The OSI 7 Layer Model

OSI 7 Layer Model, a structure generated to separate different parts of networking into
different categories and defining the relationships between categories. This is BY FAR the
most complex part of the Networking Essentials test, as it pulls together protocol stacks,
network types, hardware, software, and every other component of networking into a single
view.

What Is The OSI Model?

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began developing the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model in 1977. It was created to standardize the
rules of networking in order for all systems to be able to communicate. In order for
communication to occur on a networking using different device drivers and protocol stacks,
the rules for communication must be explicitly defined. The OSI model deals with the
following issues;

 How a device on a network sends it's data, and how it knows when are where to send
it
 How a device on a network receives it's data, and how to know where to look for it.
 How devices using different languages communicate with each other.
 How devices on a network are physically connected to each other.
 How protocols work with devices on a network to arrange data.

The OSI model is broken down into 7 layers. Although the first layer is #1, it is always shown
at the bottom of the model

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Protocol Stacks

In order for each layer of the model to communicate with the levels above and below it,
certain rules were developed. These rules are called Protocols, and each protocol provides a
specific layer of the model with a specific set of tasks or services. Each layer of the model
has it's own set of protocols associated with it. When you have a set of protocols that create
a complete OSI model, it is called a Protocol Stack. An example of a protocol stack is
TCP/IP, the standard for communication over the internet, or Appletalk for Macintosh
computers.

As stated before, protocols define how layers communicate with each other. Protocols
specifically work with ONLY the layer above and below them. They receive services from the
protocol below, and provide services for the protocol above them. This order maintains a
standard that is common to ALL forms of networking.

In order for two devices on a network to communicate, they must both be using the same
protocol stack. Each protocol in a stack on one device must communicate with it's equivalent
stack, or peer, on the other device. This allows computers running different operating
systems to communicate with each other easily, such as having Macintosh computers on a
Windows NT network.

Communications Between Stacks

When a message is sent from one machine to another, it travels down the protocol stack or
layers of the model, and then up the layers of the stack on the other machine. As the data
travels down the stack, it picks up headers from each layer (Except the physical layer).
Headers contain information that is read by the peer layer on the stack of the other
computer. As the data travels up the levels of the peer computer, each header is removed by
it's equivalent protocol. These headers contain different information depending on the layer
they receive the header from, but tell the peer layer important information, including packet
size, frames, and datagrams. Each layer's header and data are called data packages, or
service data units. Although it may seem confusing, each layer has a different name for it's
service data unit. Here are the common names for service data units at each level of the OSI
model
The Physical Layer

The lowest layer on the OSI model, and probably the easiest to understand is the physical
layer. This layer deals with the physical, electrical, and cable issues involved with making a
network connection. It associates with any part of the network structure that doesn't process
information in any way.

The physical layer is responsible for sending the bits across the network media. It does not
define what a bit is or how it is used merely how it's sent. The physical layer is responsible
for transmitting and receiving the data. It defines pin assignments for serial connections,
determines data synchronization, and defines the entire network's timing base.

Items defined by the physical layer include hubs, simple active hubs, terminators, couplers,
cables and cabling, connectors, repeaters, multiplexers, transmitters, receivers, and
transceivers. Any item that does not process information but is required for the sending and
receiving of data is defined by this layer.

There are several items addresses by this layer. They are;

 Network connections types, including multi-point and point-to-point networks.

 Network Topologies, including ring, star, bus, and mesh networks.

 Analog or Digital signaling.

 Bit Synchronization (When to send data and when to listen for it).

 Baseband Vs. Broadband transmissions.

 Multiplexing (Combining multiple streams of data into one channel).

 Termination, to give better signal clarity and for node segmentation.

Examples:

T1, E1, DSL, 802.11a/b/g/n PHY, RS-232, RS-422

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for the flow of data over the network from one device to
another. It accepts data from the Network Layer, packages that data into frames, and sends
them to the Physical Layer for distribution. In the same way, it receives frames from the
physical layer of a receiving computer, and changes them into packets before sending them
to the Network Layer.

