albedo plays a significant role), the downwelling and a general cooling of the snowpack (i.e. sometimes
longwave radiation, and in cases where the air temperature is significantly below freezing). Once spring arrives and the net
warmer than the snowpack surface, the sensible heat flux. The radiation becomes positive, there is a source of energy at the
primary cooling mechanisms are the outgoing longwave surface, and the snowpack begins to warm. In the case of no
radiation, the latent heat flux, and in cases where the melt and no introduction of rain into the snowpack, q = 0 in
snowpack temperature is warmer than the overlying air, the Equation (6.4.5). During the melt season, however the source/
sensible heat flux. These fluxes drive the energy balance of the sink term becomes important. The melt processes are
snowpack, which in turn drives the various metamorphism discussed in more detail in the next section.
processes described above (Figure 6.12). During the
accumulation season the net radiation is often negative (i.e.
197
S ECTION 5 where ci is the specific heat capacity of ice (2102 J kg-1 K-1),
Tsnow is the average snow temperature and Tm is the melting
Snowmelt point of water (273.16 K or 0ºC). Keep in mind that by
definition during this period the snowpack is generally dry (no
liquid water content) except for transient rain-on-snow or
In an idealized snowpack, the snowmelt season is that surface melt (which then percolates and re-freezes lower in the
period generally following the accumulation season. In truth, snowpack).
the two seasons are generally not completely distinct and Note that both SWE and Tsnow are time varying
depend on the climatology of the region. At certain elevations, quantities that describe the mass and energy state of the
snowpack is quite transient, where many accumulation and snowpack at a given time. The temperature and SWE of the
melt events can occur throughout the winter and spring. In snowpack are generally at a minimum and maximum at the
any case, the melt period generally begins when the surface end of the accumulation season/beginning of the melt season
net radiation transitions from negative to positive (Rn > 0). (i.e. warming phase) respectively. Keep in mind that in this
Melt itself will not occur immediately when this transition in context the beginning of the “melt” season may be long before
net radiation occurs due to the thermal inertia of the the snow actually begins to change phase. The amount of
snowpack. At the time net radiation becomes positive, the energy required to complete the warming phase is simply the
snowpack will generally be at sub-freezing temperatures. The cold content at the beginning of the melt season which is
positive net radiation implies an energy input to the notationally referred to as: Qm1 for the energy input required
snowpack. The specific impact this energy input has defines for melt Phase 1 (i.e. the warming phase). It is primarily
three commonly described “phases” of the snowmelt season. dictated by the specific heat capacity of the snowpack, which
by definition tells how much energy is required to raise the
The first phase is the so-called “warming phase”. This
temperature of the snowpack by 1 degree per unit mass.
phase consists of the period of time when the positive net
Multiplying by mass and the total temperature change
radiation goes into increasing the temperature of the
required to reach the melting point provides the required
snowpack toward the melting point of water. At any given
cumulative warming phase energy. In cases where the
time, the amount of energy required to raise the average snow
snowpack properties (i.e. SWE and temperature) vary with
temperature to the melting point is generally referred to as
depth, the cold content can be computed for each layer and
the “cold content” of the snowpack, which can be defined as:
summed up to get the total cold content. The length of Phase
Qcc = −ci ρwSWE(Tsnow −Tm ) (6.5.1)
198
1 is dictated by Qm1 and the amount of energy input to the additional water can be retained in the pores. The net energy
snowpack (driven primarily by net radiation). required to complete the output phase is given by:
The second and third phases of melt have to do with the Qm 3 = (SWE − θretds )ρwLf (6.5.3)
actual conversion of solid ice to liquid water. Keep in mind
where the first term on the right-hand-side is simply the
that phase transition of a bulk media occurs at an isothermal
remaining amount of water that needs to be melted (after
temperature (0°C for water) so that during the last two
ripening). Note that as expected, the total amount of energy
phases the temperature of the snowpack is constant
required for the second and third phases where melt is
(isothermal) and at the melting point. By definition, the
actually occurring is given by:
snowpack is wet during these phases. The second phase is
referred to as the “ripening” phase and begins when the Qm 2 + Qm 3 = SWE ρwLf (6.5.4)
snowpack becomes isothermal. Any cumulative energy input
beyond Qm1 will start to melt the snow. However early on in where SWE corresponds to the amount at the beginning of
the process, water is retained in the pores (i.e. none leaves the melt (neglecting sublimation losses to SWE). The above
snowpack as runoff). The amount of water retained is that expressions are most easily understood in the context of a
given by Equation (6.3.5). The net energy input required to single-layer snowpack. However when modeling a multi-layer
complete the ripening phase (Phase 2) is simply: snowpack energy balance (i.e. Equation (6.4.5)) the picture
becomes more complicated. The snowpack can have melt in
Qm 2 = θretds ρwLf (6.5.2) the upper surface layers that then flows downward in the
snowpack where it re-freezes. The re-freezing releases latent
which is simply the mass of (retained) melted liquid water
heat energy that warms the snowpack in that location. The
multiplied by the latent heat of fusion (Lf = 3.34×105 J kg-1).
process of surface melt, percolation, re-freezing with latent
Since the liquid water retention capacity is generally relatively
heating, will continue until the entire pack is isothermal at the
small (5% maximum), the length of Phase 2 is often relatively
freezing point. At that point ripening and melt output will
short, depending on the net radiation being input to the
occur with the addition of any more energy.
snowpack.
All of the above has been in reference to processes at a
The third and final phase is the melt output phase. It is
given point in space. When considering basin-scale processes,
simply the extension of actual melt once the snowpack is
it is important to keep in mind how things vary. In particular,
“ripe”, and corresponds to the period where any additional
SWE accumulation will vary depending on orographic and
melt will actually flow through and leave the pack since no
other effects so that the distribution of SWE at the beginning
199
of the melt season will vary considerably across the basin. are clearly shown to be a strong function of both month and
Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 3, radiation inputs can vary latitude, with snow accumulating first and melting out last at
widely in complex terrain due to slope, aspect, sky view higher latitudes. Elevation also is shown to play a key role in
factor, etc. Hence the length of the melt phase at different both accumulation and melt.
locations in the basin will vary considerably. The end result of
these factors is that snowpack melt-out itself will vary
E XAMPLE 6.5.1
considerably across a basin.
Suppose the snowpack properties described in
It is important to keep in mind that the above described
accumulation and melt of snow is highly seasonal over much of Example 6.3.1 are at the end of the accumulation
the globe. Movie 6.1 shows a monthly time series of images of season. Compute the energy input requirements
snow cover over the northern hemisphere over North America for the warming, ripening, and melt output
(from January 2004-December 2004). Accumulation and melt phases. For simplicity, assume that the amount of
volumetric (liquid) water content that can be
held in the pores without drainage (i.e.
associated with ripening) is 0.02.
200
E XAMPLE 6.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
by:
201
S ECTION 6 to model the attenuation of downwelling solar radiation due to
vegetation canopy. In such models, the attenuation is modeled
Impact of Vegetation as an additional correction factor in the downwelling
shortwave flux equation shown in Equation (3.6.9) so that the
downwelling flux reaching the snow surface would be:
The impacts of vegetation on snow processes (and land Rs↓ = fsv fsc "#ts + β + βαts + β 2α $% Rs 0 (6.6.1)
surface processes in general) are, among others, those related
to energy balance at the surface and those related to mass
balance. Each is discussed briefly below.
where fsv is an attenuation function for shortwave radiation by
In terms of radiative energy balance at the snow surface, vegetation that depends on some vegetation characteristic. A
the primary impact of vegetation is the attenuation and/or simple example of such a function is (Dunne and Leopold,
augmentation of radiative energy fluxes. The clear- and 1978):
cloudy-sky shortwave fluxes discussed in Chapter 3 dealt with
fsv = exp(−3.91F) (6.6.2)
those fluxes reaching the surface. In the case of bare soil/snow
these fluxes would directly contribute to the SEB. When where F is the forest cover fraction, which was specifically fit
vegetation is present, those fluxes would correspond to those to a lodgepole pine forest canopy a function of vegetation.
reaching the surface just above the canopy. The downwelling Note that this type of equation makes no attempt to account
above-canopy shortwave radiation will interact with the for differences in density/type of vegetation canopy, only
vegetation canopy, with the vegetation having media fractional cover. Other examples of such attenuation factors
properties as defined in Chapter 3 including transmissivity, use metrics such as the so-called leaf area index (discussed in
absorptivity, and reflectivity. The vegetation reflectivity more detail in Chapter 8) to better capture the differences in
(albedo) is generally much lower than for snow. In the case of attenuation by different kinds of canopies. Note that Equation
a dense vegetation canopy (i.e. forest), the transmissivity will (6.6.1) is general in that if there is no forest cover (F = 0), it
also be relatively low. Together this means that much of the reduces to the cloudy-sky case (which itself reduces to the
above-canopy radiation will be attenuated (absorbed) by the clear-sky case if there is no cloud cover).
vegetation.
The longwave radiation reaching the surface can also be
The interaction of solar radiation with canopy is impacted by vegetation. Namely the longwave flux can
relatively complicated. To avoid complex radiative transfer typically be augmented (increased) as a result of: i) a larger
calculations, simple empirical expressions have been developed
202
emissivity relative to the effective atmospheric emissivity and The impact of vegetation on mass balance of the
ii) a larger vegetation temperature as a result of absorption of snowpack on the ground (or the surface in general) primarily
the atmospheric shortwave radiation. For the latter case, a has to do with the so-called interception of precipitation by
separate energy balance for the vegetation canopy must be the canopy. The leaves of a dense canopy can hold a non-
employed. Alternatively, an often-used simplifying assumption negligible amount of snow (or rain) that is at least initially
is that the canopy has a negligible heat capacity which would removed from the snow/soil surface mass balance. An example
result in the canopy temperature being in approximate of this in the case of snow in an evergreen forest is shown in
equilibrium with the air temperature. In this case, only the Figure 6.13. The interception is most often treated as a small
emissivity impacts would play a role in the longwave reservoir that captures any precipitation coming in contact
augmentation. In such cases, the downwelling longwave flux with the canopy and can hold up to a specified volume (or
reaching the surface is often modified by using an emissivity
that is a weighted average of the atmospheric emissivity and
the vegetation canopy emissivity, i.e.:
203
depth, i.e. volume per unit area) of water before the water
begins to drain or slough off (in the case of snow) the canopy
onto the surface. The amount of precipitation that falls
through the spaces in the canopy combined with the drainage
from the canopy is usually referred to as throughfall. The
primary impact of the intercepted water is that it can then
evaporate/sublimate back into the atmosphere before ever
reaching the surface. Hence, some of the water that would
have contributed to the snowpack and/or soil mass balance in
a bare surface case, will be removed from the surface mass
balance when vegetation is present. The evaporation (or
interception) loss from the canopy is discussed in more detail
in Chapter 8.
204
S ECTION 7
Snow Climatology
The climatology of snow is largely just a climatology of
precipitation, which drives snow accumulation, and a
climatology of radiation, which drives snow melt. Together
these will determine various climatological factors related to
snow including: average SWE, duration of accumulation and
melt seasons, types of snow, etc. Snowfall occurrence is largely
a product of latitudinal and elevational dependence. Areas at
high latitudes and/or at high elevation will experience air
temperatures cold enough to turn any appreciable
precipitation into snowfall.
F IGURE 6.14 Maps showing locations of major mountain
Figure 6.14 shows the major mountain ranges across the ranges across the globe.
globe which experience significant seasonal snowfall and
accumulation as a result of elevational lapse rate effects
(despite being at midlatitudes). Much of the remaining • Taiga: Thin to moderately deep, low-density snowpack found
portions of snow covered areas of the globe are a result of less in forests in cold climates
radiation at higher latitudes. The combination of varying
elevation, latitude, and other factors leads to varying • Alpine: Intermediate to cold, deep snowpacks, typically low
climatological classification of snow types. A common density
classification involves six different types of snow (Sturm et al.,
• Maritime: Warm, deep snowpack with coarse-grained snow
1995):
due to wetting
• Tundra: Thin, cold, wind-blown snow usually found above or
• Prairie: Thin (except in drifts) moderately cold snow with
poleward of tree line
substantial wind drifting
205
• Ephemeral (or no snow): Thin, extremely warm snow that Figure 6.15 illustrate the spatial distribution and defined
melts soon after deposition types of snow across the Northern Hemisphere. The
classifications include factors like snow depth, density,
temperature, grain size, and vegetation presence/absence. For
example, in the continental U.S., Europe, and central Asia the
snowpacks are generally maritime, alpine, and prairie, while at
higher latitudes they transition to taiga and tundra. Based on
the snow processes described above, these varying snowpack
characteristics will impact the climatology of albedo and other
surface energy and mass balance processes.
F IGURE 6.15 Map of Sturm snow classification of snow types F IGURE 6.16 Map of mean annual total snowfall over the con-
over the Northern Hemisphere. tinental U.S. (in inches).
206
patterns in this map are highly correlated with the snowfall
map shown in Figure 6.16 with both latitudinal and
elevational dependence. The map shows general areas in the
mountainous regions with snow cover presence greater than 60
days, up to values higher than 150 days. In localized areas
with north-facing aspects and/or with significant vegetation
cover snow may persist even longer. Differences are also due to
radiation (and other energy) inputs, as those at lower
latitudes and nearer coastlines may be subject to less heating
during the melt season or more abrupt transitions between
snow and rain season, where rain-on-snow events can often
lead to rapid melt-out.
207
S ECTION 8 be spherical hydrometeors, such an assumption in the case of
solid precipitation can be quite erroneous. Moreover, the
Snow Measurement disparity of the habits of snow crystals (Figure 6.3), means
that the uncertainty in the relationships between hydrometeor
size/shape and reflectivity is much larger. Similarly high
In describing snow measurement one must distinguish uncertainties plague relationships in satellite-based estimates
between snowfall measurement and snowpack measurement. of snowfall.
The former attempts to measure precipitation in the form of The other type of measurement of snow is the amount of
snow. Hence, the same techniques discussed in Chapter 5 can snow on the ground at a given location or time. In some sense,
theoretically be used to measure snowfall, including snowfall this is generally what is of most interest and is essentially, at
gauges, RADAR, and satellite-based techniques. The primary least in the accumulation season, an integrated measure of
complication with snowfall gauges have to do with the fact
that wind effects can be more amplified for low density
snowflakes (compared to raindrops) in the sense that the
turbulence caused by the presence of the gauge itself can
much more easily deflect snow such that it is not captured by
the gauge. Hence gauge under-catch, which is prevalent in the
case of rain, is generally exaggerated in the case of snowfall
measurement. It is not uncommon for a gauge to catch only
50% of the snowfall that might actually be falling, which can
lead to large (negative) biases in snowfall estimates.
Additionally, snow can freeze or block the gauge opening, so
often gauges designed to measure snowfall are equipped with a
heating unit to melt the snow which can then flow into the
tipping bucket or water reservoir.
208
how much snowfall occurred. Several techniques are used to Cooperative Snow Survey (http://cdec.water.ca.gov/snow/) in
measure snow in situ, some of which are manual. These place dating back to the early 1900s.
manual measurements include snow courses, where snow
In order to increase the temporal resolution of SWE
depth is measured using a snow stake (Figure 6.18) or SWE is
measurements and avoid the manual labor required for snow
measured using a cylindrical probe that removes a column of
surveys, more recently snow pillows have become popular for
snow that is then weighed (Figure 6.19). Such snow courses
essentially continuous (daily) measurement of SWE. A
often require trekking into remote mountainous regions. As
schematic of such a snow pillow station is shown in Figure
such, they are often performed only monthly near the peak of
6.20 with a picture from a real site shown in Figure 6.21. A
the snow accumulation season and during the melt season.
snow pillow is a sealed envelope filled with a non-freezing
Such networks of long-term sampling often form the basis for
liquid that rests on the ground and is connected to pressure
spring snowmelt and runoff planning in many snow-dominated
transducers. The basic idea is that accumulated snow on top
regions, including California which has had the California
of the pillow will impart a compressive force on the snow
pillow that will produce a measurable change in pressure in
the fluid. These sites often have some meteorological sensors
at the site to measure air temperature, precipitation and other
variables. A standardized network of snow pillow sites referred
to as snow telemetry (SNOTEL) sites is coordinated across
the western U.S. by the Natural Resources Conservation
Service (of the USDA).
211
regular interval across the entire profile are taken from the essentially measuring the reflected solar radiation from the
face of the snow pit. surface and can therefore identify the presence or absence of
snow relatively easily (except for the case of snow under dense
While the remote sensing of snowfall is difficult as vegetation canopies). Figure 6.24 shows a map of snow cover
described above, other aspects of snow are routinely measured
over the globe for a particular day during Northern
via satellite-based remote sensing. Satellite-based remote Hemisphere winter obtained from polar orbiting satellites. The
sensing generally measures electromagnetic radiation in a data on sensors measuring in visible/near-infrared is often
particular and relevant part of the spectrum. Snow generally
has two relevant wavelength bands that provide useful
information: visible/near-infrared (Vis/NIR) and microwave.
212
available at spatial resolutions ranging from tens to hundreds
of meters with varying temporal resolution (daily to every
couple weeks).
213
S ECTION 9
MOD-WET Codes
Relevant functions based on concepts introduced in
this chapter include:
214
S ECTION 10 10. Describe the key ways in which vegetation impacts
snowpack processes (and surface processes in general).
Conceptual Questions 11. Name and describe the types of snowpack used in the
Sturm classification system. What are the primary types of
snowpack in the Western U.S.
1. Name the four fluxes in the surface energy balance
equation. What are the units on the fluxes? 12. Name the commonly used in situ techniques for
characterizing snowpack properties and clearly note what
2. Describe what the porosity of the snowpack represent. properties are provided by each.
3. What is the liquid water content of a dry snowpack. What 13. Describe the basic principle behind a snow pillow for
(order of magnitude) is the maximum liquid water content characterizing SWE.
of snowpack?
14. In what ways can snowpacks be characterized from remote
4. Describe the meaning of the liquid water retention capacity sensing?
of a snowpack.
Problem 6.2.: Suppose a snowpack at the end of a) For a snowpack, air in the pore space is in contact with
accumulation has a SWE of 1.38 m, a snow temperature of bulk ice. Hence the vapor pressure in the pore space is
-7ºC, and snow depth of 3 meters. What is the density of the essentially equal to the saturated vapor pressure for ice.
snowpack, liquid water content, and snow porosity of the Compute the saturated vapor pressure (in Pa) in the pore
snowpack at the time of peak SWE. space at each level in the snowpack. You can reasonably
assume curvature effects are negligible so that you can use the
Problem 6.3. For a specific location in a watershed the peak bulk Clausius-Clapeyron equation for ice.
SWE of 0.22 m occurred on February 24th (DOWY 147). On
that day the temperature of the snowpack was 270.7 K.
216
b) During the accumulation season, snow grain size evolution temperature and density of -1.5ºC and 465 kg m-3
is largely driven by vertical temperature gradients which are respectively. Suppose meltwater drains into the lower layer of
responsible for vertical vapor gradients (since vapor pressure the snowpack.
is equal to saturated vapor pressure in the snowpack).
a) What is the maximum depth of meltwater flux (i.e. in cm)
Compute the vapor pressure gradients (in Pa cm-1) between
from the upper layer that could re-freeze in the lower (i.e. to
the first and second and second and third levels in the
just exactly warm the lower layer to the melting point)? Hint:
snowpack.
What is the amount of energy required to warm the layer to
c) Assuming vapor transport will be from areas of higher the melting point?
vapor concentration to areas of lower vapor concentration,
b) Suppose that surface layer melting yields 1 cm of melt
describe the expected transport direction of vapor in the
water that percolates downward from the surface to the lower
snowpack. In other words, which level will vapor be
layer in the snowpack. Based on your answer to part a), what
transported to and what levels will vapor be transported away
will the temperature of the lower layer be after any re-freezing
from? What is the expected impact on grain size in the three
occurs? Will all of the water re-freeze? If not, what will
layers? Explain why there would be not expected grain size
happen to the excess water?
growth from this mechanism during melt season after the
snow becomes isothermal.
217
S ECTION 12 figure. Using this figure and the SWE time series plot from
part a), describe how the snow albedo responds (i.e. increase,
MOD-WET Problems decrease, no impact) to the following: i) Large snowfall events
(i.e. increases in SWE)?, ii) An aging snowpack?
219
Chapter 7
Unsaturated
Flow and
Infiltration
S ECTION 1 10. Sketch a picture of how the soil moisture profile in the
unsaturated zone evolves during an infiltration event
Learning Objectives 11. Sketch a picture of how the infiltration rate evolves in
time during a storm for the general case of switching
boundary conditions
By the time you finish this chapter you should be able to:
12. Sketch a picture of how the infiltration rate evolves in
1. Define the meaning of a porous media time for the limiting cases of very intense storms (i.e.
2. Use the soil triangle to define a particular soil type/ precipitation rate very high relative to saturated
conductivity) and low intensity storms (i.e. precipitation
texture
rate lower than saturated hydraulic conductivity)
3. Define the volumetric water content and relative soil
13. Understand the primary assumptions used in models for
saturation and how they are related to each other
infiltration capacity (e.g. Philip, Green-Ampt)
4. Describe what factors (i.e. pressure head, elevation head,
14. Understand and describe the difference between actual
velocity head) control flow in porous media
infiltration and infiltration capacity (or potential
5. Define matric head and hydraulic conductivity and how infiltration)
they depend on soil moisture and soil type
15. Convert between infiltration rate and cumulative
6. Define and explain Darcy’s Law for flow in unsaturated infiltration
conditions
16. Apply the time-compression approximation to compute
7. Understand and describe the two terms that in particular the actual infiltration under non-ponded conditions (i.e.
control vertical flow in unsaturated soils the general case)
221
S ECTION 2
In terms of characterizing porous soil media, many of the both of which are dimensionless. The former is a
same or analogous definitions that were used for snow are representation of the fraction of total soil volume filled with
used for soil. The mineral particle density is given by: water and therefore can theoretically vary between zero and
Mass of minerals the soil porosity. The s subscript is used to denote saturated
ρm = (7.2.1)
Volume of minerals (i.e. all pores are filled with water). The relative saturation is
a normalized metric that represents the fraction of pores filled
with water and therefore varies between 0 and 1. When
and is relatively invariant for soils with a value around 2650 discussing “soil moisture” it is crucial to know which of these
kg m-3. The bulk density is given by: two metrics are being used as they are approximately a factor
Mass of minerals (7.2.2) of two different due to the porosity. In reality, the lower limit
ρb =
Volume of soil of soil moisture is not generally zero, but a residual amount
that is bound to the soil grains, which is dependent on the
type of soil.
and varies depending on the soil type and porosity. The soil
porosity has the analogous definition used in snow (in this Most of the above defined properties depend on soil
case volume of pore space per unit volume of soil) and can be “type”. However this has not yet been rigorously defined. The
related to the above densities: common way of defining soil type (or “texture”) is via a grain
θs = 1 − ρb ρm size distribution. This involves taking a soil sample and
(7.2.3)
sorting it with progressively smaller sieve openings to
The water content in the unsaturated zone is usually characterize the distribution of soil grains in various size bins.
characterized by the volumetric water content: For the types of soil commonly found in the vadose zone,
three end-member types are defined: sand (size range between
Volume of water (7.2.4)
θ≡ 0.06 and 2 mm), silt (size range between 0.002 and 0.06 mm)
Volume of soil
and clay (sizes less than 0.002 mm). For a given soil sample
one can determine the fractional weight in each of these end-
223
silty clay loam. The important aspect of this is that many
experiments have been done to correlate these defined soil
types with specific properties (including those defined above)
that are useful for characterizing the storage and/or flow
properties of a given soil.
