FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION

ABSTRACT
It has the ability to produce electric power from mechanical reaction (force) and then it
change to electric charges. This kind of technology can be used as the alternative electric
power generator. It is impossible to replace the existing electricity generation, but at least to
vary and reduce the dependency on the conventional electricity generation. Design concept
used in this thesis is to use piezoelectric place at the walking area named as “Foot Step Power
Generation System”. When a human walking, jumping or dancing on the surface which
contain the piezoelectric, it then will produce sufficient force for energy generation process.
This system is very suitable applied at the public spotted area with many people such as
walking corridor, shopping mall, in the office, schools and others. Therefore, the continued
pressure will provide sufficient resources to be used to produce the electricity required.
Keywords—new technology, piezoelectricity, piezoelectric material, generate power, force or
pressure

Chapter 1

Introduction
With the increasing number of human in a country, human need and use the energy to do
work or more to a place and well-being ever since existed millions years ago. As a result,
many resources have been wasted with impurity. So, non- conventional energy is very
essential at this time on our nation. In the human body there is a source of energy which is the
process of human nutrition eat and drink every day and time. Humans need to use energy to
perform daily activities such as doing work and running. Unconsciously, the energy used is
actually one of the energy wastes. Walking is common activity performed by person in he or
she’s everyday life. When a person is walking, the energy will be reduced due to the weight
transfer to the surface of the foot during walking. Therefore, the energy of the person from he
foot step can be converted to the electricity energy. This device can be places where there is
continuous human traffic such as in city mall, railway station platforms, city footpaths and
other places, the electricity generated from these devices can be used for lighting [1].

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRIDUCTION:

FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION:

The usage of traditional power generation method such as burning of coal, wood, diesel
(generators) etc is continuously depleting our natural resources such as fossil fuels, which is
the demand for power has exceed the supply due to the rising population. In addition to this
the traditional methods cause pollution,

GLOBAL WARMING:

Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth's near-
surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century, and its projected continuation. Global
surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the 100 years ending in
2005. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the
increase since the mid-twentieth century is "very likely" due to the increase in anthropogenic
greenhouse gas concentrations. Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with
volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small
cooling effect from 1950 onward.
Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface
temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first
century. This range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse
gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies
focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more
than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching
equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.

Increasing global temperature is expected to cause sea levels to rise, an increase in the
intensity of extreme weather events, and significant changes to the amount and pattern of
precipitation, likely including an expanse of the subtropical desert regions.. Other expected
effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, modifications of trade
routes, glacier retreat, mass species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and
how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most
national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide
regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt
to its expected consequences.

Global dimming, the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's
surface, may have partially mitigated global warming in the late 20th century. From 1960 to
1990 human-caused aerosols likely precipitated this effect. Scientists have stated with 66–
90% confidence that the effects of human-caused aerosols, along with volcanic activity, have
offset some of the global warming, and that greenhouse gases would have resulted in more
warming than observed if not for these dimming agents.

Ozone depletion, the steady decline in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere, is
frequently cited in relation to global warming. Although there are areas of linkage, the
relationship between the two is not strong.

2.2 EXISTING SYSTEM:

Other people have developed Rack-pinion and pulley (mechanical-to-electrical) surfaces in

the past, but the Crowd Farm has the potential to redefine urban space by adding a sense of
fluidity and encouraging people to activate spaces with their movement. The Crowd Farm
floor is composed of standard parts that are easily replicated but it is expensive to produce at
this stage. This technology would facilitate the future creation of new urban landscapes
athletic fields with a spectator area, music halls, theatres, nightclubs and a large gathering
space for rallies, demonstrations and celebrations, railway stations, bus stands, subways,
airports etc. like capable of Harnessing human location for electricity generation.

2.3 PROPOSED SYSTEM:

NEED FOR THE SYSTEM:

Proposal for the utilization of waste energy of foot power with human locomotion is very
much relevant and important for highly populated countries like India and China where the
roads, railway stations, bus stands, temples, etc. are all over crowded and millions of people
move around the clock. This whole human/bio energy being wasted if can be made possible
for utilization it will be great invention and crowd energy farms will be very useful energy
sources in crowded countries. Walking across a "Crowd Farm," floor, then, will be a fun for
idle people who can improve their health by exercising in such farms with earning. The
electrical energy generated at such farms will be useful for nearby applications.