The Data link Layer is also involved in error detection and avoidance using a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) added to the frame that the receiving computer analyses. This
second also checks for lost frames and sends requests for re-transmissions of frames that
are missing or corrupted at this level.
The most important aspect of the Data Link Layer is in Broadcast networks, where this layer
establishes which computer on a network receives the information and which computers relay
or ignore the information. It does so by using a Media Access Control (MAC) address, which
uniquely identifies each Network Interface Card (NIC).

Bridges, Intelligent Hubs, And NICs are all associated with the Data Link Layer.

Data Link Layer Functions

 Constructs data frames
 Creates CRC information; checks for errors
 Retransmits data if there is an error
 Initiates communications link; makes sure it is not interrupted (ensures node-to-node
physical reliability)
 Examines device addresses
 Acknowledges receipt of a frame

The Data Link Layer is sub-divided into two layers. This is done because of the two distinct
functions that each sub-division provides.

Logical Link Control - Generates and maintains links between network devices
Media Access Control - Defines how multiple devices share a media channel

Examples:

802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11a/b/g/n MAC/LLC, 802.1Q (VLAN), ATM, FDDI, Fibre Channel,
Frame Relay, HDLC, OSPF, LocalTalk, AppleTalk Remote Access, PPP ,IEEE 802.3 framing,
Ethernet II framing, LLC (Logical Link Control), MAC (Media Access Control)

The Network Layer

The third layer of the OSI model is the Network layer. This layer is responsible for making
routing decisions and forwards packets that are farther then one link away. By making the
network layer responsible for this function, every other layer of the OSI model can send
packets without dealing with where exactly the system happens to be on the network.

This layer is also responsible for breaking large packets into smaller chucks when the original
packet is bigger then the Data Link is set.

Functions
 Determines network path for routing packets
 Helps reduce network congestion
 Establishes virtual circuits
 Routes packets to other networks, resequencing packet transmissions when needed
 Translates between protocols
Examples:

RRC (Radio Resource Control) Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) and BMC
(Broadcast/Multicast Control) ATP (TokenTalk or EtherTalk) IPsec, SCCP, MTP

Transport Layer

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Transport Layer Functions

 Ensures reliability of packet transmissions
 Ensures data is sent and received in the same order
 Sends acknowledgement when packet is received
 Monitors for packet transmission errors and resends bad packets
 Breaks large data units into smaller ones and reconstructs them at the receiving end
for networks using different protocols

Examples

TCP, UDP, SCTP

Session Layer

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The
session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues
between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

The session layer also determines who can send data and who can receive data at every
point in the communication. Without the dialogue between the two session layers, neither
computer would know when to start sending data and when to look for it in the network traffic.

Session Layer Functions

 Establishes and maintains communications link
 Determines which node transmits at any point in time
 Disconnects when communication session is over
 Translates node addresses

Examples
NetBIOS, SAP, Half Duplex, Full Duplex, Simplex, Sockets. Session establishment in TCP.
SIP

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is responsible for protocol conversation, data translation,

compression, encryption, character set conversion, and graphical command interpretation
between the computer and the network.

The main working units in the presentation are the network redirectors, which make server
files visible on client computers. The Network redirector is also responsible for making
remote printers appear as if they were local.

Presentation Layer Functions

 Translates data to a format the receiving node understands (eg, from EBCDIC to
ASCII)
 Performs data encryption
 Performs data compression
 Application Layer Functions
 Enables sharing remote drivers and printers
 Handles e-mail messages
 Provides file transfer services
 Provides file management services
 Provides terminal emulation services

Examples:
ASCII,ISO/IEC 8823, X.226

Application Layers

The application layer provides services that support user applications, such as database
access, e-mail services, and file transfers. The application layer also allows Remote Access
Servers to work, so that applications appear local on remotely hosted servers.

Examples:

SIP,DNS, FTP, HTTP, RIP ,ISUP, TUP