Table 7.1 shows the typical porosity for the various soil
types as determined via analysis of over 1000 soil samples by
Clapp and Hornberger (1978). The general trend is that sandy
soils have the lowest porosities, while clay soils have the
highest. This may be counterintuitive at first, as larger
pores are still filled is called the field capacity. The typical
situation is shown where a mix of air and water is stored in
the pores, where water may be held up against gravity due to
capillary forces (discussed more below). Finally, if additional
drying is experienced (i.e. by evaporation or root uptake), the
soil moisture condition will eventually reach the wilting point.
In this case, only immobile water that is essentially adhered to
grains is left behind. In this condition, a plant’s system will
not be able to uptake moisture and may wilt. The amount of
water corresponding to each of these states is dependent upon
F IGURE 7.3 Illustration of porosity for sand vs. clay soil.
the soil type as shown in Figure 7.5. The reason for this has
225
E XAMPLE 7.2.1
π
Vsoil = (5 cm)2(10 cm) = 196.4 cm 3
4
226
E XAMPLE 7.2.1 ( CONTINUED )
61 cm 3
θ= = 0.31
196.4 cm 3
The relative saturation is then given by:
0.31
s= = 0.59
0.53
227
S ECTION 3 used here is gauge pressure, which means pressure above
atmospheric pressure. In general this energy (per unit weight)
Flow in Unsaturated Po- has dimensions of length, can vary with space and time, and
will dictate flow direction and magnitudes. In general for
rous Media subsurface soil flow, the velocity (V) is small making the
kinetic energy term negligible:
Here we introduce the basics of flow in porous media. p
H z+ = h(x,y,z,t) (7.3.3)
The principles apply to both unsaturated and saturated flow, ρw g
but will be applied for unsaturated flow first. The key point
with respect to flow is that water flows down the prevailing
where h is the piezometric head and the spatial and temporal
energy gradient. The total energy at a given point in a flow
dependence is shown for emphasis. As will be discussed below,
field (neglecting internal energy) consists of the sum of
spatial gradients in h are what drive flow, where in particular
potential energy, kinetic energy, and work done by the
water will flow from areas of higher h to areas of lower h. It
pressure force, and can be written as:
should be noted that implicitly each term is representative of
1 WV 2 pW (7.3.1) the average state of the system over some small representative
Total Energy = Wz + +
2 g ρw g elemental volume (REV). The REV can be thought of as a
small differential volume of soil (containing soil particles, air,
and water). So for example, the pressure is the average water
In the case of water flow, the density corresponds to that of
pressure over the REV.
liquid water. It is then common to divide the above by weight
(W) and define the hydraulic head, which is simply the total The above principles apply to either saturated or
energy per unit weight: unsaturated flow, however the pressure head term in the case
V2 p (7.3.2) of unsaturated flow has unique connotations. In saturated
H =z+ +
2g ρw g soils one can envision water being “pushed” by pressure
gradient forces, where the pressure is higher than atmospheric
surface pressure. In unsaturated soils the water is being held
where the terms on the right-hand-side are referred to as the up against gravity, or “pulled” by pressure gradient forces that
elevation head, velocity head, and pressure head. The are less than atmospheric surface pressure. Because pressure
elevation head is defined relative to a datum. It should be in this context is defined as gauge pressure, this means that
noted that in the context of flow problems, the pressure p
228
pressure in the unsaturated zone is negative. Such negative atmospheric (zero gauge pressure). When a soil is
pressures are often referred to as suction or tension. The unsaturated, water will be held more tightly against gravity in
reason for the suction forces have to do with capillarity and the smaller pores in the same way that water is pulled higher
surface tension in the soil. in the tubes with smaller diameters (Figure 7.6). The result is
that water in smaller pores will have higher (more negative)
One can envision soil as containing several different pore suction pressures. Since smaller pores have higher suction,
sizes that could be conceptualized as capillary tubes of these pores will tend to hold water longest. Furthermore, since
varying diameter. If different capillary tubes are placed in a the pressure p in Equation (7.3.3) refers to the average over
beaker of water that is open to the air (Figure 7.6), the water an REV of soil, high (i.e. more negative) suction pressures are
level inside the capillary tubes will rise above the water level generally associated with dry soils and vice versa. In the limit
outside the tubes. Moreover, the smaller the tubes, the higher of a soil becoming completely dry, the suction pressure will
the water level will rise. The difference in height between the approach minus infinity. In the limit of a soil becoming
water inside and outside of the tubes is due to suction saturated, the suction pressure will approach zero. This is
(negative pressure associated with surface tension) where the generally the case at the water table interface between the
pressure at the water surface outside the tubes is by construct unsaturated and saturated zones.
229
(1856) Law: that h is only a function of z (and time) i.e. h(z, t) and
Q therefore:
q= = −K∇h (7.3.6)
A h(z,t) = ψ (z,t) + z (7.3.8)
and represents a gradient when operating on a scalar field or a Based on Equations (7.3.7) and (7.3.9), flow in the
divergence when operating on a vector field. The Darcy flux unsaturated zone depends on the hydraulic conductivity of the
(or specific discharge) q has dimensions of velocity [L T-1], K soil and matric head of the soil. In particular these two
is the hydraulic conductivity [L T-1], and the last term is the variables depend on two factors: i) Soil type (which is fixed in
gradient in piezometric head h(x, y, z). The head is a scalar time, but varies in space) and ii) soil moisture (which varies in
field so that the del operator is the gradient and represents a both space and time). To quantify these relationships,
vector quantity. As such q is itself a vector quantity (i.e. has experiments have been performed to develop constitutive
directionality). A gradient is a vector in the steepest ascent relationships between the soil type, moisture and conductivity
direction (i.e. slope is defined as positive in the increasing and matric head.
direction). Since flow is always in the steepest descent
direction, there is a negative sign in Darcy’s Law (Equation Several models exist, but a commonly used one is the
(7.3.6)). In general q can be a three-dimensional quantity (i.e. Brooks-Corey model (1966). The water retention curve (i.e.
with three components in the x-, y-, and z-directions). Since soil matric head vs. soil moisture) is given by:
unsaturated flow is mainly in the z-direction only, the relevant −b
⎛θ⎞ (7.3.10)
Darcy flux is given by: ψ (θ ) = ψ s ⎜ ⎟
⎝ θs ⎠
∂h (7.3.7)
q z = −K z ψ s ≡ saturated matric head
∂z
b ≡ Brooks-Corey parameter
230
c
⎛θ⎞ T ABLE 7.2. A VERAGE B ROOKS -C OREY P ARAMETERS
K(θ ) = K s ⎜ ⎟
⎝ θs ⎠ AS A FUNCTION OF SOIL TYPE (C LAPP &
(7.3.11)
K s ≡ saturated hydraulic conductivity H ORNBERGER , 1978). V ALUE SHOWN IN
PARENTHESES IS THE STANDARD DEVIATION .
c = 2b + 3
SAT.
SAT.
HYDRAULIC BROOKS-
SOIL MATRIC
where the parameters in the model are functions of soil type CONDUC- COREY
TYPE HEAD
(Table 7.2). TIVITY PARAMETER
[cm]
[cm/hr]
It is important to keep in mind that the saturated matric
head (sometimes referred to as the air-entry bubbling Sand 63.36 -12.1 (14.3) 4.05 (1.78)
pressure) is negative. The Brooks-Corey b parameter is a Loamy sand 56.16 -9.0 (12.4) 4.38 (1.47)
positive number that is generally greater than 1, meaning that
the retention curve is nonlinear. For a given soil type at Sandy Loam 12.49 -21.8 (31.0) 4.90 (1.75)
saturation, the matric head is equal to the saturated matric Silt Loam 2.59 -78.6 (51.2) 5.30 (1.96)
head and the hydraulic conductivity is equal to the saturated
Loam 2.50 -47.8 (51.2) 5.39 (1.87)
hydraulic conductivity. As soil moisture becomes smaller, the
matric head becomes larger in magnitude (more negative), Sandy clay
2.27 -29.9 (37.8) 7.12 (2.43)
loam
while the hydraulic conductivity becomes smaller
(approaching zero). Figure 7.7 shows a schematic of the water Silty clay
0.61 -35.6 (37.8) 7.75 (2.77)
retention and hydraulic conductivity curves. Table 7.2 shows loam
that as a soil goes from sand to clay the saturated hydraulic Clay loam 0.88 -63.0 (51.0) 8.52 (3.44)
conductivity becomes less. Note that this is in contrast to the
Sandy clay 0.78 -15.3 (17.3) 10.4 (1.64)
trend in porosity (Table 7.1) indicating that while fine-grained
soils can actually store more water, the flow in such soils is Silty clay 0.37 -49.0 (62.1) 10.4 (4.45)
generally lower. Additionally, the relationships become more Clay 0.46 -40.5 (39.7) 11.4 (3.7)
nonlinear as soils become more fine-grained. It should be
clearly noted that these parameters are in general highly Given these relationships, they can be used in Darcy’s
uncertain and the tabulated values shown in Table 7.2 are Law to express flux in terms of the soil moisture, i.e.:
estimates from one dataset.
231
−(b+1) (7.3.13)
dψ b "θ %
= − ψs $$ ''
dθ θs # θs &
where while the magnitude can vary with soil moisture, the
sign of Equation (7.3.13) is always positive (Figure 7.7).
232
counteract gravity. The specific governing equation for
unsaturated flow dynamics will be discussed in the next E XAMPLE 7.3.1
section.
Soil moisture sensors in the field show that the
Finally, given the retention curve model, one can also volumetric soil moisture profile follows the
then more precisely define the values for other parameters like following linear relationship: θ (z) = θsurf − mz
the field capacity and wilting point that were mentioned in
Section 2. The field capacity is defined (albeit arbitrarily) as where the coordinate z is zero at the surface and
the level of moisture reached after drainage for a “few days” or negative below the surface and m is a positive
more precisely the soil moisture corresponding to a matric constant. Determine an expression for the Darcy
head of -340 cm (Dingman, 2008), which can be used in the flux in the soil for this soil moisture profile.
Brook-Corey model to invert for soil moisture: Estimate the magnitude and direction of the flux
1
" −340 cm %
−
b (7.3.14) at a depth of 0.5 m if the soil is a sandy loam,
θ fc = θs $$ '' the slope m is equal to 0.05 m-1 and the surface
# ψs & volumetric soil moisture is equal to 0.4.
where this can be determined solely from soil type. Similarly If the soil moisture varies with depth (in this case wetter
the permanent wilting point is defined (again somewhat at depth), then so will the matric head and hydraulic
arbitrarily) as the soil moisture at which the matric head is conductivity. The matric (pressure) head in the soil is
equal to -15000 cm (i.e. very dry): given by:
1
" −15000 cm %
−
b (7.3.15) ! θ (z) $
−b
! θ − mz $
−b
which again only depends on soil type. These two parameters and the hydraulic conductivity is given by:
provide the bounds within which soil moisture is typically
c c
found (except immediately after storms when the soil moisture ! θ (z) $ ! θ − mz $
K(z) = K s ## && = K s ## surf &
&
will be above field capacity) as shown in Figure 7.5. θ
" s % " θ s %
233
E XAMPLE 7.3.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 7.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
measured or estimated based on soil texture. The Darcy " 0.4 − 0.05(−0.5) %
(2(4.9)+3)
234
S ECTION 4 ∂θ (7.4.3)
= −∇ ⋅ q
∂t
Modeling Unsaturated
For 1D (z-direction) flow this becomes:
Zone Flow Dynamics ∂θ ∂ ∂ ⎡ ⎧ ∂ψ
= − (q z ) = − ⎢ −K(θ ) ⎨
⎫⎤
+ 1⎬ ⎥ (7.4.4)
∂t ∂z ∂z ⎣ ⎩ ∂z ⎭⎦
The modeling of unsaturated flow (or the unsaturated
flow equation) does not consist solely of Darcy’s Law, but which can be rewritten in terms of the dependent volumetric
requires consideration of water going into or out of storage, soil moisture variable:
which changes the flow properties (matric head, hydraulic
∂θ ∂ ⎡ ⎧dψ ∂θ ⎫⎤ (7.4.5)
conductivity). This can be done via application of the = ⎢ K(θ ) ⎨ + 1 ⎬⎥
∂t ∂z ⎣ ⎩ dθ ∂z ⎭⎦
differential form of mass balance:
∂M (7.4.1)
= −∇ ⋅ (ρw qdx dy dz) The collection of terms multiplying the soil moisture gradient
∂t
is often referred to as the diffusivity (D), i.e.:
dψ (7.4.6)
where this is simply derived from the mass balance Equation D(θ ) = K(θ )
dθ
(1.5.2) where the right-hand-side has been transformed from
the surface integral to one over the differential volume via the
divergence theorem. The left-hand-side is the change in mass In the case where the soil has vegetation roots within the
storage and the right-hand-side represents the convergence of unsaturated zone, then a sink term S can be added:
flow into the differential volume of soil. For an unsaturated
∂θ ∂" ∂θ % (7.4.7)
soil we can write that the mass of water in the differential = $D(θ ) + K(θ )' + S(z,t)
∂t ∂z # ∂z &
volume is given by:
M = ρwθ dx dy dz (7.4.2) The root uptake sink term (S) can vary with depth and time
depending on the root density structure and available soil
Substituting this into the above equation, assuming density is
moisture. In the case of no vegetation or root uptake, S = 0
constant, and canceling like-terms yields:
and Equation 7.4.7 reduces to 7.4.5. This becomes the
235
governing equation for unsaturated flow and is commonly which corresponds to a uniform initial soil condition followed
referred to as the Richards (1931) Equation. Note that this is by an abrupt shift to a different value that is held at the
a second order nonlinear partial differential equation (PDE) surface (i.e. what might be seen in a high-intensity storm), the
where the dependent variable is soil moisture and the solution to Equation (7.4.8) is given by (Eagleson, 1970):
independent variables are depth in the soil and time. To solve " z % (7.4.10)
this PDE, one needs 2 boundary conditions and an initial θ (z,t) = θ 0 + (θi − θ 0 )erf $ '
condition. The domain this is applied over is the unsaturated $# 2(Dt) '&
1/2
236
E XAMPLE 7.4.1 E XAMPLE 7.4.1
For the soil moisture profile snapshot in Example which is a complicated (nonlinear) function of the soil
7.3.1, determine the expression for the profile and soil parameters. It can be further rearranged
instantaneous volumetric soil moisture storage to yield:
change. −(b+2)+c c−1
∂θ bcm 2 # θ − mz & cm # θsurf − mz &
As determined in Example 7.3.1, the Darcy flux is given = K s 2 ψs %% surf (
( + Ks % ( +
∂t θs $ θ s ' θs %$ θs (
'
by:
−(b+2)+c
K sb(b + 1)m 2 # θ − mz &
" θ − mz %
c ( −(b+1) + ψs %% surf (
bm
* ψ $
" θ − mz % θs2 θ (
q z = −K s $$ surf ' surf
' + 1- $ s '
θ ' *θ s$ θs ' - −(b+2)+c
# s & ) s # & , bm 2 # θ − mz &
= (c + b + 1)K s 2 ψs %% surf (
( +
θs $ θ s '
Richards equation provides the storage change, which in c−1
the z direction is given by the following expression for cm # θsurf − mz &
Ks % (
this case: θs %$ θs (
'
∂θ ∂ ∂ ) # ∂ψ &,
= − (q z ) = +K(z)% (z) + 1(.
∂t ∂z ∂z * $ ∂z '-
∂ # ∂ψ & ∂2 ψ
= (K(z) % (z) + 1( + K(z) 2 (z)
)
∂z $ ∂z ' ∂z
c−1 # −(b+1) &
cm ) θ − mz , bm ) θ − mz ,
=− K s ++ surf . % ψs + surf . + 1( +
θs θs . % + . (
* - $ θs * θs - '
c # −(b+2) &
) θ − mz , ) mz ,
%b(b + 1)m ψ + surf
2 θ −
K s ++ surf . . (
. % 2 s+ . (
* θ s - θs * θs -
$ '
237
S ECTION 5 dψ ∂θ (7.5.3)
f (t) = K(θ [z = 0,t ]) + K(θ [z = 0,t ])
dθ ∂z
Infiltration
z =0,t
f = P; t ≤ tp
where f*(t) is a (yet undefined) monotonically decreasing saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks). Whether this limit is
function and tr is the duration of the storm (or snowmelt). reached during a given storm depends on factors like the
Note that in the context of solving Richards Equation, this is initial condition, storm intensity/duration, and soil properties.
equivalent to a switching boundary condition: a flux Beyond t=tr, the infiltration will cease and redistribution of
(Neumann) boundary condition before tp and a moisture soil moisture will ensue.
(Dirichlet) boundary condition after tp. Note that the Some limiting conditions to infiltration are worth
infiltration is not expected to decay to zero. Rather, at the mentioning. For very intense storms or highly impervious soils
time when the soil moisture gradient at the surface reaches (P >> Ks), one would expect immediate ponding (tp = 0). In
zero (i.e. first term in the Darcy flux is zero) the infiltration this case there would not be a constant infiltration rate early
rate will simply be driven by gravity and equal to the
240
in the storm, but rather a monotonically decaying function
over the entire course of the storm, i.e.:
241
S ECTION 6 assumptions (if the surface is assumed saturated) with the
additional assumption that the gravity term was negligible.
Infiltration Capacity Mod- An infinite series solution to Richards Equation for the
infiltration rate under these conditions is given by:
els fc (t) = −q z = A1t −1/2 + A2 + A3t 1/2 + A4t + ... (7.6.1)
z =0
242
The second model often used for infiltration capacity is dh h − hsurf (7.6.5)
qz = K s −K s f
the so-called Green-Ampt (1911) model. This model uses the dz z f − z surf
same assumptions as those above, with one additional
simplification: the wetting front is a discontinuous front at where the head at the wetting front is given by:
depth z = -Lf (Figure 7.10). The Green-Ampt model applies
h f = ψ f + z f = ψ f − Lf (7.6.6)
Darcy’s Law across the wetting front:
Lf + ψ f ⎡ ψf ⎤ (7.6.9)
fc (t) = −q z = K s = K s ⎢1 + ⎥
Lf ⎢ Lf ⎥
⎣ ⎦
This is not the final solution however since the length of the
wetting front (Lf) itself depends on the amount of cumulative
infiltration, i.e.:
Fc (t) = Lf (θs − θ 0 ) (7.6.10)
F IGURE 7.10 Conceptualization used to represent the wet- which assumes a sharp wetting front and yields:
ting front in the Green-Ampt model for infiltration capacity
Fc (t) (7.6.11)
(adapted from Mays, 2005). Lf =
(θs − θ 0 )
243
Substituting into Equation (7.6.9) then yields:
⎡ ψ f (θs − θ 0 ) ⎤ dF (7.6.12)
fc (t) = K s ⎢1 + ⎥= c
⎢ Fc ⎥ dt
⎣ ⎦
2. Solve for t using Equation (7.6.13) to get: [0, t1, t2, ...].
Keep those solutions in the range between 0 and tr.
244
S ECTION 7 shift is not simply equal to the time to ponding as will be
described below. Given this general model for actual
Modeling Actual Infiltra- infiltration, for a storm starting at time t0 = 0, with intensity
(P), and duration tr, we can write the actual infiltration rate
Both the Philip and Green-Ampt solutions assume where f* in Equation (7.5.5) has been replaced by fc. Here the
ponded conditions to obtain analytical solutions for the function is kept general in terms of notation, but could be
infiltration capacity: fc(t). In addition to the ponded surface either the Philip or Green-Ampt models where the time
condition, they assume that the initial condition is uniform
with depth and the unsaturated zone is very deep. These
equations would only give us models for the actual infiltration
rate if the actual conditions corresponded to those described
above. In general that is not the case. When the precipitation
rate (P) is not intense enough to cause immediate ponding,
then initially the infiltration rate will equal the precipitation
rate. If ponding does occur during the course of the storm
(depends on soil type and precipitation intensity), then from
that point forward we would expect the infiltration rate to
decrease in a way similar to that described by the infiltration
capacity curves mentioned above.
fc (t − tc ) = fc (t p − tc ) = P(t p ) (7.7.2)
t =t p
tp t p −tc
(7.7.3)
∫ P(t)dt = ∫
0 0
fc (t)dt
This matching condition ensures that the infiltration rate is
continuous in time (as it should be) and is shown graphically
in Figure 7.12. The second condition may be a bit less which for a constant P can be written as:
intuitive, but has to do with making sure that at the ponding t p −tc
(7.7.4)
time, the amount of cumulative infiltration predicted by the Pt p = ∫
0
fc (t)dt
analytical model is consistent with how much has actually
occurred. This is just another way of saying that the starting
point in the infiltration capacity curve is that which would be This condition is shown graphically in Figure 7.13. Together,
expected given the actual cumulative infiltration. This can be Equations (7.7.2) and (7.7.3) represent two equations for the
written mathematically as: two unknowns tp and tc. Keep in mind that the expressions are
in terms of a general infiltration capacity model. So these two
246
If applying the Philip solution (and assuming the storm
intensity P is constant), using Equations (7.7.2) and (7.7.4), it
can be shown that:
S p2 ⎡ Ks ⎤ (7.7.5)
tp = ⎢1 + ⎥
2P(P − K s ) ⎣ 2(P − K s ) ⎦
2
⎡ Sp ⎤
tc = t p − ⎢ ⎥ (7.7.6)
⎢⎣ 2(P − K )
s ⎥⎦
where the actual infiltration rate over the entire storm is then
given by:
⎧ P, t 0 ≤ t ≤ t p (7.7.7)
⎪
f (t) = ⎨ S
p
⎪ (t − tc )−1/2 + K s , t p ≤ t ≤ tr
⎩ 2
⎡ ⎧ ψ (θ − θ ) ⎫ ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎪ f s 0 ⎪⎥
equations can be solved for the two unknowns for any tc = t p − Pt p + ψ f (θs − θ 0 )ln ⎨ ⎬ (7.7.9)
Ks ⎢ ⎪ Pt + ψ (θ − θ ) ⎪ ⎥
infiltration capacity model (e.g. Philip or Green-Ampt). ⎣ ⎩ p f s 0 ⎭ ⎦
247
where the actual infiltration rate over the entire storm is then above equations will yield nonsensical values for the ponding
given by: and compression times. Once known, the actual infiltration
function can be used to estimate cumulative infiltration and
) P, t0 ≤ t ≤ t p
+ the so-called infiltration excess runoff during the storm. The
+
f (t) = * # ψ (θ − θ )&
(7.7.10) discussion of runoff is saved for Chapter 10.
f s 0
+ K s %1 + (, t p ≤ t ≤ tr
+, %
$ Fc (t − tc ) ('
E XAMPLE 7.7.1
where Fc(t - tc) vs. t needs to be determined via the implicit
Green-Ampt model equation as described above. A rainstorm of duration tr = 8 hr and constant
rainfall intensity P= 30 mm hr-1 occurs over an
Given these models for actual infiltration, it is worth area which has a soil type characterized by the
reiterating the special cases mentioned above: following parameters:
1. In the case of a high intensity precipitation event, i.e. θs = 0.35; b = 1; ψs = −50 cm; K s = 11 mm/h
P→∞
The soil has an initial soil relative saturation of
it can be seen that for either model, the time to ponding and 50%. Compute the actual cumulative infiltration
compression time both go to zero. This simply reduces the from this storm.
actual infiltration rate to the infiltration capacity rate (as To compute the actual infiltration we should use the
would be expected since it is consistent with the original time-compression approximation which requires the
assumption of instantaneous ponding). choice of an infiltration capacity model. Here we will use
2. In the case where the precipitation rate is less than the the Philip solution for infiltration capacity. As a first
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, then no ponding step it needs to be determined whether ponding is
will ever occur (since both infiltration capacity curves possible. Since P > Ks in this case, there is at least the
asymptote to the hydraulic conductivity). In this case the potential for ponding so that the ponding time and
actual infiltration rate is simply given by: f(t) = P and the compression time equations can be applied. If this were
above computation of ponding and compression times can be not the case there would be no runoff and all water
skipped altogether. So it is important to first check whether P would infiltrate.