2.4 ULTIMATE AIM:

The ultimate aim of this project is to develop much cleaner cost effective way of power
generation method, which in turns helps to bring down the global warming as well as reduce
the power shortages

JOURNAL 1:

There are a number of approaches being used to generate alternative power supply. One of
the method is piezoelectric smart road sensor[1]. On application of mechanical stress on
piezo materials equivalent amount of electric current or voltage is produced. This effect can
be used in harvesting energy from the smart roads. Priyanshu et.al. says that when any
vehicle moves on the roads it produces very small vertical deformations and vibrations on the
roads. The increasing demand of the electricity forces us to think about harvesting that
vibration energy from vehicles which is wasted otherwise. Also the traffic on the roads has
increased to a certain level that if we employ such sensors on the roads it will be a great
support in reducing the burden of the fossil fuels.

Energy can be harvested from various energy sources like radiations, light, temperature,
vibrations etc. Vibrations are created from different sources like from machines in industrial,
moving vehicles on streets and so on. Vibration to electrical energy is changed over by
utilizing three distinct ideas i.e. Electromagnetic, Electrostatic and Piezoelectric[2]. The piezo
impact created is because of the adjustment in the electric polarization of the materials due to
the apply stress which prompts the production of electric current or voltage. The piezoelectric
effect was proposed by the curie brothers according to which electric charge is produced,
when force is applied parallel to polar axis using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane
sugar and Rochelle salt[3]. Piezoelectric crystal are normally happening stable crystal until
any outside forces are connected to them. Piezoelectric effect is a reversible process. It can
happen in two ways i.e. coordinate piezoelectric effect and speak piezoelectric effect.

JOURNAL2:

Another journal is [4] Some vibration based energy generators that converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy that have been successfully developed are Electromagnetic[5],
Electrostatic[6], Piezoelectric generators[7],[8]. There are two effects in piezoelectricity:
direct piezoelectric effect and converse piezoelectric effect. Direct piezoelectric effect is the
generation of electric charge when mechanical strain is applied on piezoelectric materials;
whereas the converse effect is defined as the deformation in the crystal caused, when an
electrical voltage is applied to the piezoelectric materials. Direct piezoelectric effect is
employed in manufacturing sensors and converse piezoelectric effect is employed in
manufacturing actuators. The piezoelectric materials are of natural and also of artificially
made. Quartz is a natural piezoelectric material while Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) is an
artificial piezoelectric material. PZT piezoelectric sensor can be used for small scale energy
harvesting because of its high energy storage density[9].
JOURNAL 3:

Other than that, for research journal is [10].The requirement for a wireless electrical power
supply has impelled an enthusiasm for piezoelectric energy collecting, or the extraction of
electrical energy utilizing a vibrating piezoelectric device. Examples of applications that
would benefit from such a supply are a capacitively tuned vibration absorber [11],a foot-
powered radio “tag” [12], [13], and a Pico Radio [14]. Vibrating piezoelectric device varies
from an average electrical power source in that its inner impedance is capacitive rather than
inductive in nature, and that it might be driven by mechanical vibrations of changing
amplitude and frequency.

On this journal described herein was to develop an approach that maximizes the power
transferred from a vibrating piezoelectric transducer to an electrochemical battery. Other than
that it is straightforward model of a piezoelectric transducer. An ac–dc rectifier is included
what is more, the model is utilized to decide the purpose of ideal power stream for the
piezoelectric element. To decide its power flow characteristics, a vibrating piezoelectric
component is displayed as a sinusoidal current source ip(t) in parallel with its inward
electrode capacitance Cp.

Chapter 3

PARTS USED
1. Piezo electric transducers – 6
2. Battery 12v, 2ah
3. Acrylic sheet 6mm
4. Charging unit
5. Circuit board

3.1 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANCDUCER

A piezoelectric transducer is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal. the unit cell contains a
small positively charges particle in the centre. When a stress is applied this particle becomes
shifted in one direction which creates a charge distribution, and subsequent electric field.
These materials come in several different forms. The most common is crystals, but they are
also found as plastics and ceramics. Lead Zirconated Titan ate unit cell Piezoelectric sensors
have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various processes. They are used for
quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many different
industries it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric effect started to be used for industrial
sensing applications. Since then, this measuring principle has been increasingly used and can
be regarded as a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been
successfully used in various applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear
instrumentation, and as a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the
automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when developing
internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes
into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built-in miniature
piezoelectric sensor. Tourmaline Piezo Electric Sensor One disadvantage of piezoelectric
sensors is that they cannot be used for truly static measurements. A static force will result in a
fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric material]

TRANSDUCER

A transducer is any device used to convert energy from one form to another; typically when
converting input energy into output energy. For transduction to occur, a change from one
form of energy must also take place, such as a conversion from mechanical to electrical
energy or vice versa. The uses of transducers are widespread, impacting us in many ways.
Acommon example is a microphone, which converts the input energy, the sound waves
produced by a voice or instrument, to output energy, the electrical impulses in the form of
amplified sound.
Other types of electroacoustic (involving a conversion between electrical energy and
sound)transducers include hydrophones, which convert changes in water pressure to an
electrical output, and pickups on musical instruments such as guitars, which convert the
vibration of the instrument's strings into an electrical impulse.

Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers are a type of electroacoustic transducer that convert the electrical
charges produced by some forms of solid materials into energy. The word "piezoelectric"
literally means electricity caused by pressure. An early application of piezo transducer
technology occurred during World War I with the use of sonar, which used echoes to detect
the presence of enemy ships. Piezo transducers were also mostly present in landline phones.
They sat inside the ringer and helped to generate a noticeable noise to alert people to
incoming calls. Piezoelectricity finds a home inside quartz watches as well, which is what
keeps them so precise

Advantages and Limitations of Piezo Transducers

As with all bits of technology, carefully weighing a piezoelectric transducer's positives and
negatives will go a long way in determining its effectiveness in a particular situation.

Some advantages that they hold over other methods include:

 Self-generating: Due to their materials' ability to produce voltage while under the
influence of some energy, these transducers do not require an external power source.

 Accessible: Piezo transducers, due to their small dimensions and large measuring
range, are easy to handle, install and use.
  High-frequency response: A much higher-than-normal frequency response means the
parameters of these transducers shift quickly.

 Flexibility: Due to how most of the materials used in construction can be shaped into
different shapes and sizes, you can apply these transducers in various fields

As useful as they are, piezoelectric transducers also have their limitations, and that includes
some of the following:

 Small electric charge: While they might be self-generating, you'll require a high impedance
cable to establish a connection with an electrical interface.
 Affected by various environments and conditions: Piezo transducers cannot measure output
in the static condition, and temperature and humidity variations can affect output.
 Naturally low output: While some materials produce output rates relatively higher than their
counterparts, it's still low in most respects. You'll need to attach it to an external circuit.

Typical Piezo Transducer Materials

While many materials can show the piezoelectric effect, the best ones must also possess at
least a few of the most desirable qualities. Such characteristics include consistent stability,
high output, malleability and resistance to extreme temperatures and humidity. That said, no
known material exhibits all of those qualities simultaneously.

Originally, crystals made from quartz took hold as the primary material for piezoelectric
crystal transducers. Quartz offers superior stability and slow measuring at varying parameters
due to low leakage rates, which means it can provide excellent accuracy — hence why
watches most often use them. While they're still in widespread use, quartz also yields a rather
low output, meaning it can't keep up adequately with demands of more sophisticated
technology.

In the early 1950s, quartz crystals began to give way to piezoelectric ceramic as the primary
transducer material. The advantages offered by a ceramic transducer when compared to other
materials include ceramic’s ability to be manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and sizes,
its capability of operating efficiently at low voltage, and its ability to function at temperatures
up to 300 degrees Celsius.
Due to the ability to produce a ceramic transducer in numerous sizes and shapes, ceramic
transducers can be easily adapted to a wide variety of industrial applications. Consequently,
they allow for complete customization to meet a customer’s specific needs. Today, the most
commonly used ceramic transducer manufacturing materials are lead zirconate titanate
compositions, a trend that traces its origins to the 1960s. As ceramic transducer technology
has continued to evolve, the use of piezo-polymers and composites has likewise gained
acceptance.