> Ks when computing actual infiltration. Otherwise, using the
248
E XAMPLE 7.7.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 7.7.1 ( CONTINUED )
Given the choice of the Philip solution, first compute the Note this is less than 240 mm, which would be the
sorptivity (Equation (7.6.3)): cumulative infiltration if all water infiltrated. Ponding
1/2
generates runoff and reduces infiltration.
( " 2(1) + 3 %+
S p = *(0.35 − 0.5(0.35))(11 mm/h) −500 mm $ '- We could also choose to apply the Green-Ampt model,
) # (1) + 3 &,
where the relevant parameters (using Equations (7.7.8)
34.7 mm h −1 2 and (7.7.9)) are:
= Pt p + S p (tr − tc )1/2 + K str − S p (t p − tc )1/2 − K st p The cumulative infiltration (Fc) as a function of time (t)
can be obtained via Equation (7.6.13). By construct, at
= Pt p + S p [(tr − tc )1/2 − (t p − tc )1/2 ] + K s (tr − t p )
time t = tp, the cumulative infiltration should equal Ptp.
mm mm The cumulative infiltration at the end of the storm will
= 30 (1.36 h) + (34.7 −1/2 )[(7.47 h)1/2
h h be the cumulative infiltration corresponding to the time:
− (0.83 h) ] + K s (6.64 h) = 177 mm
1/2
t = tr - tc. Doing so, yields a cumulative infiltration:
249
E XAMPLE 7.7.1 ( CONTINUED )
Fc (t = tr − tc = 7.1 h) = 187 mm
250
S ECTION 8
MOD-WET Codes
Relevant functions based on concepts introduced in
this chapter include:
Soil sorptivity:
sorptivity.m
251
S ECTION 9 9. In unsaturated zone problems, name the variable that, if
known, allows for the determination of everything else
Conceptual Questions about the system. Hint: It is the dependent variable in
Richards equation.
8. When fully expanded, what are the two terms in the Darcy
flux in an unsaturated soil? Explain the physical meaning of
each term.
252
S ECTION 10 definition, what is the flow throughout the soil profile under
these particular conditions? Prove your result.
Sample Problems d) Based on the profile in part c), compute the hydraulic
conductivity (in cm/day) and relative saturation at the
surface of the soil.
Problem 7.1. A soil sample is analyzed via a sieve analysis
and determined to have the following size distribution: 10% Problem 7.2.
sand and 45% silt. a) The Philip and Green-Ampt equations provide models for
“infiltration capacity” (or “potential infiltration”). What
a) Identify the soil texture and provide its porosity, saturated
assumptions are used in the development of the Philip and
hydraulic conductivity, and saturated matric head based on
Green-Ampt infiltration capacity models? Clearly explain the
Tables 7.1 and 7.2. Based on those parameters calculate the
difference between actual infiltration rate and infiltration
field capacity and permanent wilting point for the soil.
capacity (potential infiltration). Under what specific
b) Plot the matric head vs. volumetric soil moisture and conditions are the two the same?
hydraulic conductivity vs. volumetric soil moisture for this
b) State the condition that for a given rainfall (or snowmelt)
soil.
event would never generate infiltration excess runoff. This
c) At a particular time, tensiometers (instruments that should be written in terms of the rainfall/melt rate and the
measure soil water tension (i.e. matric head)) at the site from saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
which the soil sample was taken indicate that the matric head
Suppose the volumetric soil moisture at a particular site is
profile (over a 1 meter soil profile) is in a state of hydrostatic
measured to be 0.024. Immediately after the soil moisture
equilibrium with a surface matric head of -150 cm. For this
measurement is taken, the region experiences a snowmelt
condition derive and then plot the profiles (i.e. as a function
event lasting 12 hours with a uniform melt flux intensity of
of depth) of matric head, piezometric head, hydraulic
0.69 mm/hr. Assume that this region is uniformly covered by
conductivity and volumetric soil moisture. Keep in mind that
sandy loam soil. Similar to a rainfall event, a snowmelt event
elevation z is positive upward so depth below the surface is a
can result in infiltration and/or infiltration excess runoff. In
negative number. Is the soil wetter or drier at the surface
the case of a snowmelt event, the melt flux/rate would be
compared to at 1 meter depth? Is the matric head more or
analogous to the rainfall rate during a storm event.
less negative at the surface compared to at 1 meter depth?
How does the piezometric head vary with depth? By
253
c) Based on the soil conditions/characteristics in this region, Problem 7.3. A rainstorm of duration tr = 8 hr and rainfall
what values of the melt flux intensity would generate intensity P = 30 mm hr-1 occurs over an area with an initial
infiltration excess runoff? Based on your answer, will soil saturation of 50% and the following soil properties:
infiltration excess runoff occur during this snowmelt event?
θs = 0.35; ψs = −50 cm; K s = 11 mm hr -1; b = 1;
What is the physical meaning of the ponding time in
infiltration? Will ponding occur during this snowmelt event? These conditions will form the “baseline” case for the
What will the cumulative infiltration be in this case? Justify sensitivity tests described below. Here you can use the time
your answers. compression approximation (TCA) with the Philip solution.
d) Assume the soil instead corresponded to one with the a) What is the physical meaning of the ponding time in
following soil hydraulic properties: saturated hydraulic infiltration? Under what storm intensity condition (relative to
conductivity of 0.00125 cm hr-1, saturated matric head of -21.8 soil parameters) will ponding never occur? Write out the
cm, porosity of 0.435, and Brooks-Corey parameter b of 4.9. Is equation for the ponding time and use it to compute the
it possible that infiltration excess runoff will occur in the ponding time in hours for the baseline case. What is the
watershed given the same snowmelt event described above? meaning of the case where the ponding time is greater than
Justify your response. Using both the Philip and Green-Ampt the duration of the storm?
models, compute the time to ponding under these conditions.
Will ponding occur for these conditions? Explain your b) Compute and plot the ponding time for a range of storm
reasoning. intensities consisting of the baseline case, 50% of the baseline
case (i.e. 15 mm/hr) and 200% of the baseline case (i.e. 60
e) Use the Philip and Green-Ampt models to compute the mm/hr). Explain the trend seen in ponding time as a
cumulative infiltration and infiltration excess runoff for this function of precipitation rate.
snowmelt event for the above mentioned initial conditions and
soil properties from part d). Compute the cumulative c) Compute and plot the ponding time for a range of initial
infiltration (in mm) and infiltration excess runoff (in mm) conditions consisting of the baseline case, and 25%, and 75%
with both models. Note: You should do so using the time relative saturation. Explain the trend seen in ponding time as
compression approximation. What fraction of the total a function of initial condition.
cumulative melt infiltrates vs. generates runoff for this case.
d) Write out the equations for concentration time, actual
By how much do the two models differ in their predictions?
cumulative infiltration, and infiltration excess runoff using the
TCA. Use these equations to compute the expected actual
254
cumulative infiltration and infiltration excess runoff (in mm)
for the baseline storm case.
255
S ECTION 11 Justify your response. Using both the Philip and Green-Ampt
models, compute the time to ponding under these conditions.
MOD-WET Problems Will ponding occur for these conditions? Explain your
reasoning. Note: You can use the MOD-WET function
sorptivity.m to compute the sorptivity.
Problem 7.1. In this problem, you will study infiltration for c) Use the Philip and Green-Ampt models to compute the
a soil/region similar to that of the watershed. Suppose near cumulative infiltration and infiltration excess runoff for this
sunrise on the summer solstice, the volumetric soil moisture is snowmelt event. Use the MOD-WET function
0.024 and that subsequently the region experiences a TCA_infiltration.m to compute the cumulative infiltration
snowmelt event lasting 12 hours with a uniform melt flux (in mm) and infiltration excess runoff (in mm) with both
intensity of 0.69 mm/hr. Assume that this region is uniformly models and the time compression approximation. Assume that
covered by sandy loam soil. Similar to a rainfall event, a the “elapsed time of storm” input to this function is equal to
snowmelt event can result in infiltration and/or infiltration the duration of the melt event. What fraction of the total
excess runoff. In the case of a snowmelt event, the melt flux cumulative melt infiltrates vs. generates runoff for this case.
rate would be analogous to the rainfall rate during a storm By how much do the two models differ in their predictions?
event.
256
Chapter 8
Evaporation
S ECTION 1 10. Define, describe, and compute the aerodynamic
resistance to turbulent heat transfer
Learning Objectives 11. Define the Bowen ratio
1. List the three requirements needed for evaporation to 13. Estimate evaporation from the Energy Balance Bowen
occur Ratio (EBBR) method
2. Convert back and forth between evaporation mass flux, 14. Compute the latent and sensible heat flux using the
latent heat flux, and depth flux (i.e. flux density) mass-transfer approach
3. Write down the units of evaporation mass flux and latent 15. Apply the Penman or Penman-Monteith models to
heat flux estimate potential evaporation and/or evapotranspiration
respectively
4. Define potential evaporation
16. Explain how vegetation tend to control water loss via
5. Write down the surface energy balance their stomata and what environmental factors regulate
transpiration
6. Define the individual terms of the surface energy balance
and what they represent 17. Explain and compute the vegetation canopy resistance
7. Estimate evaporation as a residual in the energy balance
equation
258
S ECTION 2 3. Evapotranspiration rates during inter-storm periods control
the antecedent soil moisture before the subsequent storm,
Basics of Evapotranspira- which impacts runoff and flooding.
259
8.1). Such measurements are easy to make, but are very So Equations (8.2.2) or (8.2.4) provide a mechanism for
sparsely distributed and do not measure actual estimating the long-term values of ET for a given control
evapotranspiration, but rather the potential evaporation volume. In many applications we need to estimate it over
(discussed in more detail below). As a result, estimates of ET much shorter time-scales (e.g. hourly or daily). The remainder
are most often made via the use of models that require more of the chapter focuses on models useful for that purpose.
readily-available measurements.
In terms of the basic physics of ET, one can think of
Long-term estimates of ET can be determined via three necessary requirements:
developments already discussed earlier, namely mass balance
1. A water source (generally an open water surface, soil
and/or energy balance. For example for a watershed control
moisture, or snowpack),
volume, the long-term average mass balance can be written as:
E = P −Q (8.2.2) Note that when water is not a limiting factor in the surface
ET (e.g. open water surfaces or very moist soil), then only the
Similarly, the long-term surface energy balance can be written second and third requirements control the ET flux. Under
as: such conditions, the evapotranspiration flux is referred to as
the “potential evapotranspiration” (Ep), which may be referred
G = Rn − LE − H 0 (8.2.3)
to as potential evaporation or potential evapotranspiration in
where the long-term ground heat flux can be reasonably the case of a bare soil or vegetated surface respectively. By
assumed small for similar reasons to the long-term water definition the actual evapotranspiration must be less than or
storage. A non-zero value would imply a continual warming/ equal to the potential evapotranspiration, i.e.:
cooling of the surface. Again, solving for the ET (specifically E ≤ Ep
in terms of latent heat flux) as a residual yields:
LE = Rn − H (8.2.4)
260
S ECTION 3 Evaporation can be thought of as a diffusive process,
whereby a flux is driven by concentration gradients. In this
Mass-transfer Model for case, the concentration refers to the concentration of water
vapor molecules, which can be expressed in terms of the vapor
261
areas of high concentration to low concentration (down the atmosphere that transport constituents from near the surface
concentration gradient) where the diffusivity is a constant of to higher in the atmosphere (and vice versa). These turbulent
proportionality (to be determined). Note this is analogous in eddies, which are caused by frictional wind shear and thermal
form to Darcy’s Law and can be used to describe different stratification in the surface layer (i.e. lower few hundred
fluxes in many systems. meters) of the atmosphere, are much more efficient than
molecular diffusion in transporting vapor, heat, and
If applied to water vapor in the atmosphere (i.e. momentum between the land and atmosphere. Figure 8.3
evaporation) we can write: shows a schematic of the mean horizontal wind profile as a
d ρv dq ε de (8.3.2) function of height above the surface as well as turbulent
E = Fz (vapor) = −Dv = − ρDv = − ρDv
dz dz p dz eddies (of varying sizes) superimposed on the mean flow. At
the rough surface the mean velocity must be zero (no-slip
boundary condition), and much higher in the troposphere it is
where in this form: [E ]= kg m-2 s-1. To get the latent heat
driven by the large-scale circulation of the atmosphere. The
flux, the above could simply be multiplied by the latent heat
surface layer is the lower portion of the atmosphere where
of vaporization (Lv). The sensible heat flux in the SEB can
there is a strong gradient in the horizontal velocity profile.
also be conceptualized as a diffusive flux (of heat) and is
therefore presented here in parallel to evaporation: The profile of the mean horizontal wind for a neutral
d( ρc pTa ) dTa surface layer (i.e. with a temperature gradient equal to zero)
H = Fz (heat) = −DH = − ρc pDH (8.3.3)
has a well-known logarithmic form:
dz dz
u* " z − d % (8.3.4)
V (z) = ln $ '; z > z0 + d
where in this form: [H ]= W m-2. Note, as can be seen from a κ # z0 &
unit analysis, the density in Equations (8.3.2) and (8.3.3) is κ ≡ von Karman constant = 0.4
air density. The specific heat of air is: cp = 1004 J kg-1 K-1. u* ≡ friction velocity
The next question is what are the diffusivities related to? The parameters z0 and d are called the momentum roughness
When dealing with molecular diffusion (e.g. envision dye height and zero-plane displacement height respectively and are
diffusing in a water-filled beaker), the diffusivities are simply representative of the impact of the roughness of the surface on
related to the constituent and the fluid. However in land- the mean flow. They are often parameterized in terms of a
atmosphere interaction, molecular diffusion is not the driving characteristic roughness height of the surface (h) as:
process. Instead, it is turbulent fluid motions in the
262
z 0 0.1h (8.3.5)
d 0.7h
263
κ 2V22 (T2 −T1 ) (8.3.8) ra = raN φmφh (8.3.10)
H −ρc p
( " z − d %+ (V2 −V1 ) φm ≡ momentum stability correction factor
2
** ln $ 2 '--
z φh ≡ sensible/latent heat stability correction factor
) # 0 &,
where the subscripts on T, q, and V represent values of those The stability correction factors scale the resistance in a way
variables at two measurement levels: z1 and z2. The above that recognizes enhancement or suppression of resistance to
models are for a neutral surface layer. Note that, strictly turbulent transport in unstable or stable conditions
speaking, we would expect the sensible heat flux to approach respectively. A commonly used empirical form for these
zero in neutral conditions since the temperature gradient is functions are (Businger et al., 1971):
zero. Modifications to account for thermal stability effects can
φh = φm2 = (1 − 15RiB )−1/2 ; RiB ≤ 0 (unstable) (8.3.11)
be included (shown below). In applying these models we often
φh = φm = (1 − 5RiB )−1; 0 ≤ RiB < 0.2 (stable)
choose one level to be at the surface (i.e. z1 = z0 + d) where
by definition V1 = 0 and re-define the other variables as:
where RiB is the bulk Richardson number, which is a non-
T1 = Tsurf , q1 = q surf , V2 = V , T2 = Ta , q 2 = qa
dimensional ratio of the thermal stability to wind shear:
From this we can then define the “aerodynamic resistance” to (g /Tsurf )∂T ∂z (8.3.12)
turbulent transport (under neutral conditions): RiB =
(∂V ∂z) 2
2
( " z − d %+ (8.3.9)
** ln $ '--
Note that for neutral conditions (i.e. where the temperature
) # z 0 &,
raN = gradient in the above equation is zero):
κ 2V
RiB = 0; φm = φh = 1 (8.3.13)
where the N subscript is meant to denote neutral conditions.
This resistance has dimensions of T/L (i.e. s m-1). The height so that the aerodynamic resistance in Equation (8.3.10)
z in Equation (8.3.9) is the reference-level height at which the reduces to the neutral value shown in Equation (8.3.9). The
meteorological measurements are taken (e.g. often 2 meters sign of the temperature gradient in the surface layer
above the surface). For the more general (non-neutral surface (numerator in Equation (8.3.12)) controls the sign of RiB
layer) case, the resistance can be generalized using the which corresponds to unstable or stable conditions. For
approximation: unstable conditions (negative temperature gradient), the
264
stability correction factors are less than 1.0 (which reduces the at transporting the vapor/heat away from the surface. From
resistance; enhanced turbulence), while for stable conditions the resistance model, it can be seen that as the reference-level
they are greater than 1.0 (which increases the resistance; velocity increases, the resistance decreases (which causes the
suppressed turbulence). flux to increase). This is because a larger reference-level
velocity implies more surface layer turbulence, which will
Using this notation the evaporation flux model can be increase the turbulent transport. Similarly, if the roughness of
written as: the surface increases, turbulence will also increase, reducing
(q surf − qa ) (8.3.14) the resistance and increasing the fluxes. It should be noted
E=ρ
ra that these flux models so far have been developed for bare soil
or open water surfaces only. The resistance analogy becomes
useful as other factors (most notably vegetation) become
or equivalently in terms of latent heat flux:
relevant, the effects of which can also be embedded in a
(q surf − qa ) (8.3.15) resistance term. Then the law of resistances in series or
LE = ρLv
ra parallel used in circuits can be used to easily augment these
models. For example, in some models an additional resistance
is used to model the barrier in vapor leaving the soil in which
and the sensible heat flux model can be written as:
case the resistance in the denominator of Equations (8.3.15)
(Tsurf −Ta ) (8.3.16) and (8.3.16) can be replaced by: r = rsoil + ra.
H = ρc p
ra
To estimate the fluxes using the above models requires
specification of time-varying variables including:
The resistance terminology is used because one can meteorological measurements (V, Ta, qa, i.e. from a weather
conceptualize these fluxes using a circuit analogy, where the station), and surface states Tsurf and qsurf, as well as relatively
“current” in this context is the flux, the “potential difference” static surface characteristic roughness parameters (h, z0, d).
is the difference in either humidity or temperature and ra is The surface states are often predicted as part of a land-surface
the resistance. This will be discussed more in the next section. model (i.e. that models the surface energy/water balance).
The fluxes are driven by gradients in humidity and
These so-called mass-transfer (or diffusion analogy)
temperature between the surface and atmosphere (larger
models show that the flux is proportional to the differences in
gradient yields larger fluxes) and regulated by turbulent
the relevant variables between the surface and reference-level,
transport (smaller resistance yields larger fluxes).
and the resistance describes how efficiently the turbulence is
265
Over well-watered surfaces (i.e. open water or moist soil), where in this example the soil moisture reduction factor
the air in contact with the surface is expected to be saturated. linearly increases between the wilting point and field capacity
In this special case one can generally assume: qsurf = qs(Tsurf) and is otherwise 0 or 1 below the wilting point or above the
which is equivalent to E = Ep (i.e. potential evaporation). field capacity respectively.
Based on this, one model used for potential evaporation is:
Connecting these models back to the necessary
(q s (Tsurf ) − qa ) (8.3.17) requirements for evaporation stated in Section 2:
Ep = ρ
ra
i) Water availability: This comes into the above equations
implicitly through qsurf or explicitly via the soil moisture.
In the more general soil case, soil moisture limits qsurf (i.e. qsurf
< qs(Tsurf)), and E < Ep (i.e. actual evaporation is less than ii) Energy input: The net radiation implicitly drives the
the potential evaporation). In such cases, the soil moisture evolution of surface temperature, which itself appears
impact is often modeled as: implicitly or explicitly in the evaporation equations above.
q surf = β(θ )q s (Tsurf ) (8.3.18) iii) Transport of vapor away from surface: The aerodynamic
β ≡ soil moisture reduction factor, 0 ≤ β ≤ 1 resistance is the term that expresses the regulation of
transport of vapor (or energy) away from the surface via
or via: turbulent motions.
E = β(θ )E p (8.3.19)
E XAMPLE 8.3.1
where in either case the soil moisture reduction factor is an
increasing function of soil moisture that varies between 0 and Meteorological and surface measurements
1, e.g.: collected at noon from a bare soil field site are:
266
E XAMPLE 8.3.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 8.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
Assume the soil is saturated (i.e. after a heavy The specific humidity of the air and aerodynamic
rain) and has roughness elements with an average resistance (for neutral conditions) are given by:
height of 2 cm. Compute the instantaneous latent
es (Ta )
heat flux. For simplicity assume neutral qa = RH × q s (Ta ) = RH × ε
p
conditions in your calculation. Comment on the
36.9 mb
qualitative difference you would expect if non- = (0.69)(0.622) = 16.3 g/kg
973 mb
neutral conditions were included. What is the
2
equivalent evaporation rate in mm/day? ( " 2 m − 0.7(0.02 m)%+
* ln $ '-
Given the measurement of surface soil temperature and ) # 0.1(0.02 m) &,
raN = = 51 s/m
knowledge that the surface is saturated, we can safely (0.4)2(5.8 m/s)
assume that:
The air density can be computed as:
es (Tsurf )
q surf = q s (Tsurf ) = ε p
p ρ=
RdT[1 + 0.608qa ]
Using the integrated Clausius-Clapeyron equation, the 97300 Pa
=
saturated soil surface vapor pressure can be computed (287J/kg/K)(300.35K)[1 + 0.608(16.3 × 10 −3 )]
which yields es(Tsurf)=36.2 mb, which then gives: = 1.12 kg/m −3
36.2 mb
q surf = 0.622 = 23.1 × 10 −3 kg/kg so that the evaporation rate is:
973 mb
(23.1 − 16.3) × 10 −3 kg/kg
E = (1.12 kg/m ) 3
The evaporative mass flux is given by: (51 s/m)
267
E XAMPLE 8.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
268
S ECTION 4
Transpiration
The models presented in the previous section are relevant
for open water surfaces or bare soil surfaces. However in many
applications, vegetation is present and is expected to play a
key role in ET. Transpiration by plants occurs via the
vascular system of the plant structure (Figure 8.4). It is
helpful to first start with the “motivation” underlying the
plant’s role in water loss from the surface. In this context,
photosynthesis is the key driver. Plants use photosynthesis to
build plant structures (leaves, stems, roots, etc.) in order to
grow. The photosynthetic reaction can be written as:
where the key driver implicit in the forward progression of F IGURE 8.4 Schematic of key structures of a plant as rele-
this reaction are photons from the sun (“photosynthetically vant to transpiration flux (by Laurel Jules from
active radiation” [PAR], which is essentially energy in the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transpiration_Overview.svg).