Another material that works incredibly well in transducers is Rochelle salt, which is a
synthetic crystal. Of every medium that shows signs of the piezoelectric effect, Rochelle salt
produces the highest output of any other material discovered thus far. However, it does have
its drawbacks, which can hold back its success in certain environments. These synthetic
crystals cannot come into contact with any moisture, nor can they be used at a temperature
above 115 degrees Fahrenheit.

If you are willing to trade off sensitivity for peak output, synthetic crystals can produce a
distinct edge in performance over natural crystals

Measuring Piezo Transducer Efficiency

One way to measure the efficiency of a transducer is to compare the amount of input energy
versus output energy. Anytime energy conversion occurs, some amount of energy will be lost
during the process. In general, the greater the amount of output energy produced in relation to
input energy, the greater the level of efficiency that is present.
The Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Transducer

A piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer generates ultrasonic activity, meaning it produces sound

waves above the frequencies that can be heard by the human ear. It functions by rapidly
expanding and contracting when appropriate electrical frequency and voltage is applied.
Typically used in cleaning systems, the expansion and contraction causes the ultrasonic
cleaner transducer's diaphragm, which serves as the pressure-sensing element of the unit, to
vibrate introducing ultrasonic activity into the cleaning tank in the process. The piezoelectric
ultrasound transducer also offers the advantages of high electroacoustic efficiency while
minimizing heat generation

Applications and Uses for Electric Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers can be used for numerous applications for industrial, environmental
and personal use. Air transducers, for instance, are frequently used in automobile, proximity
and level sensors - think of the automatic sliding doors you encounter at grocery stores,
airports and hotels. They are commonly used in residential products like motion and object
detectors, pest deterrents and home security alarms.They are commonly used in residential
products like motion and object detectors, pest deterrents and home security alarms.

Footstep Power Generation Using Piezoelectric Sensors

There are a number of approaches being used to generate alternative power supply.

Piezoelectric Smart Road Sensor

One among the other methods is piezoelectric smart road sensor. Here smart roads refer

to the roads on which piezoelectric sensors can be placed in order to generate electricity.

When any vehicle moves on the roads it produces very small vertical deformations and

vibrations on the roads. The increasing demand of the electricity forces us to think about

harvesting that vibration energy from vehicles which is wasted otherwise [6].
Flooring Tiles

Japan has already started experimentation with the use of piezoelectric effect for energy

generation. They implement piezoelectric effect on the stairs of the bus. Thus every time

passenger steps on the tiles; they trigger a small vibration that can be stored as energy.

The flooring tiles are made up of rubber which can absorb the vibration. This vibration

generates when running or walking on it. Under these tiles piezoelectric material are

placed. When the movement is felt by the material they can generate the electricity. This

generated energy is simultaneously stored into the battery. Generated electricity we can

use the lightning of lamp or street light. Energy is generated by step of one human being

is too less but if number of steps increases ultimately energy production also increases

[8].

Dance Floors

Europe is another one of the country which started experimenting use of piezoelectric

crystal for energy generation in night clubs. Floor is compressed by the dancer’s feet and

piezoelectric materials makes contact and generate electricity. Generated electricity is

nothing but 2-20 watt. It depends on impact of the dancer’s feet.

Available Techniques in Past

Generation of electricity using foot step is not a new concept there are many techniques

available in the past for this purpose, some of which are

Fly wheel and gear arrangement

Stair case faraday’s law arrangement

Rack and pinion

Chain sprocket arrangement

These all techniques are proved to be very costly and were not practically feasible in
daytoday real life.

Fly wheel and gear arrangement

The thrust power is transformed into electrical energy by means of a suitable drive

device. The racks are attached to the sloping floor. The spring tide is used to release the

load and restore operational the same tilted position. The pinion shaft is connected to the

bearing by end bearing. Larger gears also engage the pinion shaft and operate at the same

speed. The largest sprocket is attached to the small gear ring via the chain. This large

sprocket is used to convert the torque of the smallest sprocket. The smallest sprocket

rotates in a direction similar to the direction of rotation of the high sprockets on the front

and rear. This action is freezes like a bicycle pedal.

3.2 BATTERY

Battery (electricity), an array of electrochemical cells for electricity storage, either

individually linked or individually linked and housed in a single unit. An electrical battery is
a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical energy
into electrical energy. Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in
standby power applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids
and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or
computer data centers.

Categories and types of batteries

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and
disadvantages.
Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to
electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily
restored to the battery by electrical means.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed
by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.

Historically, some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical
reaction. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active
materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary batteries:

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices
that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an
alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric
power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged,
since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge
primary cells.
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
Generally, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).

Secondary batteries:

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged
by applying electrical current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery. This battery is notable in
that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and
the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these
batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of
electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge
current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approximately 10Ah) is
required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

A common form of the lead-acid battery is the modern car battery, which can generally
deliver a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the
sealed valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, popular in the automotive industry as a
replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid
electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries have the
electrolyte immobilized, usually by one of two means.

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in special fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units
and are therefore useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of

this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel-cadmium (NiCd),
nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. By far, Li-
ion has the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced
NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools,
two-way radios, and medical equipment. NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well
established commercially.

Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as USBCELL, with
a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format, enabling the battery to be
charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger, and low self-discharge (LSD) mix
chemistries such as Hybrio, ReCyko, and Eneloop, where cells are recharged prior to
shipping.

How Batteries Work?

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of
a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative
electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the Redox reaction
that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cations at the cathode,
while oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not
touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-
cells with different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a
separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes
have emfs E1 and E2, then the net emf is E2 - E1 ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that isneither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a
cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it
would perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

12v Lead Acid Battery

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release
of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the otherAs
stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other
hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Battery Lifetime

Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batteries can lose 8
to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperature of about 20°–30°C. This is
known as the "self discharge" rate and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical
reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The rate of the side
reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can
be damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This
will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is
approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts. Discharging performance of all batteries
drops at low temperature.

3.3 acrylic sheet

The first step to deciding which plastic sheeting material you need for a project is knowing
whether you need plexiglass or polycarbonate sheeting. Acrylic sheeting provides superior
clarity and a higher impact resistance than traditional glass, and is easier to cut than
polycarbonate, and is also less expensive. Specialty acrylic sheeting such a UV transmitting
or UV filtering acrylic can provide additional cost savings depending on your application.
Knowing the benefits and drawbacks of each specialty plastic material can help you find the
most efficient plastic sheet with your desired visual effects.

UV Filtering Acrylic Sheet

When looking for acrylic sheeting designed to protect from the sun, UV filtering acrylic can
help prevent the transmission of harmful ultraviolet rays. This specialty acrylic meets the
special needs of picture framers, artists, and museums to protect artwork and special
documents from fading and degradation contributed to UV rays.

UV Transmitting Acrylic Sheet

The opposite of UV filtering acrylic sheeting is UV transmitting acrylicsheeting. UV

transmitting acrylic allow the passing of UV-A light and UV-B light in applications such as
medical treatment or tanning beds. UV transmitting acrylic plastic is designed to allow up to
92% UV transmission and withstand continuous, heavy-duty use. This specialty sheet
provides the same benefits of traditional plexiglass such as high impact resistance, yet
allowing for easy fabrication and fitting.

Museum Acrylic Sheet

Although UV filtering acrylic sheet provides superior benefits for framing and displaying
artwork, museum acrylic can provide even more benefits for these applications. Tru-Vue’s
museum acrylic sheeting is designed specifically to ensure protection that prevents
oxidization and degradation over time. In addition to its UV filtering qualities, museum
acrylic is also anti-reflective.

Frame Grade Acrylic

Frame grade acrylic sheeting was designed with framing applications in mind, becoming the
gold standard in framing art and photography. OPTIX’s framing acrylic sheet is camera-
inspected to ensure there are no imperfections, contributing the superior color, clarity, and
integrity of the material. This specialty acrylic sheet absorbs up to 98% of UV rays and is just
half the weight of traditional glass, as all acrylic sheeting is.

Anti-Static Plexiglass

While there are special anti-static films and coatings available on the market for your
plexiglass sheeting, these do not provide a permanent solution like anti-static acrylic sheet
does. Anti-static acrylic, or electrostatic dissipative acrylic, is designed to prevent latent
damaged or rejection to electronic items without being affected by humidity. Antistatic
acrylic sheet is often used in applications such as conveyor line covers, glove boxes,
electronic equipment and more.