270
The evaporative loss occurs because the air inside the
stomatal cavity is essentially saturated (i.e. q = qs), while that
outside the leaf is generally sub-saturated (i.e. q < qs). This
gradient in vapor will drive a diffusive flux as described in the
previous section. The guard cells attempt to regulate the
carbon dioxide influx in a way that minimizes environmental
stresses on the plant (chiefly water loss). This ability to
regulate transpiration will add an additional “resistance” to
the flux equations developed in the previous section. This can
be modeled in terms of an extra stomatal or vegetation
canopy resistance (Figure 8.7). The details of this
physiological behavior are complicated, but the way it is
handled in the modeling of ET is generally simplified. The
resistance for the entire vegetation canopy (i.e. all of the
leaves combined) is often scaled from the single-leaf scale
using the so-called leaf area index (LAI), which is defined as
the leaf area per unit area of ground surface. So dense
vegetation with a large leaf area to ground surface area may
have values of LAI of approximately 6.0 or greater. This
parameter has both a strong spatial and seasonal variation
(Movie 8.1).
F IGURE 8.7 Conceptualization of controls on evapotranspira-
The canopy resistance (rc) is then modeled as: tion process using a resistance analogy approach (from
media.wiley.com/mrw_images/els/articles/a0003206/image_n/
r nfgz002.gif).
rc = s (8.4.2)
LAI
where rs is the stomatal resistance. In the same way that ra is the resistances are in series, the total resistance can be
the resistance to evaporation due to turbulent transport, rc is thought of as just the sum of the two resistances. Hence the
the resistance to transpiration due to stomatal control. Since mass-transfer (diffusion analogy) model developed in Section 3
can be easily augmented to account for this effect:
271
place at the potential rate (Ep) since water is freely available
for evaporation from the leaves, and the contribution from the
leaf surface is often called interception loss. The amount of
precipitation that directly reaches the surface (i.e. is not
intercepted) is called throughfall. Additional water can fall to
the surface via drainage if the interception storage fills up in
conjunction with continuing precipitation.
# 1, θ fc ≤ θ
%
%% θ − θ
fθ (θrz ) = $ wp
, θwp ≤ θ ≤ θ fc (8.4.8)
rz
θ
% fc − θ wp
%
%& 0, θ ≤ θwp
273
soil moisture is at or below the wilting point (i.e. 0.1 in Figure
8.8) the stoma will have to shut completely. When the E XAMPLE 8.4.1
rootzone moisture is above the field capacity (i.e. 0.4 in Figure
A vegetated surface is adjacent to the bare soil
8.8) then water is plentiful and the stoma can be open. Given
that all of these variables are functions of time, the stress surface described in Example 8.3.1. The
functions themselves are functions of time as is the stomatal/ vegetation consists of a grass surface with a
canopy resistance. characteristic height of 5 cm, a leaf area index of
2.5 and a minimum stomatal resistance of 70 s/
In summary, the presence of vegetation primarily changes m. The incident shortwave radiation at the
evapotranspiration by adding an additional regulation on the surface is measured to be 900 W m-2. Assume the
flux of vapor at the surface. Vegetation plays an active role in meteorological conditions and surface conditions
the water vapor loss (transpiration) via the regulation of for the vegetated surface are the same as that in
stomatal openings in the leaves. When under perfectly
Example 8.3.1. Compute the evaporation rate
unstressed conditions, the stomatal resistance is equal to the
from the vegetated surface.
minimum stomatal resistance, which is then scaled by the LAI
so that the additional regulation is entirely determined by The primary difference for a vegetated surface is the
plant-dependent parameters. In the more general cases, additional resistance due to stomatal control on vapor
environmental conditions (both meteorological and soil loss. This requires computation of each of the
moisture) can generally increase the canopy resistance as the environmental stress factors in the stomatal resistance
environmental conditions are sub-optimal for vegetation function. Based on the saturated soil and meteorological
photosynthetic functioning. In the extreme case where conditions and using functions illustrated in Figure 8.8
environmental conditions are severely sub-optimal (e.g. (Equations (8.4.5)-(8.4.8)), the stress factors can be
rootzone soil moisture becomes very dry approaching the estimated as:
wilting point of the plant), transpiration can be shut-off
1.105(900 W m −2 )
completely via the complete closing of the stoma. fR (R ) =
↓
s
= 0.98
s
1.007(900 W m ) + 104.4
−2
274
E XAMPLE 8.4.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 8.4.1 ( CONTINUED )
For the vapor pressure deficit term: → LE = (2.5 × 10 6 J/kg)(0.88 × 10 −4 kg/m 2 /s)
δe = es (Ta ) − ea = es (1 − RH ) = (36.9 mb)(1-0.69) = 219 W m −2
= 11.44 mb which is less than the bare soil evaporation.
fδe (δe) = 1 − 0.000238(1144 Pa) = 0.73
= 49 s/m
(38 + 49 s/m)
= 0.88 × 10 −4 kg/m 2 /s
275
S ECTION 5 Using a finite difference approach this can be written as:
c p (T2 −T1 )
Additional ET Models B=
Lv (q 2 − q1 )
(8.5.2)
H = B ⋅ LE (8.5.5)
where the gradients are determined between two levels in the
atmosphere (i.e. could be over soil, open water or vegetation).
276
The second model described here is the so-called Penman
E XAMPLE 8.5.1 model. Penman (1948) combined the mass-transfer models
with surface energy balance to derive a model for potential
A meteorological tower takes temperature and
evaporation. The primary development of the model is as
humidity measurements at two levels (where level follows:
1 is at 5 m and level 2 is 10 m above the surface)
and available energy measurements: 1. Assume that the surface humidity in the mass-transfer
model for evaporation is equal to the saturated specific
Air temperature (level 1) =27.2ºC
humidity (this implies potential evaporation):
Air temperature (level 2) =24.2ºC
Air specific humidity (level 1) =12 g/kg q surf = q s (Tsurf ) (8.5.6)
Air specific humidity (level 2) =11 g/kg
2. Linearize the saturated specific humidity around the air
Available energy (Rn - G) = 500 W m-2
temperature via a Taylor series expansion:
Estimate the latent and sensible heat fluxes from
dq s 1 d qs
2
the surface. q s (Tsurf ) = q s (Ta ) + (Tsurf −Ta ) + (T −T )2
+ ...
dT T 2 dT 2 surf a
a T
a
From the two-level measurements, the Bowen ratio can
be estimated as: Keeping only the linear terms (i.e. the first two terms on the
1004 J/kg/K (27.2 − 24.2) K right-hand-side) yields:
B= = 1.2
2.5 × 10 6 J/kg (12 − 11) × 10 −3 dq s (8.5.7)
q s (Tsurf ) q s (Ta ) + (T −Ta )
dT T surf
Based on the available energy, the latent and sensible a
277
often written using the following simplified notation: temperature, humidity, wind speed, and surface roughness. It
dq s ε des ε also shows two key drivers of potential evaporation, the first
= = Δ (8.5.9)
dT p dT p term in the numerator is energy driven, while the second term
is associated with “atmospheric demand” depending on how
humid the air is. As mentioned in Section 3, the actual
3. Rearrange the mass-transfer equation for sensible heat into: evaporation is often then modeled as:
Hra
(Tsurf −Ta ) = (8.5.10) LE = β(θ )LE p (8.5.12)
ρc p
5. Substitute the expression for (Tsurf - Ta) into the linearized A reservoir has a nearby meteorological station
Equation (8.5.7), which can then be substituted into the that takes the following measurements:
mass-transfer equation for E (Equation (8.3.14)).
Air temperature =29.2ºC
6. Finally, solving for LE yields the Penman equation for Air relative humidity =76%
potential evaporation (i.e. from bare soils or open water Surface air pressure = 980 mb
surfaces): Windspeed (at 2 m height) = 10.3 m/s
Available energy (Rn - G) = 383.2 W m-2
Δ ρL
(Rn − G) + v δ q
γ ra Estimate the evaporation rate (in mm/day).
LE p = (8.5.11)
Δ Assume the characteristic wave height on the
1+
γ reservoir surface is 3 cm.
pc p
γ ≡ psychrometric constant = Note that in this case there is no data characterizing the
ε Lv surface temperature. (If the surface temperature was
δ q = qs (Ta ) − qa known, we could reasonably assume that the surface
specific humidity was equal to the saturated specific
The Penman model provides potential evaporation rates
humidity at that temperature.) Hence the mass-transfer
given estimates of available energy, reference-level air
278
E XAMPLE 8.5.2 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 8.5.2 ( CONTINUED )
model cannot be used in this case. Since the problem The Clausius-Clapeyron and psychrometric terms are
involves evaporation from an open-water surface we given by:
know that the evaporation rate should equal the
Lv es (2.5 × 10 6 J/kg) (4157 Pa)
potential evaporation rate. Given the measurements of Δ= =
available energy, the Penman model is applicable to this Rv T 2 (461 J/kg/K) (302.35 K)2
problem: = 246.6 Pa/K
(98000 Pa)(1004 J/kg/K)
Δ ρL γ= = 63.3 Pa/K
(Rn −G) + v δq (0.622)(2.5 × 10 6 J/kg)
γ ra
LE p = Δ 246.6 Pa/K
Δ = = 3.9
1+ γ 63.3 Pa/K
γ
Putting all terms together yields the latent heat flux:
where each term needs to be computed. The air density
can be computed from the ideal gas law for these (3.9)(383.2 W/m 2 )
LE p = +
conditions, which yields a density of 1.11 kg/m3. The 1 + 3.9
aerodynamic resistance (under neutral conditions) is (1.11 kg/m 3 )(2.5 × 10 6 J/kg)
equal to (from Equation (8.3.9)): ra = 25.6 s/m. The (6.3 × 10 −3 )
(25.6 s/m)
specific humidity deficit is a function of air temperature 1 + 3.9
and relative humidity as given by: = 444 W/m 2
# 2.5×106 J/kg # 1 1 &&
es (Ta ) = (6.11 mb) exp % % − (( The equivalent evaporation rate is then given by:
$ 461 J/kg/K $ 273.16 K 302.35 K ''
= 41.57 mb 444 W/m 2 1 m3
E[mm/day] = × ×
(2.5 × 10 6 J/kg) 1000 kg
ea = (0.76) ( 41.57 mb) = 31.59 mb 1000 mm 86400 s
× = 15.3 mm/day
ε (0.622) 1m 1 day
δq = δe = (4157 − 3159 Pa) = 6.3×10−3 kg/kg
p (98000 Pa)
279
Other models have followed directly from Penman. For resistance term in the mass-transfer model. Following that
example over a large moist surface with minimal advection the approach, one can show:
air will become saturated under continued evaporation, i.e.:
Δ ρL
δq → 0 (Rn − G) + v δ q
γ ra
LE = (8.5.15)
Δ r
Under these conditions one can define the “equilibrium 1+ + c
γ ra
evaporation”, i.e. that driven solely by energy considerations:
Δ In functional form this is identical to the Penman model
(R − G) (8.5.13)
γ n except for the additional (last) term in the denominator which
LEe =
Δ includes the canopy resistance. In fact, in the limit that the
1+
γ canopy resistance goes to zero, this equation reduces to the
Penman model as expected. Despite these similarities, some
The Priestly-Taylor model postulates a relationship between care needs to be taken in terms of the meaning of the ET
potential and equilibrium evaporation, i.e.: predicted by the Penman-Monteith equation. Note that in its
general form the canopy resistance has a soil moisture stress
Δ
(Rn −G) (8.5.14) factor embedded in it (Equations (8.4.2) and (8.4.4)). Hence if
γ
LE p = α ⋅ LEe = α ⋅ one wishes to use Penman-Monteith to model potential
Δ
1+ evapotranspiration, then one needs to set the soil moisture
γ
stress factor to 1.0 (which is equivalent to soil moisture not
being a limiting factor). The soil moisture impact on actual
where experimentally it has been found that in many cases evaporation could then be considered via Equation (8.5.12).
the multiplicative coefficient has a value of 1.26. Given this, Alternatively, if one keeps the soil moisture stress function in
the Priestly-Taylor model is often used to estimate potential the canopy resistance, then the equation will not predict
evaporation (and does not require humidity or wind speed potential evapotranspiration, but more closely actual
measurements). evapotranspiration.
Finally, it must be noted that the Penman model does The set of models described in this and the previous
not consider vegetation cover. To account for the impact of sections, take various approaches to predict ET based on
vegetation, the Penman-Monteith model is an extension which various inputs. The model chosen depends on the surface type
follows the same recipe as above, but considers the canopy as well as the measurements that are available. The specific
280
measurements that are available are often the result of
practical factors like cost of equipment and operation and
maintenance costs, proximity to existing infrastructure, etc.
E XAMPLE 8.5.3
(3.9)(383.2 W/m 2 )
LE = +
50 s/m
1 + 3.9 +
20 s/m
(1.11 kg/m 3 )(2.5 × 10 6 J/kg)
(6.3 × 10 −3 )
(20 s/m)
50 s/m
1 + 3.9 +
20 s/m
= 326 W/m 2
281
S ECTION 6 psychrometric_constant.m
Penman model:
penman.m
Penman-Monteith model:
penman_monteith.m
282
S ECTION 7 8. What physical process in the near-surface layer of the
atmosphere is chiefly responsible for the transport of vapor
Conceptual Questions (or heat) away from the surface?
284
S ECTION 8 Air temperature = 15.2ºC
Air relative humidity = 34%
Sample Problems Surface air pressure = 711.9 mb
Wind speed at 2 m height = 2.7 m s-1
Net shortwave radiation = 734.2 W m-2
Problem 8.1. On a given day, the following meteorological
Net longwave radiation = -152.4 W m-2
and surface measurements were collected at noon from a bare
soil field site in the Emerald Lake watershed: Assume the surface is snow-free and the conduction of energy
(ground heat flux) into the sandy loam soil is 20% of the net
Air temperature = 11.5ºC radiation and the characteristic soil roughness height (h) at
Air relative humidity = 46.5 % the site is 5 cm. Also assume that the soil is saturated (i.e. the
Surface air pressure = 714 mb measurements are taken shortly after snowmelt).
Wind speed at 2m height = 1.9 m s-1 a) Using only the measurements/information provided, which
Soil surface temperature = 22.5ºC model discussed in class could be used to estimate the
The measurements are taken on the first sunny day after a instantaneous surface evaporation? Which model/s cannot be
rainstorm (you can assume the soil is saturated). The soil used if you only have the data provided? Explain why.
roughness elements have an average characteristic height of 5
b) Consider a general case where soil moisture may limit the
cm. For simplicity, assume neutral atmospheric conditions.
surface specific humidity. In this case actual latent heat can
a) What additional information/input data would you need if be modeled using Equation (8.5.12). Consider two cases: 1) a
the soil were not saturated? saturated soil as mentioned above; and 2) a water-limited case
(volumetric soil moisture is 80% of the field capacity) where
b) Use the appropriate model to compute the instantaneous the multiplicative reduction factor is given by Equation
latent and sensible heat fluxes. (8.3.20). Use an appropriate model to compute the latent heat
flux using the above measurements for each of these cases.
c) What is the equivalent evaporation rate (in mm/day) from
How do the values of the fluxes between the water-limited
the surface at noon?
case and the saturated soil case compare? For simplicity,
Problem 8.2. A meteorological station takes the following assume neutral atmospheric conditions.
measurements at solar noon:
285
c) What is the equivalent evaporation rate (in units of mm c) How would you expect the Bowen ratio of an arid (dry)
day-1) from the soil for each case? region to compare to that of a wet region at noon on a clear-
sky day over snow-free bare soil?
d) How would you expect the evaporation rate to change if
the wind speed were to decrease? Explain. Problem 8.4. A farmer is trying to decide which type of
orchard tree to plant, crop A or B. She wants to plant the one
Problem 8.3. that uses less water where the amount of irrigation applied to
A meteorological station/tower is set up at a field site to take a crop is typically equal to the estimated evapotranspiration
the following measurements: net radiation at the surface (Rn), from the crop. At 10 meters above the surface, the typical
ground (surface) heat flux (G), and air temperature and wind speed, air temperature, and relative humidity are
specific humidity at two different heights within the determined to be: 6 m s-1, 22ºC, and 37% respectively. The
atmospheric surface layer (T1 and T2 and q1 and q2). representative available energy over the growing period is 487
Measurements taken at noon for a particular day are given W m-2, the density of air is 1.18 kg m-3, and the representative
below. Note: No surface humidity and temperature data is surface air pressure is 990 mb. It can be safely assumed that
available. the ground heat flux is negligible. Type A grows to about 3.0
meters tall and has an average canopy resistance of 120 s m-1.
T1 = 26.0ºC
Type B grows to about 2.5 meters tall and has an average
T2 = 24.0ºC canopy resistance of 76 s m-1. Which orchard tree should the
q1 = 11.0 g kg-1 farmer plant to minimize irrigation demand? Justify your
q2 = 8.6 g kg-1 answer.
G = 40.0 W m-2
Rn = 404.5 W m-2
286
S ECTION 9 Provide an explanation for the “tradeoff” seen in sensible vs.
latent heat flux, keeping in mind that the available energy
MOD-WET Problems gets partitioned into latent and sensible heat flux, ii) Explain
how the surface temperature is related to the evolution of soil
moisture and evaporation, keeping in mind that evaporation is
a very efficient cooling mechanism.
Problem 8.1. In this problem, you will examine surface
states and fluxes during an inter-storm period in the d) What is the maximum evaporative flux in (mm/day) that
watershed. Using the output from your simulation over the occurs during this period?
watershed, consider the 30-day period immediately following
the last snowmelt event of the season for one of the pixels
chosen above for each part below. This period immediately
follows the last snowmelt event of the season.
Groundwater
Flow
S ECTION 1 9. Solve the groundwater flow equation via integration for
simple steady-state one-dimensional boundary value
Learning Objectives problems
290
p (9.2.1)
h= +z
ρg
292
E XAMPLE 9.2.1 E XAMPLE 9.2.1 ( CONTINUED )
A square island has an unconfined aquifer with a middle of the island with values above 25 m, but below
piezometric head distribution (h(x,y); in meters) 30 m (since there is no 30 m contour). The head
as shown in the figure below. The aquifer is generally decreases to zero at the aquifer boundaries.
homogeneous and has a saturated hydraulic The water will flow down the head gradient (i.e. from
Problem #3: (6 points ~ 20 min.)
conductivity of 1.0 m/d and a porosity of 0.35. high to low head). Based on the distribution of head, the
The steady-state head field for a confined aquifer under a 5 km x 5 km square island (with a
homogeneousWhat is the
and isotropic Darcy
hydraulic flux and
conductivity poreis velocity
of 1 m/day) plotted in theat themap below.
contour The flow pattern will also vary in space. The Darcy flux is
datum is such that the head on all sides of the boundary of the island is 0 m.
location: x = 3 km, y = 2 km? given by:
q = −K∇h
a) On the map,
Thesketch the flowof
pattern direction
head of water starting
shows a generalfrom point
peak(3km, theto the edge of the island. in
near3km) the direction shown in the figure below. The pore
(2 pts.)
velocity is in the same direction with a magnitude:
b) Where is the Darcy flux the maximum and what is its approximate value? Explain your reasoning for
choosing where the flux is largest. (4 pts.)
293
E XAMPLE 9.2.1 ( CONTINUED )
Problem #3: (6 points ~ 20 min.)
The steady-state head field for a confined aquifer under a 5 km x 5 km square island (with a
homogeneous and isotropic hydraulicqconductivity
0.01 m/d
of 1 m/day) is plotted in the contour map below. The
v = = 0.029
= the
datum is such that the head on all sides of the boundary of islandm/d
is 0 m.
θs 0.35
+"
a) On the map, sketch the flow direction of water starting from point (3km, 3km) to the edge of the island.
(2 pts.)
Note that the Darcy flux and velocity will vary in space.
For example, the Darcy flux will be highest where the
b) Where is the Darcy flux the maximum and what is its approximate value? Explain your reasoning for
contours
choosing where the flux isare closest
largest. (i.e. largest gradient), which occurs
(4 pts.)
near the point x = 2.5 km, y = 5 km. At this location
Problem #4: (12head
the pointsgradient
~ 30 min.)is about 3 times larger than above,
A farmer hasmaking
a row irrigation system asflux
the Darcy shown in Figure
and 1 below.
velocity The soil
3 times is bounded on both sides by
larger.
drainage ditches which allow water to be removed from the soil through lateral groundwater flow. The
water in the drainage ditches is maintained at a depth H0. The irrigation rate I is applied at the top of the
soil profile. The water which is not evaporated via transpiration by the crops recharges (at a rate R) the
unconfined aquifer below (which is bounded by a horizontal impermeable layer at depth D). The crops
being grown by the farmer have a rooting depth of d and have an average evapotranspiration rate E. The 294
farmer must decide the irrigation rate such that the rootzone remains unsaturated (i.e. the water table
S ECTION 3 ∂h (9.3.3)
Ss = −∇(q)
∂t
Development of Groundwa-
which can be expanded to:
ter Flow Equation Ss
∂h ∂q ∂q ∂q
=− x − y − z (9.3.4)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
The groundwater flow equation is analogous to the flow
equation for unsaturated flow, but under saturated conditions.
Here we will start with the general 3D flow equation using Substituting in Darcy’s Law yields the general form of the 3D
mass balance and then simplify it to 1D and 2D versions as groundwater flow equation:
special cases. ∂h ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞
Ss = K + K + K (9.3.5)
∂t ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂z ⎜⎝ z ∂z ⎟⎠
The statement of mass balance can be written as (same
starting point as in unsaturated flow):
This is a second order PDE in h. For a general solution
∂M (9.3.1)
= −∇( ρwq dx dy dz) h(x,y,z,t), there also needs to be two boundary conditions
∂t
(BCs) per coordinate and one initial condition (IC) specified.