Abrasion Resistant Acrylic

For glazing applications in high traffic areas or areas subjected to small impact, abrasion
resistant acrylic sheeting is the ideal material. Abrasion resistant acrylic can either be coated
on one or both sides, depending on your needs. The special coating on abrasion resistant
plexiglass prevents scuffing and scratching in traffic areas that feature shadow boxes, display
cases, and more.

Infrared Plastic Acrylic Sheet

When discretion or security is needed in your glazing application, infrared transmitting
acrylic sheeting is the perfect material. Although all acrylic plastics transmit infrared, this
specialty acrylic also blocks visible light, transmitting infrared light only. Infrared plastic
acrylic has the same physical properties as traditional plexiglass, such as superior impact
resistance and being easy to cut. Typical applications for infrared plastic include hiding video
cameras, audio equipment, or security cameras.

Impact Modified Acrylic Sheeting

Although acrylic sheeting already provides 17 times the impact resistance of traditional glass,
impact modified acrylic provides 10 times the strength of traditional acrylic sheeting. This
makes impact modified acrylic plastic one of the best materials for shipping and handling, as
well as applications such as POP displays, windows, signage and more. This modified acrylic
provides the same clarity and thermoforming abilities of traditional clear plexiglass.

Lucite Block Acrylic

Lucite block acrylic sheeting the best material available to take your signage to the next level.
This specialty acrylic sheeting is a solid light diffusion sheet for the production of channel
letters. Lucite block allows the insertion of LEDs directly into the material for an evenly
diffused glow. Lucite block acrylic retains its superior qualities in both indoor and outdoor
applications .

Black and White Acrylic

Another popular acrylic plastic used in signage is black and white acrylicsheeting. This
specialty acrylic sheeting is weather resistant with a high impact resistance making it a great
material for outdoor signage applications. Black and white acrylic hides your sign or message
when there is no lighting deployed, giving you full control and customization of your signs.
This acrylic sheet will remain black during the day and give off a bright, white light in the
dark.

Acrylic sheeting gives you full control over the creation and fabrication of a project because
of its ability to be cut and formed easily. Specialty acrylic sheets give you these same benefits
as traditional plexiglass, plus additional physical and chemical properties to fully customize
the appearance of your project. If you have any questions about the different types of acrylics
offered by A&C Plastics, contact us by calling (888) 702-6028 or filling out a form.
3.4 CHARGING UNIT

The lead acid battery uses the constant current constant voltage (CC/CV) charge method. A
regulated current raises the terminal voltage until the upper charge voltage limit is reached, at
which point the current drops due to saturation. The charge time is 12–16 hours and up to 36–
48 hours for large stationary batteries. With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge
methods, the charge time can be reduced to 8–10 hours; however, without full topping
charge. Lead acid is sluggish and cannot be charged as quickly as other battery systems.
(See BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems.)

Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages, which are [1] constant-current charge,
[2] topping charge and [3] float charge. The constant-current charge applies the bulk of the
charge and takes up roughly half of the required charge time; the topping charge continues at
a lower charge current and provides saturation, and the float charge compensates for the loss
caused by self-discharge.

During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to about 70 percent in 5–8 hours; the
remaining 30 percent is filled with the slower topping charge that lasts another 7–10 hours.
The topping charge is essential for the well-being of the battery and can be compared to a
little rest after a good meal. If continually deprived, the battery will eventually lose the ability
to accept a full charge and the performance will decrease due to sulfation. The float charge in
the third stage maintains the battery at full charge. Figure 1 illustrates these three stages.
 Figure 1: Charge stages of a lead acid battery.
The battery is fully charged when the current drops to a set low level. The float voltage
is reduced. Float charge compensates for self-discharge that all batteries exhibit.
Courtesy of Cadex

The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the battery reaches the set
voltage limit. The current begins to drop as the battery starts to saturate; full charge is
reached when the current decreases to 3–5 percent of the Ah rating. A battery with high
leakage may never attain this low saturation current, and a plateau timer takes over to end the
charge.