Once h is known, then everything about the flow field can be
where again the left-hand-side term is the change in mass computed. In other words, the key point is that in any
storage and the right-hand-side term is the convergence of flux groundwater flow problem what we are really solving for is the
(both for a differential volume of soil). From the definition of piezometric surface (h) first. Once known we can determine
specific storage, we can expand the storage term as: everything about the flow itself. This is analogous to the
∂M ∂h unsaturated flow problem, where when soil moisture is known
= ρwSs dx dy dz (9.3.2)
everything else can be determined. In that case the head is a
∂t ∂t
function of soil moisture, whereas in groundwater it is not.
which transforms the mass storage change into a piezometric Before proceeding to the development of the 2D flow
head change. Plugging this into Equation (9.3.1) and equation, some special cases that are often encountered are
assuming the density of water is constant yields: worth mentioning. First, an aquifer is said to be homogeneous
if its conductivity field does not vary in space, i.e.:
295
∂K x ∂K y ∂K z In many natural groundwater systems, the flow is largely
K i ≠ K i (x,y,z) ⇔ = = =0 horizontal (i.e. in the x- and y-directions) with little to no
∂x ∂y ∂z
vertical flow. As such, in many cases solving the 2D GW flow
Second, an aquifer is said to be isotropic if there is no equation is sufficient. Here we develop the 2D flow equation
directionality to the conductivity field, i.e.: from the general 3D equation shown above. The usual
mechanism for doing so if via the so-called Dupuit
K x = Ky = K z = K
approximation, which essentially involves integrating the 3D
equation with respect to z, assuming no vertical flow inside
Finally, if the flow is in steady-state, then there are no head
the aquifer (qz = 0) and that the aquifer has a horizontal lower
variations in time, i.e.:
boundary. Together these mean that h=h(x, y, t). Note that
∂h the lack of dependence on z implies that h is constant in any
=0
∂t vertical plane. This is consistent with the no vertical flow
assumption (i.e. if h varied with z then there would be a
gradient and therefore a Darcy flux). In such cases, as depth
Given these special conditions, one can derive simplified forms
increases into the aquifer, there are one-to-one tradeoffs
of the 3D flow equation. For example, for a homogeneous/
between the pressure and elevation head terms so that the
isotropic aquifer, we can write the governing equation as:
head is constant in the vertical. In other words, at the surface
∂h ⎡ ∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h ⎤ (9.3.6) the pressure is zero so the piezometric head is equal to the
Ss =K⎢ 2 + 2 + 2⎥
∂t ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ elevation head. As one moves down vertically into the aquifer
the pressure increases such that the pressure head increases by
the exact amount that the elevation head decreases.
or for an homogeneous/isotropic aquifer in steady-state:
⎡ ∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h ⎤ To develop the 2D GW flow equation we integrate
(9.3.7)
⎢ 2 + 2 + 2⎥=∇h =0
2
Equation (9.3.5) from z = 0 to z = H, where H = h (i.e. the
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
water table) in the case of an unconfined aquifer and H = b
(i.e. the aquifer thickness) in the case of an confined aquifer:
which is the well-known Laplace equation, which is seen not
only in groundwater problems but many other fields including
H H
heat transfer. ∂h ⎡∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤
∫0 s ∂t
S dz = ∫0 ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠ + ∂z
⎢ K + K ⎜⎝ K z ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎥dz
⎣ ⎦
296
This equation consists of four terms (one on the left-hand-side Finally, term #4 is:
and three on the right-hand-side). We will focus on integration H H
⎡∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤ ∂h ∂h ∂h
of them one-by-one. First, term #1: ∫0 ⎢ ∂z ⎜⎝ z ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎥dz = K z ∂z
K = Kz
∂z H
− Kz
∂z 0
=R−0
⎣ ⎦ 0
H H
∂h ∂h
∫ Ss ∂t
dz =
∂t ∫0 s
S dz
0 where R is the recharge through the top of the aquifer and it
∂h is assumed there is no leakage out of the bottom of the aquifer
= Sy [unconfined aquifers]
∂t (impervious boundary).
∂h ∂h
=Ss ⋅b = S ; [confined aquifers]
∂t ∂t Putting all four terms back together yields the 2D flow
equation. For a confined aquifer this can be written as:
where the confined aquifer parameter: S = Ssb is called the
storativity. Term #2 is: ∂h ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ (9.3.8)
S = T + T +R
∂t ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠
∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤
H H H
⎡∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤ ∂ ⎡⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤
∫0 ⎢ ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ⎥ ∂x
K dz = ∫0 ⎢⎜⎝ K x ∂x ⎟⎠ ⎥dz = ∂x ⎢⎢K x ∂x z ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ which is a linear PDE. The recharge R is non-zero (and
∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ positive) only if the confined aquifer has a “leaky” upper
= K h [unconfined aquifer]
∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ boundary. For an unconfined aquifer the 2D flow equation is
∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ given by:
= K b = T [confined aquifer]
∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂h ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞
Sy = K h + K h +R (9.3.9)
∂t ∂x ⎜⎝ x ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠
where the confined aquifer parameter T = Kb is called the
transmissivity. Term #3 is similarly: which is a nonlinear PDE in h due to the product terms
involving h. As mentioned in the context of the unsaturated
∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤
H H H
⎡∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤ ∂ ⎡⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎤
∫0 ⎢ ∂y ⎜⎝ Ky ∂y ⎟⎠ ⎥dz = ∂y ∫0 ⎢⎜⎝ Ky ∂y ⎟⎠ ⎥dz = ∂y ⎢⎢Ky ∂y z ⎥⎥ flow equation, nonlinear PDEs are generally more difficult to
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
solve. To make the equation linear we can use the following
∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ identities:
= K h [unconfined aquifer]
∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠
∂h 1 ∂ 2 ∂h 1 ∂ 2
∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ h = (h ); h = (h )
= K b = T [confined aquifer] ∂x 2 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y
∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y ∂y ⎟⎠
297
along with a linearization (approximation) of the storage term direction), which is the same thing as saying that there is no
about a nominal head h0: variation in head in the y-direction. In such cases, the left-
S ∂ 2 hand-side term will be zero (steady-state) and the second
∂h h
Sy Sy = y (h ) term on the right-hand-side, which involves derivatives with
∂t h0 2h0 ∂t
respect to y, will also be zero. Therefore the 1D (steady-state)
flow equation will look like:
Substituting these terms into the original Equation (9.3.9)
d 2φ R (9.3.12)
yields: 0= 2 + ; subject to BCs
dx C2
Sy ∂h 2 ∂ ⎛ 1 ∂h 2 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ 1 ∂h 2 ⎞ (9.3.10)
= K + K +R
2h0 ∂t ∂x ⎜⎝ x 2 ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ y 2 ∂y ⎟⎠
where it should be noted that since it is 1D and steady-state
the governing equation is no longer a PDE, but instead an
which is now a linear PDE with respect to the variable h2. ODE. This equation can be integrated (twice) via separation
of variables, i.e.:
By expressing both equations in linear form, we can
write a unified governing linear 2D GW flow equation for a R 2
φ(x) = − x + a 0x + a 1 (9.3.13)
homogeneous/isotropic aquifer: 2C 2
∂φ ∂2 φ ∂2 φ R (9.3.11)
C1 = 2+ 2+
∂t ∂x ∂y C 2 The two integration constants (a0 and a1) can be determined
via application of the two BCs. Common BCs are fixed head
boundaries (which generally correspond to a lake/river
φ = h 2 2 [unconfined]; = h [confined]
boundary where the water level is in steady-state) or a no-flux
C 1 = Sy (Kh0 ) [unconfined]; = S T [confined]
boundary (where there is an impervious boundary like a
C 2 = K [unconfined]; = T [confined] bedrock outcrop). To reiterate: the solution to the above
equation will be the piezometric surface (in this case h(x)),
which can then be used to determine fluxes, pore velocities,
In many applications, especially those types of problems that
travel times, etc.
can be solved analytically, we will be dealing with steady-state
and/or 1D problems. In the case of steady-1D problems, we
can use the above unified equation as a starting point. A 1D
flow problem involves flow only in one direction (i.e. the x-
298
E XAMPLE 9.3.1 E XAMPLE 9.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
A farmer has a row irrigation system as shown in such that the rootzone remains unsaturated (i.e.
the cross-section figure below: the water table remains below the rooting depth
throughout the entire length L). The soil has a
saturated hydraulic conductivity K. Assuming
steady-state conditions with no change in storage
in the unsaturated zone:
299
E XAMPLE 9.3.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 9.3.1 ( CONTINUED )
b) The steady-state irrigated system yields a one- c) The form of the derived head profile indicates that
dimensional unconfined aquifer which is governed by there will be a peak in head at the mid-point of the
(from Equation (9.3.11)): aquifer. This can be proven by taking the derivative of
the head profile and setting it to zero, and is true in this
d 2h 2 2R
= − case because the boundary conditions are the same at
dx 2 K each boundary. The maximum allowable irrigation is
Integrating twice yields: such that the head is the requisite level shown in the
figure, i.e.:
R 2
h 2(x) = − x + a 0x + a 1 2
K R " L % RL " L %
h (x = L 2) = − $ ' +
2
$ ' + H 0 = (D − d)
2 2
K #2& K #2&
which has two (unknown) integration constants. They
can be determined by applying the boundary conditions RL2
→ + H 02 = (D − d)2
(BCs) at each end of the aquifer: 4K
(I − E)L2
→ + H 02 = (D − d)2
R 2 4K
h 2(x = 0) = − (0) + a 0 (0) + a1 = H 02
K
→ a1 = H 02 where solving for the irrigation rate yields:
R 4K
h 2(x = L) = −(L)2 + a 0 (L) + H 02 = H 02 I =E+ (D − d)2 − H 02
( )
K L2
RL
→ a0 =
K
R 2 RL
h 2(x) = − x + x + H 02
K K
300
S ECTION 4
Groundwater Flow to
Pumping Wells
As mentioned above, groundwater is a primary source of
freshwater. To extract this supply from an aquifer generally
requires a pumping well (Figure 9.4) whereby the well taps
into the existing (natural) flow conditions. A pumping well
generally consists of a lined bore hole (i.e. with a pipe) that
has a screened end within the aquifer and a pump on the
other end of the pipe. Turning on the pump takes water out of
the aquifer and by mass balance induces flow toward the well
as will be described in more detail below. Note that a
F IGURE 9.4 Illustration of impact of pumping on the re-
monitoring well is quite different, as it does not have a pump gional natural groundwater system.
and is generally used solely for monitoring the piezometric
surface and/or constituents in the water (i.e. is passive rather
than an active part in the flow system). A pumping well may
shown for a confined and unconfined aquifer in Figures 9.5
be drilled into a near-surface unconfined aquifer or more
and 9.6 respectively. The pumping rate is generally denoted
deeply into a confined aquifer. In this section we focus on the
by Q and is given a positive value for extraction out of the
hydraulics associated with flow toward pumping wells.
aquifer (or negative for pumping into the aquifer). The
For mathematical tractability we will focus on a single original piezometric surface (h0) is shown with a dashed line.
pumping well in an aquifer of infinite horizontal extent and for Note for the confined aquifer it occurs above the top of the
conditions where the original piezometric surface (i.e. prior to aquifer due to the large pressure head term, while for the
pumping) was horizontal. Extensions to multiple pumps and unconfined aquifer it corresponds to the water table itself. The
more realistic cases can be built up from these single-well spatial coordinate useful for well problems is the radius (r)
solutions via superposition as discussed in the next section. from the well. Additional parameters include the outer radius
The basic schematic for such single well configurations is of the well (rw) and the head within the well (hw). The water
301
F IGURE 9.5 Schematic of piezometric surface solution
around a single pumping well in a horizontally infinite con- F IGURE 9.6 Schematic of piezometric surface solution
fined aquifer (from Mays, 2005). around a single pumping well in a horizontally infinite uncon-
fined aquifer (from Mays, 2005).
302
∞
∂φ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ R (9.4.2) e −u (9.4.6)
C1 = r + W (u) = ∫ du
∂t r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠ C 2 u
u
To further simplify the problem we will assume no recharge where the dimensionless argument for the well function is:
(R=0) in which case this becomes:
Sr 2 (9.4.7)
u=
∂φ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ (9.4.3) 4Tt
C1 = r
∂t r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠
× 10-7 15.54 14.85 14.44 14.15 13.93 13.75 13.6 13.46 13.34
This PDE cannot be solved via separation of variables, but × 10-8 17.84 17.15 16.74 16.46 16.23 16.05 15.9 15.76 15.65
has a solution which is referred to as the Theis solution × 10-9 20.15 19.45 19.05 18.76 18.54 18.35 18.2 18.07 17.95
(solved in terms of drawdown): × 10-10 22.45 21.76 21.35 21.06 20.84 20.66 20.5 20.37 20.25
Q × 10-11 24.75 24.06 23.65 23.36 23.14 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
s(r,t) = h0 − h(r,t) = W (u) (9.4.5)
4πT × 10-12 27.05 26.36 25.96 25.67 25.44 25.26 25.11 24.97 24.86
× 10-13 29.36 28.66 28.26 27.97 27.75 27.56 27.41 27.28 27.16
× 10-14 31.66 30.97 30.56 30.27 30.05 29.87 29.71 29.58 29.46
where W(u) is the well function which is given by:
× 10-15 33.96 33.27 32.86 32.58 32.35 32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76
303
Based on the aquifer properties (S and T), u can be computed S ∂h 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ (9.4.9)
= r =0
for any radius and time and used as input to the well T ∂t r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠
function. The well function is typically evaluated via its
d ⎛ dh ⎞
tabulated solution (Table 9.1) or numerically (i.e. the MATLAB → r =0
dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
command expint is the well function integral). Alternatively,
the well function can be expanded via a Taylor series
expansion, i.e.:
Note that, because there is no time dependence, the equation
1 u2
W (u) = −0.5772 − ln u + u − + ... (9.4.8) goes from a PDE (hard to solve) to an ODE that can be
2 2!
solved easily via separation of variables. If the above equation
where the small higher-order terms can be dropped depending is integrated (twice) we get:
on the size of u. In addition to the Theis solution providing
drawdown information, it can also be used to estimate aquifer h(r) = c 0 ln(r) + c1 (9.4.10)
properties using measured drawdown from monitoring wells.
where c0 and c1 are integration constants that can be
Strictly speaking, an analytical solution for transient flow determined from BCs. If available, head measurements at two
toward a pump in an unconfined aquifer is not available. This locations could be used to identify the integration constants.
has to do with the nonlinearity of the governing PDE. Instead, generally one is related to the pumping rate and the
However based on the linearized version, an approximate second to a measurement. The flow toward the pumping well
solution can be obtained by using (K h0) in place of the can be equated to the pumping rate via:
transmissivity (T) in the above solution. This is equivalent to ⎛ dh ⎞ (9.4.11)
assuming the aquifer is quite thick so that the amount of Q = −2π rb ⎜ −K ⎟
⎝ dr ⎠
drawdown is relatively small compared to the original
piezometric surface (h0).
where the negative sign in front of the right-hand-side is
Next we focus on the analytical solutions for steady-state because flow is in the negative r-direction. The first term on
drawdown. For a confined aquifer the governing equation is the right-hand-side represents the cross-sectional area of flow,
given by: which is a cylinder at a radius r of height b, and the last term
in parentheses is the Darcy flux (which by definition is the
flow per unit cross-sectional area). Substituting the first
derivative of the general solution (Equation (9.4.10)) yields:
304
⎛ c ⎞ Q Q (9.4.12) Q ⎛ r ⎞ (9.4.16)
Q = 2π rb ⎜ K 0 ⎟ → c 0 = = s(r) = h0 − h(r) = − ln ⎜ ⎟ ; rw ≤ r ≤ R ′
⎝ r⎠ 2π Kb 2πT 2πT ⎝ R ′ ⎠
which provides the first integration constant in terms of the where it is noted that strictly this solution is valid starting at
pumping rate and the transmissivity of the aquifer. Solving for the radius of the well extending out to the radius of influence.
the second integration constant is generally done via the Beyond determining drawdown fields, the above solutions can
specification of a measured head h1 at a known radius r1 (i.e. be used to determine the aquifer transmissivity from two head
from a monitoring well) where one can write: measurements at different locations (monitoring wells), i.e.:
Q Q (9.4.13) Q ln[r2 r 1 ] (9.4.17)
h(r1 ) = h1 = ln(r1 ) + c1 → c1 = h1 − ln(r1 ) T =
2πT 2πT 2π h2 − h1
Substituting for the two integration constants with these Such an approach might first be used to characterize the
conditions yields: aquifer (i.e. determine its properties) which can then be used
to generally estimate drawdown fields throughout the aquifer.
Q !r $ (9.4.14)
h(r) = ln # & + h
2πT " r1 % 1 Finally, the last case to examine is the steady-state flow
in an unconfined aquifer with a single pumping well. The
which is the solution for the piezometric head in the case of a governing equation is:
single pumping well in a confined (infinite) aquifer in steady- S ∂h 2 1 ∂ ⎛ 1 ∂h 2 ⎞
= r =0 (9.4.18)
state conditions. For the special case where the specified Kh0 ∂t r ∂r ⎜⎝ 2 ∂r ⎟⎠
radius and head are the radius of influence (R’) and the
d ⎛ 1 dh 2 ⎞
corresponding (original) head (h0), yields: → ⎜r =0
dr ⎝ 2 dr ⎟⎠
Q ⎛ r ⎞ (9.4.15)
h(r) = ln ⎜ ⎟ + h0 ; rw ≤ r ≤ R ′ which can be integrated (twice) and using the same procedure
2πT ⎝ R ′ ⎠
for identifying integration constants as shown above (for the
confined aquifer case) yields:
which can be rearranged to obtain an expression for the
steady-state drawdown:
305
Q ⎛r⎞ (9.4.19) solutions can also be used to model the case of a recharge
h (r) =
2
ln ⎜ ⎟ + h12 ; rw ≤ r ≤ R ′ well, which is simply one that is used to pump water into the
π K ⎝ r1 ⎠
aquifer. Mathematically, this just involves using a negative
Because the solution is in terms of the square of the value for the pumping (recharge) rate. The result is a cone of
piezometric head, there is not as clean of a solution for “build-up” rather than one of depression as the water being
drawdown as there is in the confined aquifer case, but it still pumped into the aquifer initiates a head gradient away from
can be determined via: the well that drives flow laterally outward into the aquifer.
(5 m 3 /day) " 50 m %
s(r) = − ln $ ' = 0.19 m
2π (6.1 m 2 /day) # 215 m &
307
S ECTION 5 To start, the easiest example of superposition is the case
of a confined aquifer of infinite extent with multiple wells.
Superposition of Groundwa- Conceptually, we know that a single well generates a
symmetric drawdown around the well. Multiple wells will have
308
E XAMPLE 9.5.1
309
E XAMPLE 9.5.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 9.5.1 ( CONTINUED )
at the same rate, determine the required steady location will be in the center point of the construction at
state pumping rate that has to be extracted from a radius from one of the wells:
each of the four wells to meet the desired
objective. r = (40 m)2 + (40 m)2 = 56.7 m
310
Conceptually, for a given pumping rate, the aquifer must
supply that amount of water to preserve mass balance. In the
simple case of an infinite aquifer, the water comes
symmetrically from all directions with the result that
drawdown is a symmetric cone of depression around the well.
The primary consequence of the no-flux boundary is that flow
is cutoff from a portion of the aquifer so that the water must
be supplied by other portions of the aquifer, leading to non-
symmetric and generally higher drawdown. While this
complicated problem could be solved numerically, the question
is can we use superposition to our advantage to solve the
problem using the addition of single-well solutions?
311
involves putting an imaginary well at the same distance as the the two solutions over the entire domain provides the actual
real well on the other side of the boundary (hence it is an cone of depression for this case (shown with the solid line).
image well with the boundary serving as the “mirror”), with
Another example is shown in Figures 9.9 - 9.11 in terms
the same pumping rate as the true well. The result of this for
of the drawdown fields. Figure 9.9 illustrates that a single well
a no-flux boundary is shown in the bottom panel of Figure
solution for the real system violates the no-flux BC. Figure
9.8. Due to the symmetry of the choice made, adding the
9.10 shows the contours for the drawdown fields predicted by
drawdowns together ensures the proper BC at the location of
each of the (real and image) well drawdown solutions. Figure
the impermeable boundary (i.e. dh/dr = 0). Moreover adding
9.11 shows the summation of the two drawdown fields, which
312
distance equal to the radius of influence of the image well.
Finally, note that the solutions used in Equation (9.5.2) could
be either transient or steady-state depending on the particular
problem.
313
Another example analogous to that shown in Figures
9.9-9.11 for the no-flux BC is shown in Figure 9.13 for the
fixed-head BC. The setup is exactly the same as before except
that the image well involves recharge so that there is a sign
change in the image well drawdown contours. In this case the
drawdown from the image well is negative (build-up). By
summing up the two single-well solutions, we get the result
shown in Figure 9.13. As can be seen, the drawdown is
314
effectively zero everywhere on the boundary and the overall
drawdown is less than for a single well in an infinite aquifer. E XAMPLE 9.4.2
Q
s2 = s(r = 150 m, t = 2 days) = W (u2 );
4 πT
Sr12 (10 −4 )(150 m)2
u1 = = = 2.96 × 10 −4
4Tt 4(950 m /day)(2 day)
2
→W (u1 ) = 7.55
86400 s
(0.06 m 3 s −1 )
s2 = 1d 7.55 = 3.28 m
Assuming the radius of influence of the well is greater 4 π (950 m /day)
2
315
These examples show some of the power of the difference or finite element grid. Figure 9.14 shows an example
superposition principle to solve relatively complex problems in corresponding to a square island (i.e. with fixed head
a relatively easy way. Even these examples/concepts of boundary on all four sides) that is subject to a non-uniform
superposition could be used to build up solutions for more steady-state recharge (i.e. more recharge in the northeast
complicated problems. For example, if a pumping well is in a corner of the island). Numerical solution of the 2D flow
river valley with a horizontal head distribution prior to equation yields the steady-state piezometric head on the grid,
pumping, the aquifer may have a stream BC condition on one showing a characteristic “recharge mound” with flow implicitly
side and a impervious boundary on the other. Depending on down the head gradient to the island boundaries. Figure 9.15
the radius of influence of the well (i.e. given its pumping rate) shows a solution for the same recharge pattern, but with five
both boundaries may impact the flow patterns. In such a case pumping wells extracting water from the aquifer. As expected,
one may use two image wells and have an additive solution the solution is a superposition of the solution in Figure 9.14
with three terms instead of two. Or even more complicated
yet, the original head distribution (prior to pumping) may not
be horizontal, but itself the solution of a 1D flow problem
between the two BCs with recharge. In this case the solution
could be the summation of the original piezometric head
distribution combined with the drawdown from the real and
imaginary wells. Another example would be the case with
multiple real wells with a no-flux or fixed-head BC (or both).
In this case each real well would have a corresponding image
well. In these types of problems the hardest part is breaking
down the real problem into its constituent parts (each of
which has an analytical solution), with the easy part being
determining the solution via superposition of the individual
solutions.
316
F IGURE 9.15 Steady-state piezometric head (in meters) for
the same recharge as in Figure 9.14, but with five pumping
wells.
317
S ECTION 6 9. Suppose you have a no-flux boundary condition in a
groundwater problem. What do you know about the head
Conceptual Questions at the no-flux boundary?
318
S ECTION 7 e) Piezometric surface of the confined aquifer
f ) An artesian flowing well (i.e. one where water is expected
Sample Problems to rise to the surface without the need of a pump)
319
b) Integrate this equation using the boundary conditions b) A chemical company accidentally dumps a conservative
provided to find an expression for the head profile, h(x). chemical substance into the pond. Assuming that the chemical
instantly mixes with the pond water, estimate how long (in
c) Estimate the flux per unit width of the dam. days) it would take for the contaminant to get to the river.
d) What is the pore-velocity of the contaminated water Hint: You will first need to derive an expression for the
velocity through the aquifer. For simplicity, you can assume
through the earthen dam?
that the chemical moves passively with the water (i.e., it
e) What is the travel time for contaminated water from the doesn’t adsorb to the soil). The aquifer properties are:
holding basin through the distance L of the earthen dam? porosity=0.43, b = 18 m, and T = 0.65 m2 s-1. The height of
Hint: Travel time is defined by: the pond surface above the datum (hp) is 527 m, the height of
L the river above the datum (hr) is 520 m, and the length of the
1
tL = ∫ v dx aquifer (l) is 5 km.
0
321
Chapter 10
Runoff and
Streamflow
S ECTION 1 10. Apply the unit hydrograph approach to predict
stormflow for a particular storm given the UH for that
Learning Objectives duration storm
323
S ECTION 2
Runoff into streams (where it becomes streamflow) is an this is that water flows down the steepest topographic
integration of several upstream processes in a watershed. It gradient (slope).
can be thought of as an integrated “response” of the watershed
to storm and/or snowmelt events. Specific mechanisms for A stream (or river) network is simply an expression of
generating runoff will be described in the next section. To this fact, where a “stream” is generally just defined as points
start, it is worth noting that topography generally plays a in a basin where water will generally collect via the routing of
significant role, not just in the amount of runoff, but in flow over the topography or through the groundwater system.
directing it downstream. An example of a DEM is shown in We can define this more precisely by computing a quantity
Figure 10.1, where one can readily see mountain peaks and like the “contributing area” of each point in the basin. The
valley troughs across the landscape. In Chapter 1 we contributing area (Ac) is simply the area (or equivalently the
described how one can delineate a watershed by choosing an number of pixels in a DEM) upstream of a given location, i.e.
outlet point (on a stream) and tracing out all points upstream all the points that will flow into that pixel. Some limiting
of that location that would ultimately flow to it. Implicit in cases are the watershed outlet, which by definition has the
entire watershed area as its contributing area, and the points
324
on the watershed ridge, which have no pixels upstream of
them (i.e. Ac = 0). A stream pixel can therefore be defined as
any pixel that has a contributing area above some threshold
(e.g. 1% of the basin area). One can compute and plot the Ac
(actually plotted as log(Ac)) as shown in Figure 10.2. What
clearly stands out is low values (dark blue) for the ridges and
higher values (yellow/red) for the valley areas. If one only
accepts stream pixels as those with contributing areas greater
than 1% of the total basin area, the stream network can be
identified simultaneously with the watershed delineation
(Figure 10.3). Given this construct, one can identify two kinds
325
M OVIE 10.1 Animation showing varying travel time of water
from different locations in a basin (from COMET program).
326
S ECTION 3 snowmelt as a long-duration storm event. The subject of this
section is on the various mechanisms that are responsible for
Runoff Generation Mecha- generating runoff. Note that they should depend on the
characteristics of the storm and the characteristics of the
nisms basin (soils, slopes, etc.). The motivating questions for this
section are: What are the mechanisms that generate runoff?
Runoff is generated as a result of a water flux being When, why, and where do they occur in a basin? How do they
applied to the surface. This flux can either be in the form of a contribute to the overall flow in a stream?
rainstorm or snowmelt (Figure 10.4). Storm events can vary in
Figure 10.5 shows a conceptual picture of hydrologic
terms of intensity and duration, both of which should impact
fluxes in a basin with particular emphasis on runoff
the runoff. For conceptual purposes, one can think of
mechanisms contributing streamflow. Runoff can be classified
into two main categories: i) surface (overland) runoff and ii)
F IGURE 10.4 Conceptual picture of runoff resulting from ei- F IGURE 10.5 Components of various runoff and related proc-
ther rainfall or snowmelt. esses contributing to streamflow.
327
subsurface runoff. Surface runoff is either generated by capacity of the soil. Movie 10.2 shows a conceptual
“infiltration excess” runoff or “saturation excess” runoff. The representation of this phenomenon. The amount of water that
former was already discussed to some extent in Chapter 7 is reaching the surface cannot be fully infiltrated into the soil.
since it is directly connected to the infiltration capacity of the As such, there will generally be ponding (saturation) at the
surface. Subsurface runoff is generated by either interflow or surface (even though the subsurface soil is not saturated),
baseflow and is simply related to groundwater flow processes which, given a sloped surface, will result in runoff. As shown
discussed in Chapter 9. Each of these mechanisms are in Chapter 7, it is important to remember that this particular
elaborated on below. process is a threshold process. When the precipitation rate is
less than the infiltration capacity (i.e. before ponding) or less
Infiltration excess runoff, often referred to as “Hortonian” than the minimum infiltration capacity of the soil (i.e.
runoff after Horton (1933), is related to the infiltration saturated hydraulic conductivity), all water will infiltrate,
process at the surface. As described in Chapter 7, depending meaning there will be no runoff. Movies 10.3 and 10.4
on the antecedent soil moisture condition and soil properties, illustrate this by showing a hillslope experiencing two different
a soil has a given infiltration capacity. Depending on the precipitation intensities, one of which results in no runoff and
storm intensity (and duration), the soil may reach a state in the other results in infiltration excess runoff.
which the precipitation intensity exceeds the infiltration
As discussed in Chapter 7, the infiltration rate for the
general case (where ponding occurs at some point during the
storm) can be written as:
⎧ P, t 0 ≤ t ≤ t p (10.3.1)
⎪
f (t) = ⎨
⎪⎩ fc (t − tc ), t p ≤ t ≤ tr
328
M OVIE 10.3 Animation of infiltration excess runoff under
“light” rainfall conditions relative to soil properties (from COMET F IGURE 10.6 Cumulative infiltration and infiltration excess
program).
runoff for a general case.
329
of the precipitation initially infiltrates, but due to a shallow
E XAMPLE 10.3.1 water table, the pores quickly fill up until the surface is
saturated from below. At that point, any additional
Compute the cumulative infiltration excess runoff
precipitation is falling on saturated soil (i.e. no ability to
for the case described in Example 7.7.1. infiltrate) and therefore completely runs off. Movie 10.6 shows
The cumulative infiltration excess runoff can be another illustration of the process. The key point is that for
computed via the integral in Equation (10.3.2). this mechanism to work, the initial water table must be
Alternatively if the cumulative infiltration is already relatively shallow. This condition generally occurs near the
computed (as in Example 7.7.1), then the runoff is stream, so contributing areas that generate saturation excess
simply the difference between the cumulative rainfall and runoff are most often localized around the stream network.
the cumulative infiltration. So for the Philip solution the Moreover, these areas are often referred to as variable
estimated runoff would be: contributing areas in reference to the fact that, based on the
tr tr groundwater dynamics, they grow and contract both
∫Q ie
(t) = ∫ P dt − F(t ) = (30 mm/h)(8 h) − 177 mm
r seasonally and during and after the course of a storm. An
t0 t0
example of this is shown schematically in Figure 10.7. In this
= 63 mm example, before a large storm there is little saturated area
Similarly for the Green-Ampt model the estimated runoff
would be:
tr tr
∫Q ie
(t) = ∫ P dt − F(t ) = (30 mm/h)(8 h) − 187 mm
r
t0 t0
= 53 mm
330
rainfall events, the saturation excess runoff mechanism will
generally dominate over infiltration excess runoff. The fact
that Dunne runoff is the primary contributor was a new
discovery, where prior to those studies it was thought that
Hortonian (infiltration excess) runoff was the primary
overland runoff generating mechanism. It turns out that only
in areas of low conductivity soils and/or as a result of very
high intensity storms will Hortonian runoff tend to be a
significant contributor to total overland flow. In areas of
snowmelt, either mechanism can generate runoff depending on
the melt rate, conductivity, and saturation of the soil
underlying the snowpack. In both mechanisms, due to high
surface flow velocities, and/or proximity to channel network
331
(in the case of Dunne runoff), overland runoff tends to reach
the channel network relatively quickly, contributing to
stormflow during or shortly after the storm event.
333
S ECTION 4
Streamflow Hydrographs
The mechanisms described in the previous section
ultimately lead to runoff that contributes to streamflow. One
could envision measuring streamflow at a given point in the
stream network. If measured, the amount of flow crossing that
point (i.e. cubic meters per second) would simply be the result
of all upstream flow processes (both runoff to the closest
downstream channel location and flow down the stream to the
F IGURE 10.11 Typical hydrograph during and after a storm.
measurement point) as a function of time. The streamflow Baseflow corresponds to groundwater flow, while other compo-
crossing a given point over time is generally referred to as a nents together are often referred to as stormflow. The frac-
hydrograph, where one can conceptualize the total flow (Q) tional components depend on the storm and basin characteris-
as: tics (adapted from Mays, 2005).
where the four terms on the right-hand-side are respectively begins and results primarily from overland flow mechanisms
amounts of runoff related to the infiltration excess, saturation (infiltration excess and/or saturation excess, i.e. Qie(t)+Qse(t).
excess, interflow, and baseflow runoff mechanisms. Typically the overland runoff contribution peaks early in the
hydrograph response. After the peak, the falling limb of the
Figure 10.11 shows a schematic of a streamflow hydrograph will ultimately recede (generally much more
hydrograph (at a basin outlet) resulting from a rain storm. slowly than the rising limb) back to baseflow levels.
The figure shows the typical characteristics of the hydrograph Secondarily, the interflow and baseflow tend to respond more
curve as well as hypothetical contributions from different slowly to the storm, often peaking after the overland flow has
runoff mechanisms. Prior to the storm, and before any runoff moved past the outlet.
reaches the outlet, the hydrograph is composed entirely of
baseflow from the basin’s groundwater system. The rising limb How much each mechanism contributes to overall
of the hydrograph generally occurs shortly after the storm streamflow, as well as the hydrograph shape, depends on both
334
dynamic factors related to the individual storm characteristics
(intensity, location, etc.) as well as static factors related to
basin characteristics (topography, soil types, vegetation types,
etc.).
336
M OVIE 10.9 Animation showing travel time from extreme
portions of the basin for varying basin slopes.
337
S ECTION 5 the method treats the basin as a “black-box” where for a given
input (i.e. precipitation) one can develop a response function
Unit Hydrograph Rainfall- that yields an output (stormflow) hydrograph. In particular,
the method uses “excess” (or “effective”) precipitation as the
339
function of time so that we could represent the total
hydrograph as: Qt , where t corresponds to discrete time
periods (e.g., every 30 minutes or every hour).
341
F IGURE 10.19 Plot of the stormflow hydrograph with base- F IGURE 10.20 Conceptual picture of the process of convert-
flow removed from the original streamflow hydrograph. ing total volume of excess runoff to the equivalent amount of
uniform runoff depth over the basin.
1 (10.5.2)
A∫
Pe = (Q − B)dt
other words, each ordinate of the storm flow hydrograph can
simply be divided by Pe, so that the unit hydrograph is given
where A is the basin area in proper units. The integral yields by:
a volume and the area transforms it to a depth (Figure 10.20).
Qt − Bt
This will yield the total depth of the excess precipitation ht = (10.5.3)
Pe
(runoff). In practice, the curve is not known analytically, but
at discrete times, so the above integral is estimated via a
numerical approximation (i.e. the rectangular or trapezoidal where the units of the UH are flow units per unit depth of
methods). stormflow, i.e. m3/s/cm. The UH simply represents the
response function that would occur if 1 cm of effective rainfall
Step 4: Normalize the storm flow hydrograph by the effective
occurred over D hours.
rainfall to get the D-hour unit hydrograph (Figure 10.21). In
342
stormflow runoff. In this particular example, only three hours
in the middle of the storm exceeded the threshold. Hence in
this example, we would have an excess rainfall duration of D
= 3 hours. Therefore the UH shown in Figure 10.21 is the 3-
hour UH. Note that this particular method assumes that the
“loss” function is constant in time, which may be an
oversimplification (i.e. in the case of infiltration excess runoff).
Additionally, it shows that the excess precipitation is not
spread uniformly in time over the 3 hours, which is a violation
of the underlying UH assumptions. Nevertheless, this is
representative of a typical situation where the UH is applied.
9 0.08
TIME FLOW
(HOURS) (m3/s) 12 0.05
0 0.05
15 0.03
3 0.10
18 0.0
6 0.15
Next, the excess precipitation can be estimated by
9 0.13
integrating under the stormflow hydrograph and
12 0.10 normalizing by the basin area (Equation (10.5.2)). Using
the trapezoidal rule, the integral can be estimated as:
15 0.08
Pe = 0.5[(0 + 0.05) + (0.05 + 0.10) + (0.10 + 0.08) +
18 0.05
(0.08 + 0.05) + (0.05 + 0.03) + (0.03 + 0.0)m 3 /s] ×
Given the historical hydrograph, the first step is baseflow (3h)(3600s / h) / (1 km 2 / (1000 m)2 )
removal. In this case the flow at the beginning of the = 0.00335 m = 0.34 cm
storm is assumed representative of baseflow and
subtracted to generate the stormflow hydrograph: The original hydrograph can then be normalized by the
excess precipitation to get the UH (Equation (10.5.3)):
344
The end result of the UH construction process is the
E XAMPLE 10.5.1 ( CONTINUED ) determination of the unit response of the basin (i.e. to 1 cm of
excess rainfall) over a D-hour duration. Once constructed, the
TIME UH can be used in applications, including the prediction of
UH (m3/s/cm) response to other D-hour events of varying intensity as well as
(HOURS)
response to storms of different excess precipitation intensity
0 0.0 and duration. This is done via superposition based on the
assumed linear response of the system. Three examples of
3 0.149
applications of the UH method are presented here including:
6 0.294 prediction of stormflow from a different D-hour storm,
construction of an (nD)-hour UH from a D-hour UH (where n
9 0.235 is an integer multiple), and prediction of response from a more
complicated excess precipitation event.
12 0.149
The simplest application of the UH method involves
15 0.088 using a D-hour UH to predict the response of a different D-
hour event. For example, suppose for design or flood
18 0.0
prediction purposes you want to predict the resulting
hydrograph for a 6-hour effective rainfall event with Pe of
excess precipitation. The entire basis of the UH approach is
Note that this is a 2-hour UH because the excess that the system behaves linearly so that the shape should be
precipitation event is of a 2-hour duration and not invariant, but the magnitude can be scaled. So in this case, if
because of anything about the time base of the you have a 6-hour UH, you would simply scale it by Pe:
hydrograph itself (which is a function of basin size and
other characteristics). The shape of the UH is the same Qt = Pe ⋅ ht (10.5.4)
as the original hydrograph with the peak occurring at 6
By construct, the integral under the scaled stormflow
hours after the start of the storm event. The UH can be
hydrograph will exactly equal Pe. Examples of this for storms
used to estimate peak flow for storms associated with
with 0.5 and 2.0 units of effective precipitation (e.g. cm) are
other excess precipitation amounts (and other storm
shown in Figure 10.23. Note that implicit in this is that the
durations) via superposition as described below.
starting and ending times of stormflow do not change, only
345
cm that is lagged by 1 hour. This is just a statement of
superposition. One can use this to construct an (nD)-hour
UH. Suppose n = 2 and D = 1 hour. By starting a UH at
time zero and lagging a second UH by one hour (blue curves
in Figure 10.24) and summing the two together would yield a
hydrograph with 2 cm of stormflow. This summed hydrograph
can then simply be rescaled (in this case divided by 2) to yield
the 2-hour UH. This operation is the same as taking the
average of the two lagged UHs and results in the red curve
shown in Figure 10.24, which is the 2-hour UH (constructed
347
F IGURE 10.26 Illustration of superposition of UHs. The ex- F IGURE 10.27 The bottom panel shows the stormflow hy-
cess precipitation time series is conceptualized as four different drographs (i.e. scaled UHs) corresponding to each 6-hour
6-hour storms. The linearity assumption allows for the pre- event. The color of each hydrograph corresponds to the same
dicted response of each 6-hour “event”. The bottom panel color excess precipitation event. The bottom panel shows the
shows the stormflow hydrographs (i.e. scaled UHs) correspond- predicted total response (in black) which is simply the summa-
ing to each 6-hour event. The color of each hydrograph corre- tion (superposition) of each of the individual (colored) re-
sponds to the same color excess precipitation event. sponse hydrographs shown in Figure 10.26.
348
E XAMPLE 10.5.2 E XAMPLE 10.5.2 ( CONTINUED )
349
While in the UH construction the excess precipitation is
E XAMPLE 10.5.2 ( CONTINUED ) determined directly from the historical hydrograph,
applications to other events require some estimate of Pe. In
The one-hour lag for each UH is possible if superposition
reality it is determined by the runoff generation mechanisms
is invoked whereby the 3-hour event can be
occurring in the basin, which depend on the precipitation
conceptualized as three separate one hour events. Each
intensity, soil type, and antecedent conditions (i.e. initial soil
UH can be scaled by 15 cm (i.e. 45/3 cm) so that the
moisture). In practice it is often estimated empirically. One
total cumulative effective precipitation is equal to the
commonly applied method is the so-called SCS method
desired total. At each hour the scaled runoff values can
developed originally by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
be summed via superposition. For this particular case
(now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service
the peak flow is 225 m3/s at both t = 2 and 3 h.
(NRCS)). A schematic of the assumed processes is shown in
b) If the soil is highly conductive and the UH was Figure 10.28, where Ia is the initial abstraction (i.e. where all
derived from a “typical” storm (i.e. precipitation intensity water infiltrates), Fa is the continuing abstraction (potentially
was not too high) it is highly likely that runoff is decaying infiltration rate), P is the total precipitation and Pe
generated via the saturation excess mechanism (i.e. is the excess precipitation. Based on empirical evidence from
Dunne runoff) rather than the infiltration excess many small experimental watersheds, the excess precipitation
mechanism (i.e. Hortonian runoff) which generally can be estimated by:
requires P >> Ks. (P − 0.2S)2
Pe = (10.5.5)
c) Since the events analyzed are extreme events it is P + 0.8S
likely the precipitation intensity is much larger than a
“typical” storm. This increases the likelihood that there
where S is the potential maximum retention storage in the
will be infiltration excess runoff (instead of saturation
watershed. The storage is typically estimated by:
excess runoff). If the runoff mechanism generating runoff
1000
for the storm of interest is a different mechanism than S= − 10 (10.5.6)
that underlying the original UH, it is possible that the CN
UH will not be of appropriate shape and therefore the
predictions could be erroneous. A physically-based model where CN is the so-called SCS curve number which is
may be more appropriate in this case. dimensionless and varies between 0 and 100. A value of CN =
100 corresponds to an impervious surface (i.e. no storage and
350
1. All of the above can be theoretically applied to snowmelt
runoff modeling just as easily as a rain storm with the
appropriate modifications.
351
S ECTION 6 basin processes not just basin outlet streamflow), but
generally require significantly more input data, both
Physically-based Rainfall- meteorological data and characterization of the basin (soils,
vegetation, terrain, etc.). At least part of the reason (beyond
Runoff Modeling simplicity) that empirical models have been the traditional
approach to rainfall-runoff modeling is that hydrology used to
be a very data-limited enterprise, where a given basin may
The unit hydrograph approach to rainfall-runoff
have had a single stream gauge and perhaps a few rain
modeling described in the previous section has been and
gauges. For such a limited data environment, simpler models
continues to be widely used. If one needs only basin outlet
make sense. However, with the advent of remote sensing that
runoff predictions and the underlying assumptions of the UH
has been discussed in earlier chapters, many key hydrologic
method are reasonably valid for the basin of interest, then
inputs (precipitation, radiation, topography, etc.) are available
UH-based predictions may be sufficient (and often are, e.g. for
in a much more comprehensive way. Such new data streams
design purposes). The empirical nature of the approach
raise the possibility of implementing more complicated
however includes limitations.
models.
The primary alternative to empirical modeling is
The first step in physically-based modeling is generally a
modeling using physically-based approaches. This simply
decision about to what extent processes are represented in
means that the processes within the basin are modeled using
space. Figure 10.29 illustrates three distinct ways in which a
the physics that have been the primary basis of this book. As
watershed can be discretized in space for modeling and
has been made clear in earlier chapters, the primary drivers of
analysis. Choosing a method of discretization has tradeoff
watershed processes are precipitation and net radiation. Given
implications related to explicitly modeling processes, accuracy
these inputs, a set of processes ensue that include infiltration,
due to both the degree of underlying spatial variability and
evaporation, unsaturated zone moisture redistribution,
available data, and computational demand. Many existing
recharge, groundwater flow, and runoff. Each of these is
models are available that span various levels of discretization
governed by physical processes that can be expressed in terms
as well as how processes are modeled.
of models. If tied together into an integrated unit, the model
becomes a physically-based hydrologic watershed model. One The simplest approach is generally referred to as using a
should be plainly aware of the tradeoffs between models. “lumped” modeling approach (left panel in Figure 10.29). In a
Physically-based models have the potential for a more robust lumped approach the entire basin is lumped or grouped
modeling framework (that may include modeling of interior together in one unit. The UH method is an example of a
352
F IGURE 10.29 Illustration of various ways of representing a
basin in model: lumped (left panel), semi-lumped or semi-
distributed (middle panel), or distributed (right panel) (from F IGURE 10.30 Model structure for the conceptual SACSMA
COMET Program). model that is used by the National Weather Service (NWS)
River Forecasting Centers.
354
F IGURE 10.33 TIN-based distributed schematic representa-
tion of basin used in the tRIBS model (from vivoni.asu.edu/
tribs/tinmodeldiagram.jpg).
F IGURE 10.32 Distributed schematic representation of basin
as used in the MIKE-SHE model (from mikebydhi.com/Products/
WaterResources/MIKESHE.aspx).
357
S ECTION 7
∫
inlet
ρV ⋅dA = − ρ(Q + qdx) (10.7.2) F IGURE 10.38 Relevant variables defining flow in an open
stream channel (adapted from Mays, 2005).
358
where Q(x,t) is the flow in the stream channel and q is the equation has two unknowns: A and Q. Therefore to solve it we
lateral inflow (per unit length of channel) and represents, e.g. need to apply another independent constraint via the
the overland runoff into the stream. The mass outflow rate is momentum equation.
given by:
The momentum equation can also be derived from
∂Q
∫
outlet
ρV ⋅dA = ρ(Q +
∂x
dx) (10.7.3) Reynolds Transport Theorem (Equation (1.5.1)) and written
as:
d
where the second term on the right-hand-side represents the
∑F = ∫ V ρ dV + CS∫ V ⋅ ρV ⋅dA
dt CV
(10.7.7)
∑F = F g
+ Ff + Fe + Fp (10.7.8)
where A dx is the volume of the channel element. Putting all
three terms back together yields: where Fg is the gravitational force, Ff is the friction force, Fe
∂( ρAdx) ∂Q is the force associated with expansion/contraction of the
− ρ(Q + qdx) + ρ(Q + dx) = 0 (10.7.5) channel, and Fp is the unbalanced pressure force. The sum of
∂t ∂x
all forces can be expressed as:
∂y
Assuming fluid density is constant yields the 1D unsteady ∑ F = ρgAS 0dx − ρgAS f dx − ρgASedx − ρgA ∂x
dx (10.7.9)
continuity equation:
∂A ∂Q (10.7.6)
+ −q = 0 where S0 is the channel bed slope, Sf is the friction slope (head
∂t ∂x
loss per unit length of channel), Se is the head loss due to
expansion/contraction and the unbalanced pressure force is
which is subject to initial and boundary conditions in flow due to differences in hydrostatic pressure on either side of the
and cross-sectional channel area. Note however that this
359
channel element as a result of differences in water elevation. It should be noted that the flow depth y is directly tied to the
The momentum inflow rate is given by: cross-sectional area (A) and therefore is not an independent
(new) variable. So Equations (10.7.6) and (10.7.13) provide
∫ V ⋅ ρV ⋅dA = − ρ(βVQ + βv qdx);
inlet
x (10.7.10) two equations for the two unknowns: Q and A (or depth y).
β ≡ momentum coefficient Together they are often referred to as the Saint-Venant
equations which are a coupled set of PDEs that describe the
where the first term on the right-hand-side is the momentum 1D unsteady flow in a channel (subject to initial/boundary
entering the upstream face and the second is the momentum conditions and lateral inflow) and are often solved numerically
entering laterally (i.e. due to lateral influx q) where vx is the x- (Mays, 2005).
component of the velocity of the lateral influx. The
momentum coefficient accounts for the nonuniform Many of the commonly used equations for flow in open
distribution of velocity in the channel cross-section (Mays, channels/streams can be derived as special cases of the Saint-
2005). The momentum flux at the outlet of the elemental Venant equations. Simplifications may include steady-state, no
volume is given by: lateral inflow, uniform flow, etc. Because of their wide use
∂(βVQ) they are quickly covered here.
∫ V ⋅ ρV ⋅dA = − ρ( βVQ +
∂x
dx) (10.7.11)
outlet 1. Steady-flow with no lateral inflow: For steady flow with no
lateral inflow (i.e. q = 0), the continuity equation becomes:
Putting all of the terms back together (and simplifying) ∂Q ∂(βQ 2 A) # ∂y &
+ + gA % − S 0 + S f + Se ( − β q =0vx = 0
yields: ∂t =0 ∂x $ ∂x '
∂Q ∂(βQ 2 A) # ∂y &
+ + gA % − S 0 + S f + Se ( − βqvx = 0 (10.7.13)
∂t ∂x $ ∂x '
360
which can be simplified further by eliminating the dQ/dx term where the Froude number (Fr) is defined as:
implicit in the second term and noting that: V A dA
Fr = ; D= ; B ≡ top width = (10.7.17)
dy dh gD B dy
− S0 = (10.7.14)
dx dx
361
balance the elevation head gradient. Similar expressions can (empirical) Manning equation which can be expressed either
be derived from energy considerations. in terms of velocity (here using SI units):
1 23 12
The special case of uniform flow is one of particular V = R S0 (10.7.24)
interest and worthy of additional discussion. From dimensional n
analysis one can show that the bed shear stress associated
with friction is given by: or in terms of flow (also SI units):
V2 (10.7.21) 1
τ0 = Cf ρ = ρgRS 0 Q= AR 2 3S 01 2 (10.7.25)
2g n
where Cf is a resistance coefficient and R is the so-called It is important to remember that these equations are valid for
hydraulic radius of the channel (cross-sectional area divided steady-uniform flow (with no lateral inflow to the channel).
by wetted perimeter [i.e. perimeter of cross-section in contact For nonuniform flow, the Manning equation can be generalized
with water]). Solving Equation (10.7.21) for the mean velocity by using Sf in place of S0. The Manning roughness parameter
yields: depends on the type of channel bed and is often tabulated
2g (e.g. Mays, 2005).
(10.7.22)
V = RS 0 = C RS 0
Cf
E XAMPLE 10.7.1
which is often referred to as the Chezy Equation for uniform
Estimate the uniform flow in a prismatic
flow. The Chezy coefficient (C) represents a measure of the
roughness of the stream channel bed. The Manning equation rectangular channel with a width of 3 m, a water
involves an empirical expression for C: depth of 0.5 m, a bed slope of 0.001 and a
Manning roughness coefficient of 0.02.
1 16
C = R (10.7.23)
n For uniform flow we can use the Manning equation. For
the channel/water depth conditions, the cross sectional
area is equal to: A = 1.5 m2. The hydraulic radius is
where n is the Manning roughness coefficient. Putting this given by the ratio of the area to wetted perimeter:
together with Equation (10.7.22) yields the so-called
362
E XAMPLE 10.7.1 ( CONTINUED ) E XAMPLE 10.7.2 ( CONTINUED )
Estimate the depth of uniform flow for the which yields a simpler (non-iterative) form of the
channel in Example 10.7.1 if the discharge is 0.1 Manning equation:
m3 s-1. 2 3
1 " By % 1
First, the Manning equation can be expressed in terms of Q ≈ (By) $ ' S 01 2 = By 5/3S 01 2
n #B & n
depth of flow given a rectangular cross-section of width
→ y = (QnS 0−1 2B −1 )3/5
B:
2 3 For the conditions shown above this would yield a depth
1 ! By $
Q = (By) # & S0
12
estimate of 0.099 m, which is a close approximation to
n " 2y + B % the real solution. This approximation is only valid under
the wide-channel assumption mentioned above.
which shows that even for a simple cross-sectional
geometry, the nonlinearity of the Manning equation
requires an iterative solution for the depth y. Specifically,
363
The Saint-Venant equations are sometimes referred to as attenuates relatively quickly making the kinematic
the dynamic wave equation because they fully describe the assumptions reasonably accurate. From Equation (10.7.27) it
dynamics of 1D unsteady flow in a channel. In this regard is clear that the flow is uniform.
they can be used to model any number of phenomena
The result of the above simplifications is essentially a
including floods, tides, nonuniform flow, uniform flow, etc.
reduction of the two equation governing system to a single
The price for this generality is one of computational demand
governing equation. For uniform flow the momentum equation
since the Saint-Venant equations are expensive to solve.
can also be expressed in the general form relating A and Q as:
The kinematic wave equation is another special case of
A = aQ b ↔ Q = cAd (10.7.28)
the Saint-Venant equations that is generally more easily
solved. By definition a “kinematic wave” (as opposed to a where, for example, with the Manning equation:
dynamic wave) is one where the acceleration terms, pressure
term, and lateral influx of momentum are all negligible, i.e.
3 5
⎛ nP 2 3 ⎞ 1 S0
12
3 5
⎛ ∂Q ∂(βQ A) ⎞ ⎛
2
∂y ⎞ a=⎜ ⎟ ;b = or c= ; d= (10.7.29)
⎜ ∂t
⎝
+
∂x ⎠
⎟ ⎜⎝ gA
∂x ⎟
⎠
(
βqvx ≅ 0) ⎝ S0 ⎠ 5 n P2 3 3
If true, the momentum equation simplifies to the uniform flow where P is the wetted perimeter. The above form can be used
condition so that the two governing equations (continuity and to derive an expression for the kinematic wave equation
momentum) for the kinematic flow equation are: (either in terms of the dependent variable Q or A). To get the
governing equation in terms of Q, we can use:
∂A ∂Q (10.7.26)
+ = q(x,t)
∂t ∂x ∂A dA ∂Q ∂Q (10.7.30)
A = aQ b → = = abQ b−1
∂t dQ ∂t ∂t
S0 = S f (10.7.27)
where if this is substituted into the continuity equation yields:
where the above form of the momentum equation implies a
∂Q ∂Q (10.7.31)
prismatic channel. So the kinematic wave equation is an abQ b−1 + = q(x,t)
∂t ∂x
unsteady flow equation, but one where the wave motion is
determined primarily from mass balance. For many normal
floods in natural rivers the dynamic component of the wave which is one equation in one unknown. Note that the equation
364
is still a PDE and therefore is generally solved numerically on
a discretized channel (Mays, 2005). Similarly, to get the
governing equation in terms of A we can use:
∂Q dQ ∂A ∂A (10.7.32)
Q = cAd → = = cdAd −1
∂x dA ∂x ∂x
365
S ECTION 8
Measurement of Streamflow
In the preceding sections it was assumed in various
locations that hydrograph data was available, i.e. at a basin
outlet. Here we briefly outline the primary ways those
measurements are made.
somewhat randomly) in space and time. To get an accurate Q = ∑Viyi Δwi (10.9.2)
i =1
measurement of the mean velocity, measurements should be
taken over a long enough period to average over the turbulent
eddies. While flow is often written as: Q = VA, the V is the where Vi is the average velocity across each vertical strip and
average velocity across the entire stream cross-section, so the product of depth and discretized width is the area of the
strip. Note that the velocity generally has a profile in the
vertical, with zero velocity at the stream bed and highest
velocity at the surface. A simple rule of thumb for the average
369
velocity is to take the average of two velocity measurements
taken at a height of 20% and 80% of the depth at that
location. Using this manual approach, streamflow discharge
can be determined for a given river stage (depth). If done
several times spanning different flow conditions, one can
develop a rating curve. Once developed, a single manual depth
measurement could be used (along with the rating curve) to
estimate the discharge.
370
S ECTION 10 13. What is excess or effective precipitation?
Conceptual Questions 14. Suppose you have a constructed 1-hour unit hydrograph.
Describe schematically how you would generate a 2-hour
unit hydrograph from your 1-hour unit hydrograph.
1. Describe the mechanism behind infiltration excess runoff. 15. Describe the main differences between the UH method and
physically-based lumped and distributed modeling
2. Describe the mechanism behind saturation excess runoff. approach.
3. Describe the mechanism behind interflow. 16. What two equations are used to derive the Saint-Venant
Equations?
4. Describe the mechanism behind baseflow.
17. Describe the primary methods for how streamflow is
5. What is a variable contributing area?
measured.
6. What are the components of a streamflow hydrograph?
0 0
Problem 10.1. You are hired to assess the flash flood
potential of a given basin, where “flash floods” are generally 0.5 2
associated with short duration (high intensity) storms that
generate infiltration excess runoff. The basin is composed of a 1.0 10
homogeneous silt loam soil. To comply with regulations for 1.5 15
the region, different downstream infrastructure must be
designed for various “return-period” storm events, where the 2.0 8
return-period is associated with the probability (and therefore
2.5 5
magnitude) of the storm event. The 1-hour duration design
storm events for the 10-year and 25-year return periods in this 3.0 0
region are:
c) Based on the constructed 1-hr unit hydrograph, what is the
STORM RETURN PERIOD 10-year 25-year predicted peak flash flood stormflow (i.e. design flow) for the
two return period storms analyzed in part a). The infiltration
PRECIP. INTENSITY 2 cm/hour 7 cm/hour excess runoff values computed above can be treated as the
effective (excess) precipitation.
a) For this particular basin, what is the expected (if any)
flash flood stormflow (i.e. infiltration excess runoff) for each Problem 10.2. An environmental monitoring agency has a
return period design storm? Design regulations dictate that it rain gauge and a river gaging station installed at the outlet of
should be assumed that 75% of the soil pore space is filled a basin. A rainstorm with 2 hours of effective rainfall
prior to the storm. The Philip model can be used as an produced 2.6 cm of runoff and resulted in the following
infiltration capacity model (as needed). observed total hydrograph for the stream:
b) A previous analysis of the basin found the 0.5-hr unit a) Assuming that the baseflow can be calculated by drawing a
hydrograph to be given by: straight line connecting the end points of the hydrograph,
372
Problem 10.3. A small watershed is located in an area that
TIME DISCHARGE
is frequently hit by intense thunderstorms. As the engineer
(HOUR) (m3/s)
responsible for designing a new flood protection structure, you
0 3.11 are asked to determine the peak design flow for which the
structure will be built. From your excellent hydrologic training
1 3.45
you know that shorter duration events have the possibility of
2 6.51 being of higher intensity and vice versa. So you decide to
investigate the peak flows for two possible extreme
3 16.36
thunderstorm events (which are the largest expected amount
4 18.25 to fall in each duration storm): 1) a one-hour storm with a
cumulative effective rainfall of 24 cm and 2) a three-hour
5 12.28 storm with a cumulative effective rainfall of 45 cm. The 1-hr
6 8.29 unit hydrograph for the watershed is shown in the table
below.
7 5.72
1-HR UH
8 4.53
TIME UH FLOW
9 3.11 (HOUR) (m3/s/cm)
0 0
separate the baseflow and the direct runoff contributions to
runoff. On the same plot, show the baseflow, direct runoff, and 1 10
total discharge in m3/s.
2 5
b) Find and plot the 2-hour unit hydrograph for the basin.
3 0
c) Estimate and plot the 6-hour unit hydrograph.
a) Estimate the peak stormflow corresponding to each storm
d) What is the total hydrograph resulting from a storm with (based on a unit hydrograph analysis). Which of the two
12-hour effective rainfall that delivers 2 cm of effective rain in storms yields a higher peak runoff?
the first half and 3 cm of effective rainfall during the second
half? Plot the resulting total hydrograph.
373
b) Based on further investigation you determine that the
basin is composed of soils with a large saturated hydraulic
conductivity and that the unit hydrograph was constructed
from a typical intensity storm. What runoff generation
mechanism would you reasonably hypothesize was primarily
responsible for the basin response seen in the unit
hydrograph?
374
S ECTION 12 throughout the year?, iii) What is the relative contribution of
infiltration excess runoff to the total runoff over the basin?
MOD-WET Problems Given your answer, explain what this means in terms of the
soil present in the basin (relative to precipitation/snowmelt
intensities)?
Problem 10.1. c) Plot the daily-averaged runoff (m3/s) at the outlet of the
watershed for the simulation. The hourly outlet hydrograph is
a) MOD-WET uses the TOPMODEL framework to account
stored in the variable
for the subsurface water (mass) balance and model saturation
fluxes.time_series.outlet_hydrograph. Explain the
excess runoff, baseflow, and the depth to the groundwater
seasonality observed in the hydrograph. At what date does the
table, etc. The so-called soil-topographic index given by
peak flow occur and what is the corresponding peak flow rate
Equation (11.2.4) is often used to characterize the saturation
(m3/s)?
potential, or depth to the groundwater table in a watershed.
Plot the map of the soil-topographic index for the watershed. d) The saturation deficit (SD) is often used as an indication
Based on the formulation of the soil-topographic index, would of the depth to the water table at a given pixel. A value of SD
you expect pixels with a steeper slope to have a higher or should be greater than or equal to zero, where a value of zero
lower soil-topographic index than pixels with a shallower slope corresponds to the groundwater table being located at the
(with all else equal)? Would you expect the stream network to surface or intersecting the surface in the case of a stream.
coincide with pixels with low or high indices? Justify your Note: A large value of SD represents a deeper water table,
answer. while a lower value of SD represents a shallower water table.
Plot maps of the daily-averaged: saturation deficit
b) On the same figure, plot the daily-averaged time series of
(states.maps.SD), saturation excess runoff, and baseflow on
the basin-averaged: infiltration excess runoff (qie; m/day),
the day of peak flow during the simulation in the watershed.
saturation excess runoff (qse; m/day), and groundwater flow or
In particular answer the following: i) Describe where generally
baseflow (qb; m) over the simulation using the following
in the basin the predicted depth to the water table is highest/
variables fluxes.maps.qie, fluxes.maps.qse, and
lowest. How is the SD map related to the soil-topographic
fluxes.maps.qb respectively. Answer the following: i) Explain
index map in part a)?, ii) In the TOPMODEL framework,
the seasonal cycle seen in each of these runoff components, ii)
what must the value of the saturation deficit be at a given
Which runoff mechanism provides the largest component of
pixel for it to generate saturation excess runoff? Where would
runoff generation? Does the relative magnitude change
you expect saturation excess runoff to be generated? Explain.
375
Chapter 11
A Simple
Watershed
Model
S ECTION 1
Learning Objectives
By the time you finish this chapter you should be able to:
377
S ECTION 2 understanding and intuition of distributed hydrologic
processes in a watershed.
MOD-WET Model Develop- In developing a distributed watershed model,
computational expense is generally an important factor.
ment Physical process computations must be performed at each
pixel in a watershed so that, depending on the model
resolution and area (i.e. total number of pixels),
computational expense is many orders of magnitude greater
The previous chapters have covered the various physical than that of a lumped model. Since the model to be used here
processes involved in hydrology. Chapter 10 (Section 6) is meant to foster understanding of sensitivities of model
provided an introduction into how these process-level physics response to inputs/parameters, hypothesis testing, etc., we
can be tied together into a unified framework via a distributed intentionally choose a distributed framework that attempts to
watershed model. Many existing examples of distributed minimize computational expense. As such, several simplifying
models have been developed and are available for use in assumptions are made. Every attempt is made to clearly
hydrologic modeling (HEC-HMS, MIKE-SHE, tRIBS, etc.). identify the primary assumptions and simplifications in the
These models vary in many ways including: level of development below. The original version of the model is
conceptualization, physical process representation, degree of described in Huning and Margulis (2015).
lumped vs. distributed representation, and numerical
The underlying framework used here for runoff is based
implementation. In this chapter an example of such a model is
on one of the first distributed watershed models, typically
put forth that is implemented in MATLAB and ties together
referred to as the TOPography based hydrologic MODEL
many of the processes covered throughout the book using
(TOPMODEL) developed by Beven and Kirkby (1979). The
MOD-WET, thereby illustrating the modularity of the
model was motivated by the increased availability of spatially
framework. The goals are to: 1) develop a unified framework
distributed topographic data, i.e. the DEM data we have used
that builds on what has been used previously and 2) provide a
in earlier chapters. TOPMODEL was developed primarily to
model for qualitative and quantitative understanding of
predict saturation excess runoff due to shallow groundwater
hydrological processes and how they change as a function of
within a basin. So the TOPMODEL framework is used to
watershed properties. The MOD-WET model may not be
represent unsaturated zone-saturated zone interactions with
suitable for all applications, but provides a relatively user-
an emphasis on runoff. Other components can be coupled to
friendly framework for developing and testing basic
TOPMODEL including snow accumulation and melt and
378
surface energy balance (including distributed radiative
forcings).
where Csnow is the snow-layer heat capacity (J m-2 K-1) and the
where Ts is the surface soil temperature, CT is related to the right-hand-side terms are the net radiation, latent and
surface heat capacity and Cd is the diurnal periodicity (i.e. 24 sensible heat fluxes, and advected energy (A) and latent
hours), and Td is a deeper soil temperature. The first term heating (L) that are both associated with rain-on-snow. The
serves to force the surface temperature via the surface heat melt flux is determined implicitly by converting any surplus of
conduction and the second term restores the surface energy input to the snowpack (once it becomes isothermal at
temperature exponentially to Td. The deep layer temperature freezing temperature) into an equivalent melt water depth.
is computed as a low-pass filter applied to the surface
381
For simplicity, the soil surface energy balance is only less than or equal to the specified upper limit Srzmax (e.g. field
solved for prognostically when snow disappears. In doing so, capacity). If the upper limit is set to a value lower than the
the soil surface temperature is set equal to the snow soil porosity, this implies that the rootzone never fully
temperature (i.e. 0ºC) just before the snow disappears. This is saturates and this can have implications on infiltration excess
obviously a simplification as it ignores soil dynamics under runoff. It is also assumed that the storage cannot go below a
snow, but this choice is made for computational savings. More specified lower limit Srzmin (e.g. permanent wilting point). The
complicated models can be used to solve the energy balance larger the rootzone reservoir, the more infiltration will
across the entire snow-soil continuum and include soil freeze- ultimately be partitioned into evaporation. The smaller the
thaw processes. reservoir or more intense the infiltration rate, the more
drainage flux there will be.
The unsaturated zone is represented by two moisture
states: the rootzone soil moisture storage (Srz) and the The unsaturated zone storage is fed by the rootzone
unsaturated zone storage (Suz). The rootzone storage is the drainage flux and depleted by recharge (qv) to the underlying
near-surface reservoir that is filled by infiltration (f ; see TCA groundwater system:
method in Chapter 7; Section 7) and is depleted by dSuz
= qdrain − qv ; 0 ≤ Suz ≤ SD (11.2.9)
evapotranspiration (E ; see Chapter 8) and drainage (qdrain) to dt
the main unsaturated zone reservoir:
dSrz
= f − E − qdrain ; Srz min ≤ Srz ≤ Srz max (11.2.8) where the unsaturated zone storage can go to zero if fully
dt
depleted by recharge or if the groundwater table rises to the
surface (i.e. SD = 0). Implicit in the latter case is the
Implicitly, what does not infiltrate generates infiltration-excess generation of saturation excess runoff, which is another
runoff, qie. In the MOD-WET model this is done using a threshold process (only non-zero when the groundwater table
simplified form of the TCA method using the precipitation reaches the surface). The recharge flux is modeled as:
over the time step as input and the time step as the storm
qv = K 0 exp(−SD / m) (11.2.10)
“duration”. The loss from the lower boundary of the rootzone
is assumed to be dominated by gravity drainage and is assuming there is adequate storage in the unsaturated zone.
modeled to only occur when the rootzone storage overfills the This drainage flux is effectively equal to the assumed
maximum storage capacity. Hence the drainage flux involves a saturated conductivity at the water table (i.e. only the gravity
threshold process and the storage in the rootzone is always
382
term is relevant) and increases with increasing surface basin-average saturation deficit, but that the pattern within
conductivity (and m) or decreasing saturation deficit. the basin is dictated by the topographic or soil-topographic
index. Pixels with a soil-topographic index greater than the
The groundwater storage is depleted by the baseflow mean will have a lower saturation deficit (i.e. convergent areas
(volumetric flow per unit width, i.e. [qb]=L2 T-1) leaving the
will have a higher water table) and vice versa. Physically, the
pixel, which is given by: saturation deficit should be greater than or equal to zero,
qb = T0 exp(−SD / m)tan S (11.2.11) where a value of zero corresponds to the water table being at
the surface. Pixels at which a negative value is obtained using
which indicates that baseflow increases with increasing Equation (11.2.13) indicate regions where the groundwater
transmissivity or slope (S) and decreasing saturation deficit. table intersects the surface and therefore generate saturation
excess runoff as described in more detail below.
Finally, a basin-average mass balance and similarity
arguments (using the topographic or soil-topographic index) The model described above generates runoff fluxes: qie,
are used for the saturation deficit. The basin average qse, and qb at each pixel in the domain. To generate the outlet
saturation deficit mass balance is given by: hydrograph, the pixel-wise runoff fluxes must be moved
downstream via a so-called routing scheme (see Chapter 10,
d SD (11.2.12)
= Qb −Qv Sections 7 and 8). A key input to the routing scheme is the
dt
channel topology of the basin. In the MOD-WET model, we
choose to have a network that covers the entire basin as
where the angled brackets denote a spatial average over the shown in Figures 10.36 and 10.37. The connectivity of the
basin and Qb and Qv are basin-averaged baseflow and recharge cells is implicit in the automated basin delineation used in the
fluxes respectively. It is then assumed, using similarity MOD-WET function:
arguments, that the pixel-scale saturation deficit is a function watershed_area_and_stream_delineation.m, which has an
of the basin average deficit and the departure of the local soil- output called flowdir. From that variable all upstream and
topographic index from its basin-average, i.e.: downstream nodes for each link in the network are identified.
SD = SD + m "# γ − γ i $% (11.2.13) The routing equations are applied to each link of the
network, taking into account both flow in the stream and
where the second and third term on the right-hand-side are
inflows from pixel runoff. For simplicity, it is assumed that the
constant in time. What this similarity argument implicitly
channel is of rectangular (prismatic) cross-section. The spatial
states is that SD at a given pixel will go up or down with the
distribution of channel width (B) across the network is
383
modeled via a two-parameter power law (Takeuchi et al., where the i index represents the location in space (i.e.
1999): upstream or downstream pixel), the j index represents the
time step and the C coefficients are weighting factors that
B = αAcc (11.2.14) depend on flow characteristics (Equations (10.8.6-10.8.8)). In
where Ac (km2) is the contributing upstream area flowing into this formulation, upstream flows are the sum of those already
a given pixel. This expression, given the specification of the in the channel from upstream and those contributing runoff
two parameters, provides a simple means of estimating the from the upstream pixel.
increase in channel width downstream. However, using the Aside from the spatial discretization of the river network
equation does not prevent cases where (for large upstream (dx) and temporal discretization (dt), the C coefficients
areas) the stream channel width could be larger than the pixel depend on the dynamic parameters K and X. The parameter
resolution. The Manning roughness parameter for a given K is given by:
pixel is given by the model (Takeuchi et al., 1999):
dx
1/3 K= (11.2.17)
!
tan S
$ (11.2.15) ck
n = n0 # & ; S ≡ mean slope
# tan S &
" %
where ck is the so-called wave celerity, which is defined by the
where n0 is the mean Manning roughness over the basin. This derivative of flow in the channel with respect to cross-sectional
expression indicates that areas of higher than average slope area:
have higher roughness values and vice versa. Note that such
dQ
an expression does not incorporate explicit differences as a ck = (11.2.18)
dA
result of different landcover types.
Qi+1
j+1
= C 1Qij+1 +C 2Qij +C 3Qi+1
j
(11.2.16)
The celerity is then given by:
384
3/5
(11.2.20) It should be reiterated that the version of the MOD-
5 " S0 %
1/2
dQ 5 2/3 −2 3 1 2
ck = = A P S0 = $ 2/3 ' Q 2/5 WET model described herein does not contain explicit
dA 3n 3 $#nP '&
representation of vegetation. As such, it is best suited to non-
which is itself a function of the nominal flow which can be vegetated basins. We would expect vegetation to modify the
estimated using a so-called 3-point average: processes in a variety of ways including: rainfall/snowfall
canopy interception, additional control on evapotranspiration
Q = (Qij+1 +Qij +Qi+1
j
)/3 (11.2.21) via stomatal resistance, attenuation of solar radiation reaching
the soil/snow surface, etc. Future versions of the MOD-WET
Note that the general form in Equation (11.2.20) is iterative
model will embed these processes in the model.
since the wetted perimeter depends on depth. To make the
above formulation non-iterative, a “wide channel” assumption
is invoked, whereby the wetted perimeter in the Manning
equation is assumed approximately equal to the width of the
channel, i.e. (Takeuchi et al., 1999):
385
S ECTION 3 done mostly because it allows for easy vectorization of the
state equations which allows one to avoid using for loops in
MOD-WET Model Imple- MATLAB, which can be a very expensive proposition. It
should be noted that this introduces the possibility of
387
as given by: where an intermediate value of the saturation deficit is
denoted in Equation (11.3.15) since there is no constraint on
qb (i,t) = T0 exp(−SD(i,t) / m)tan Si (11.3.12) non-physical values in its application.
The dimensions of qb are: [qb ]=L2T-1, which implies a flow per
Final updates to several variables revolve around
unit width (of stream or hillslope). Further, the basin-average removing negative storage deficits that would be associated
recharge flux Qv (with dimension [Qv] =L) used in Equation with saturation excess flow via:
(11.2.12) is given by:
"
1 N $ q ! (i,t) + SD !(i,t + 1) , SD !(i,t + 1) < 0 (11.3.18)
Qv (t) = ∑q (i,t) (11.3.13) q se (i,t) = # se
N i=1
v
$% q se! (i,t), otherwise
where Lx is the dimension of the pixel length. From the above This will keep the deficit to a minimum value of zero if
set of discretized equations, Equation (11.2.12) is used to Equation (11.3.15) yields a negative value. The unsaturated
update the basin-averaged saturation deficit and the pixel- zone storage is set to zero where the saturation deficit is zero:
wise saturation deficit is then given by:
"$ 0, SD !(i,t + 1) < 0
(11.3.20)
SD !(i,t + 1) = SD (t + 1) + m #$ γ − γ (i)%& (11.3.15) Suz (i,t + 1) = #
$% Suz! (i,t + 1), otherwise
where
! a(i) $
The above equations should be applied at each time step to
γ (i) = ln # & (11.3.16)
T
" 0 (i)tan S(i) % maintain the basin-wide soil moisture budget. Given a state
estimate at the beginning of a time step, the state estimate at
the end of the time step is determined using the equations
! a(i) $ 1 N ! a(i) $
γ = ln # & = ∑ ln # &dA(i) (11.3.17) shown above. All fluxes are representative of the flux over the
T
" 0 (i)tan S(i) % A i=1 T
" 0 (i)tan S(i) %
time step.
388
Initialization of the model can be done by specifying an radiative properties, etc.) and snow surface characteristics
initial condition of the basin-averaged saturation deficit and (roughness, emissivity, etc.) are the same throughout the
then applying Equation (11.3.15). Other initial states that basin, but they could be made variable. As such, the primary
need to be specified include the rootzone and unsaturated spatial variability comes in the form of topography which
zone storage values. A summary of the states and parameters directly impacts i) the redistribution of water via Equation
(in addition to the DEM and meteorological inputs) that need (11.3.15) and the routing of flow and ii) the meteorological
to be specified for this numerical implementation of the model forcings including (among others) air temperature, which is
are shown below in Table 11.1. Many other parmeters must disaggregated via a lapse rate, shortwave radiation which
also be specified. In the default implementation of the model, depends on elevation, slope, and aspect, surface precipitation
the soil parameters (roughness, hydraulic, thermal, and and phase (i.e. rain vs. snow), which depends on air
temperature.
389
The files that need to be provided to the model are those estimate all state variables at the end of each time step and
related to the DEM and watershed delineation (i.e. outputs the fluxes that occurred over the time step. Finally, the raw
from the watershed_area_and_stream_delineation function data is averaged or saved at the specified temporal resolution.
that must be applied as a pre-processing step) and the Outputs are stored in structure arrays based on variable type,
meteorological inputs (which are assumed to come from a i.e.: states, fluxes, and disaggregated_forcing, where
single gage at a specified elevation within or near the basin). each contains the key variables (in both map and time series
The meteorological data must be at the appropriate time step format) and the units of each.
specified in the inputs file and is assumed to start at the
The MOD-WET model is constructed in an attempt to
beginning of the water year on the Universal Time Coordinate
run reasonably efficiently, but also in a way that makes for
(UTC; or Greenwich Mean Time), i.e. at UTC 0:00 on
easy student learning. The forward finite difference
October 1st. Beyond the creation of these input files and the
formulations for the energy/mass budgets are simple to
editing of set_control_parameters and
understand and allows for “vectorization” of the calculations.
set_static_physical_parameters, no other functions
This simply means that the change in any model state (e.g.
should need to be modified to run the model.
temperature) over the course of one time step can be
Within the MOD_WET_model_driver function, maps of computed simultaneously for all pixels across the domain.
model states and parameters and pre-allocation of variables Alternatively, one could loop over pixels in the domain, but
are initialized via the initialize_model function. The time loops tend to be very slow relative to vectorized calculations
stepping loop updates state variables at each time step. Doing and hence this saves a significant amount of time. The
so involves several functions including those that sequentially: primary drawback of these simple finite difference schemes is
distribute the meteorological station data the need for a small time step (e.g. 15 min.), which tends to
(distribute_met_forcings), apply snow model physics be most necessary for the surface energy budget calculations.
(snow_model) and soil energy balance physics More sophisticated finite difference schemes (implicit/
(soil_SEB_solver_prognostic), estimate infiltration and iterative) may be more stable and therefore allow a larger
infiltration excess runoff using the time-compression time step, but are generally less straightforward to vectorize.
approximation (TCA_infiltration), estimate subsurface The primary computational (CPU) expense is proportional to
processes and saturation excess runoff and baseflow using the the number of pixels being simulated (i.e. size of domain and
TOPMODEL framework (TOPMODEL), and finally routing of resolution of DEM) and the length of the simulation (number
the runoff downstream using the Muskingum-Cunge method of time steps required). Hence, short-duration simulations
(routing_muskingum_cunge). The full set of functions with a small domain at coarse resolution will take the least
390
amount of CPU time. Long-duration simulations over a large
domain at high resolution will take the most CPU time. The
primary storage (RAM) expense comes from storing the
mapped arrays, which is therefore proportional to the size of
the domain and resolution of the DEM. The user can control
how often to output mapped results to control RAM
requirements. When designing simulations it is up to the user
to consider these control parameters to meet the practical (i.e.
computational) and instructional requirements.
391
S ECTION 4
Example MOD-WET
Model Applications
The model developed in the last two sections is done
generally so that it can be applied to basins of varying sizes
and characteristics. The key inputs to the model include a
DEM, soil parameters, meteorological data, etc. Here a simple
“toy basin” is used for qualitative demonstration of the model.
Figures 11.3 and 11.4 shows the DEM for the toy basin.
Geographically, its location (i.e. easting/northing coordinates) F IGURE 11.4 Surface plot of the toy basin DEM showing the
varying slopes along the valley hillslope cross-section.
392
The slope is smallest in the valley floor and on the ridges,
with slopes on the hillsides ranging from 10-20 degrees. The
aspect map is quite simple with the pixels on the northern
slope effectively facing due south (i.e. 180 degrees) and the
southern slope effectively facing due north (i.e. 360 degrees).
These patterns will play a key role in explaining some of the
variability in hydrologic variables described below. The valley
floor and ridges have an aspect facing due West (i.e. 270
degrees) due to their shallow east-to-west slopes.
393
topographic index varies in a predictable way with lowest table is initially set to be at the surface throughout the basin
values along the ridge lines, monotonically increasing down (i.e. SD(i,t0)=0) and the groundwater is allowed to drain via
the hillslopes with largest values in the valley floor where the baseflow. Such an experiment provides insight into the
stream pixels are expected to be located. The largest value is equilibrium state the groundwater system would approach
at the basin outlet which by definition has the whole basin as under the case of no precipitation/infiltration/evaporation.
a contributing area. Figure 11.7 shows the distribution of the saturation deficit
over time through a north-south cross-section through the
Numerical experiments can be done to illustrate behavior middle of the basin. At the beginning of the simulation the
of the modeled system. Aside from the DEM, the other model saturation deficit is zero throughout the cross-section.
parameters used in all simulations described below are shown Baseflow is largest at the beginning of the simulation causing
in the test cases included in the MOD-WET package. First, rapid drainage with predictable spatial patterns. Near the
results are shown from a drainage experiment where the water stream channel in the middle of the basin, the saturation
deficit is smallest, while it is highest at the top of the
hillslopes. For the set of parameters used, after 300 days of
simulation the saturation deficit has dropped by about 0.15 m
at the stream channel and about 0.4 m at the top of the
hillslope. Over time the saturation deficit will continue to
drop, but more slowly as the baseflow is reduced.
394
F IGURE 11.8 Saturation deficit map (in meters) over the toy
basin domain after 300 days of drainage.
395
precipitation occurring in the winter months, some of which facing slopes will receive less incident direct beam solar
occurs as snow, and a strong seasonal cycle in incoming radiation relative to higher elevations or south-facing slopes.
shortwave radiation and air temperature. The model takes the
Basin-averaged results from the model are presented in
station data and distributes it across the basin using
Figures 11.10-11.13. Figure 11.10 shows the daily-averaged
disaggregation functions (introduced in earlier chapters) that
surface temperature and SWE over the annual cycle. Basin-
depend on topographic characteristics. For example, lower
averaged surface temperature decreases during the early
elevations will receive higher air temperatures and north-
stages in concert with the decreasing energy input (i.e. Figure
11.9, middle panel) and reaches and stays below freezing
around 60 days after the beginning of the WY (i.e. around
December 1st). Snow begins to accumulate shortly thereafter.
Recall that the surface temperature represents soil
temperature when snow-free and corresponds to the snow
surface temperature otherwise. SWE increases until around
200 days after the beginning of the simulation and peaks at
about 0.6 m. Around the same time, the surface temperature
increases back to freezing which corresponds to the beginning
of snowmelt, where the snowmelt season lasts approximately
60 days. Once snow melts, surface temperature increases
rapidly.
397
Figure 11.13 shows the daily-averaged runoff terms
from the simulation. Saturation excess runoff is shown to be
the largest contributor to runoff for this basin and model
inputs. In fact, the infiltration excess runoff is zero throughout
the simulation. This is because the specified saturated
hydraulic conductivity for the basin is larger than the
precipitation (or melt) rate experienced throughout the
simulation. Most of the saturation excess runoff is in response
to intermittent melt events during the snow accumulation
season as well as to the sustained melt during Days 200-275 of
the Water Year.
398
The distributed model outputs these same states and fluxes at seasonal dynamics the daily-averaged SWE map is shown over
all pixels in the basin (i.e. state/flux maps) throughout the the whole year-long simulation in Movie 11.1. Keep in mind
year. Example results are shown for SWE in Figure 11.14. that the precipitation is uniform over the basin so that
This state is chosen because, even for the simple toy basin variability in SWE is either the result of precipitation being
configuration, SWE is expected to show spatial variability. classified differently as snow vs. rain (only a function of
Specifically, snowmelt should happen more quickly on south elevation-induced temperature differences) or differential melt.
facing slopes. Figure 11.14 shows the SWE map toward the The animation shows no SWE until around day of water year
end of the melt season. From the figure it is clear that snow (DOWY) 80 (mid-December). Around the time of peak basin-
has completely melted on the south-facing hillslope, while averaged SWE there is a distinct difference between the north-
snow is persistent on the north-facing hill slope. The and south-facing slopes. The south-facing slopes have lower
remaining SWE is also larger in the pixels with larger slopes, SWE due to intermittent melt events during accumulation as
which provides further reduction in incident shortwave a result of increased radiative heating on those pixels. As
radiation due to local shading. To see the full range of indicated in Figure 11.14, all of the snow has melted on the
399
south-facing slopes by DOWY 260, while the snow persists on moisture is shown in Movie 11.2. While the initial condition is
the north-facing slopes for a couple more weeks. the same over the whole basin, the north-facing slope
generally has a higher soil moisture prior to snow
Figure 11.15 shows a similar example map of the accumulation (less radiative forcing and therefore less
rootzone soil moisture storage on the same day as the SWE
evaporation). After snow cover persists (and there is some
map in Figure 11.14. The rootzone storage on the north-facing intermittent melt), the rootzone storage fills up and is uniform
hillslope is at its maximum value since the intermittent melt across the basin since no evaporation takes place from the soil
water has replenished the rootzone and the snow cover is while snow is on the ground (any additional melt overflows
preventing soil evaporation. For the pixels on the south-facing the rootzone into the unsaturated zone). It remains uniformly
slope, the rootzone storage is reduced since the melt flux is distributed until the snow disappears and soil evaporation
zero and evaporation is depleting the near-surface storage begins. Since snow disappears from the south-facing hillslope
reservoir. The full range of seasonal dynamics in rootzone soil first, the rootzone soil moisture decreases on that portion of
the basin (around DOWY 260).
F IGURE 11.16 Saturation deficit map (in meters) over the toy
M OVIE 11.2 Animation of daily-average rootzone soil mois- basin domain on Day 260 of the Water Year.
ture (in meters) over the toy basin for each day of the Water
Year (DOWY).
400
F IGURE 11.17 Saturation excess runoff map (in m3/hour)
over the toy basin domain on Day 260 of the Water Year.
401
M OVIE 11.4 Animation of daily-average saturation excess run- F IGURE 11.18 Tokopah basin DEM (90-m resolution) in me-
off (in m3/h) over the toy basin for each day of water year ters.
(DOWY).
M OVIE 11.8 Tokopah daily rootzone moisture animation. M OVIE 11.9 Tokopah daily saturation excess animation.
404
the MOD-WET model. It should be noted that it relies
heavily on previously presented MOD-WET codes and is
designed generally so that it could be used for more complex
basins. Sensitivity of hydrograph response to basin
characteristics is illustrated in the next section.
407
hydrographs for the other basins are also shown in Figure
11.21.
408
bed slope (Figure 11.22; black line) it is expected that
streamflow velocities will be smaller. As a result the peak flow
is reduced (by about 14%) and the flows are attenuated, with
low flows persisting beyond 1.5 days after the start of the
simulation. Note that this case did not change the slope of the
hillslope pixels (only the main stream channel) and hence flow
still makes its way to the channel at a comparable speed to
that of the baseline case. However once water is in the channel
it takes longer to reach the outlet. A reduction in the hillslope
gradients would be expected to further reduce the peak and
attenuate the hydrograph. For the case of a basin with
reduced roughness (Figure 11.22; blue line), the opposite
behavior is seen. The reduced roughness (which is applied over
the whole basin) speeds up flow in general. As such, the peak
is significantly increased (by about 25%).
409
S ECTION 6 Construction of flow network:
flow_network.m
410
S ECTION 7
Conceptual Questions
1. Provide a basic description of the topographic index and
what it represents in the TOPMODEL framework.
411
S ECTION 8
MOD-WET Problems
The MOD-WET Problems throughout the textbook take you
through the setup and analysis of a watershed simulation. The
exercises below are meant to provide suggestions for simple
sensitivity tests that can provide additional insight to your
nominal watershed simulation.
412
Chapter 12
MATLAB
Basics
It is generally assumed that the reader has had a course operations. These built-in functions are “m-files”, which are
in basic MATLAB or another programming language. The idea simply text files containing instructions that are stored
of this section is not to provide a full primer or reference, but somewhere on the MATLAB “search path”. The search path is a
highlight some key points to help in using MOD-WET list of directories to look through for a specified m-file. For
functions and provide pointers to more general references. example, when taking the average of a vector a, i.e. mean(a),
First, it should be noted that MATLAB is capable of much MATLAB looks through the specified path for the file mean.m
more than covered here, has an extremely useful built-in help and provides it the vector a as an input and returns the mean
system, and Mathworks provides their own rather extensive as an output, as obtained via the set of instructions to
primer for beginners located at: http://www.mathworks.com/ perform supplied in the mean.m file. For all of the built-in
help/pdf_doc/matlab/getstart.pdf. You should consult these MATLAB functions and their associated toolboxes, the path to
resources and keep them handy for reference. There are also those functions are loaded by default. Additionally, the
many textbooks designed to provide more thorough current directory you are working in is always on the path and
introductions to MATLAB (e.g. Chapman, 2007; Pratap, 2009). is the directory that is searched first. Hence in calling a
The best way to find a solution to a problem you have is to function, unless new directories are added to the path, the
find an example of how such things are done via the help function must exist either in the current directory or on the
command, using the primer, or other online resources. You default MATLAB path. It is useful to keep this in mind because
should also be aware that none of the applications used in this as you develop your own m-files or use those developed by
book need to be solved using MATLAB, it is simply chosen as a others, you will need to add the location of those functions to
numerical tool since it is readily available and is relatively your path. Along these lines it is useful to keep your functions
easy to learn. in an organized location that can be added easily to the path.
In its simplest form, MATLAB can be used as a calculator The idea of specifying a search path is particularly impor-
to perform basic arithmetic operations on values stored in tant when using the MOD-WET functions. Paths can be
variables, vectors, or multi-dimensional arrays. As a first step, manually added to MATLAB, but the approach described be-
you need to be comfortable with how variables are stored in low automates this process with a simple line that you can
arrays, array operations, indexing in arrays, etc. (see the add to your own code. MOD-WET has several subdirectories.
“Language Fundamentals” chapter in the MATLAB primer). Assume that you have the following directory structure:
414
/Users/username/CEE150/MOD_WET/chapter5 distinction coming via the usage of the function command at
/Users/username/CEE150/MOD_WET/chapter6 the beginning of the file.
/Users/username/CEE150/MOD_WET/chapter7
/Users/username/CEE150/MOD_WET/chapter8
Scripts operate as if the commands in the file were being
/Users/username/CEE150/MOD_WET/chapter11
typed into the command window. As such it does not have
where the individual MOD-WET functions are within each of inputs or outputs but operates on variables that either
the directories listed above. To add all subdirectories within a already exist in the workspace or are created within the
specified directory to the search path one could type: script. At the end of the script, variables that were created
within it are defined in the workspace. Functions can be called
addpath(genpath('/Users/username/CEE150/ ...
MOD_WET')). from within scripts.
The addition of the genpath command will allow MATLAB to Functions differ from scripts in an important way;
access all functions in the MOD-WET (i.e. Chapters 1 – 11), namely they require inputs and send back outputs. In the case
since directories chapter1 … chapter11 are all contained in of functions, all variables are local to the function and are not
the MOD_WET parent directory. Adding the path to the MOD- explicitly saved in the workspace when complete -- only
WET directory or your other functions at the top of all of inputs/outputs will exist in the workspace after a function
your own scripts should help you avoid any problems with call. A function m-file begins with a function definition line
MATLAB’s search path. The use of the genpath command is (without this line you would have a regular script m-file), i.e.:
highly recommended because you will not have to remember function [OUTPUT] = function_name (INPUT)
which toolbox function is associated with a specific chapter or
directory. where INPUT is a variable provided to the function, and
OUTPUT is a variable sent back from the function, and
MATLAB scripts vs. functions function_name is the name of the function. While not
In performing any analysis, it is usually required to make required, function_name is most often also used in the
use of multiple commands which can be tailored to the desired filename, i.e. function_name.m. Both the inputs and outputs
task/s. This typically involves usage of basic programming can consist of multiple variables.
written in the form of scripts or functions (see the
“Programming” chapter in the MATLAB primer), which allow The primary reason for using functions over scripts is
for repeated usage and to fully document the process. Both that they are inherently modular where only inputs/outputs
scripts and functions are written as m-files, with the need to be dealt with. For this reason, the MOD-WET
consists entirely of functions. The value of modularity is
415
particularly apparent in the development of the MOD-WET etc. For example, in plotting a DEM one could do the
model, which is built up from existing MOD-WET functions. following (where comments are added for clarity):
In addition to the MOD-WET functions and those you
% generate 2D map given x and y coordinates (vec-
develop on your own, there are many community-based tors) and map (2D array) of elevations, i.e. dsm
functions that are provided on the MATLAB file exchange. imagesc(x,y,dsm);
% set the correct orientation for the y-axis (other-
Visualization in MATLAB: wise MATLAB flips it)
Visualizing imported data or results of computations are set(gca,'YDir','normal');
% impose the proper aspect ratio (i.e. each pixel
often a crucial part of understanding and communicating your should be square not rectangular based on the im-
work. MATLAB provides many options for visualizing data (see plicit geographic extent if each pixel is 30m x 30m
the “Graphics” chapter in the MATLAB primer). Depending on for example)
axis image;
the type of data to be plotted, different graphics options exist
% add colorbar
(figures can be created and controlled via the figure, clf, colorbar;
close, and related commands). It is important to choose a % keep the map on and allows for overlaying plots
type of graphical representation that is well-suited to the hold on
characteristics you are trying to communicate. When plotting MATLAB provides several colorbar options, with jet
time series data or one variable vs. another, an x-y line (or being the default. Other colorbars, or ones you design yourself
scatter) plot using the plot command is generally most may be more useful in other circumstances. For example, the
useful. Annotation of plots is crucial, so you should become hsv colormap is useful for plotting maps of aspect or wind
familiar with commands to control labeling and other features direction (circular/angular directions) because angles of both
of the plot (i.e. xlabel, ylabel, grid, title, legend, 0 and 360 degrees should be represented by the same color
colorbar, set, etc.). For time series, where date/time labels since they are actually the same angle. High and low values
are desired, the use of the xtick, ytick, and datetick are represented with the same color in this colormap which
commands may be useful. In many cases it might also be can be invoked via: colormap(hsv).
useful to have multiple graphics on the same figure, which can
be done via the subplot command. Finally, invariably you will need to include graphical
figures into homework assignments or lab reports being
In many hydrologic examples (e.g. topography) it is written in a word processing program. There are multiple
useful to visualize data as mapped results (i.e. when a variable ways to save figures. Saving can be done from within a script
depends on geographic x/y coordinates). The most common or function using the saveas command, e.g.
functions useful for mapping are: imagesc, surf, contour,
416
saveas(gcf,'figure_name.png','png')
417
Chapter 13
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