The correct setting of the charge voltage limit is critical and ranges from 2.30V to 2.45V per
cell. Setting the voltage threshold is a compromise and battery experts refer to this as
“dancing on the head of a pin.” On one hand, the battery wants to be fully charged to get
maximum capacity and avoid sulfation on the negative plate; on the other hand, over-
saturation by not switching to float charge causes grid corrosion on the positive plate. This
also leads to gassing and water-loss.

Temperature changes the voltage and this makes “dancing on the head of a pin” more
difficult. A warmer ambient requires a slightly lower voltage threshold and a colder
temperature prefers a higher setting. Chargers exposed to temperature fluctuations include
temperature sensors to adjust the charge voltage for optimum charge efficiency. (See BU-
410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures )

The charge temperature coefficient of a lead acid cell is –3mV/°C. Establishing 25°C (77°F)
as the midpoint, the charge voltage should be reduced by 3mV per cell for every degree
above 25°C and increased by 3mV per cell for every degree below 25°C. If this is not
possible, it is better to choose a lower voltage for safety reasons. Table 2 compares the
advantages and limitations of various peak voltage settings.

2.30V to 2.35V/cell 2.40V to 2.45V/cell

Advantages Maximum service life; battery Higher and more consistent

stays cool; charge temperature capacity readings; less sulfation.
can exceed 30°C (86°F).

Limitations Slow charge time; capacity Subject to corrosion and

readings may be inconsistent gassing. Needs water refill. Not
and declining with each cycle. suitable for charging at high
Sulfation may occur without room temperatures, causing
equalizing charge. severe overcharge.

Table 2: Effects of charge voltage on a small lead acid battery.

Cylindrical lead acid cells have higher voltage settings than VRLA and starter batteries.

Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the topping voltage for
more than 48 hours and must be reduced to the float voltage level. This is especially critical
for sealed systems because they are less tolerant to overcharge than the flooded type.
Charging beyond the specified limits turns redundant energy into heat and the battery begins
to gas.

The recommended float voltage of most flooded lead acid batteries is 2.25V to 2.27V/cell.
Large stationary batteries at 25°C (77°F) typically float at 2.25V/cell. Manufacturers
recommend lowering the float charge when the ambient temperature rises above 29°C (85°F).

Figure 3 illustrate the life of a lead acid battery that is kept at a float voltage of 2.25V to
2.30V/cell and at a temperature of 20°C to 25°C (60°F to 77°F). After 4 years of operation
permanent capacity losses become visible, crossing the 80 percent line. This loss is larger if
the battery requires periodic deep discharges. Elevated heat also reduces battery life. (See
also BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life.)

Figure 3: Capacity loss on standby.

Permanent capacity loss can be minimized with operating at a moderate room temperature
and a float voltage of 2.25–2.30V/cell.
Source: Power-Sonic

Not all chargers feature float charge and very few road vehicles have this provision. If your
charger stays on topping charge and does not drop below 2.30V/cell, remove the charge after
48 hours of charging. Recharge every 6 months while in storage; AGM every 6–12 months.
These described voltage settings apply to flooded cells and batteries with a pressure relief
valve of about 34kPa (5psi). Cylindrical sealed lead acid, such as the Hawker Cyclon cell,
requires higher voltage settings and the limits should be set to manufacturer’s specifications.
Failing to apply the recommended voltage will cause a gradual decrease in capacity due to
sulfation. The Hawker Cyclon cell has a pressure relief setting of 345kPa (50psi). This allows
some recombination of the gases generated during charge.

Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the float charge voltage because each cell has
its own unique condition. Connected in a string, all cells receive the same charge current and
controlling individual cell voltages as each reaches full capacity is almost impossible. Weak
cells may go into overcharge while strong cells remain in a starved state. A float current that
is too high for the faded cell might sulfate the strong neighbor due to undercharge. Cell-
balancing devices are available compensate for the differences in voltages caused by cell
imbalance.

Ripple voltage also causes a problem with large stationary batteries. A voltage peak
constitutes an overcharge, causing hydrogen evolution, while the valley induces a brief
discharge that creates a starved state resulting in electrolyte depletion. Manufacturers limit
the ripple on the charge voltage to 5 percent.

Much has been said about pulse charging of lead acid batteries to reduce sulfation. The
results are inconclusive and manufacturers as well as service technicians are divided on the
benefit. If sulfation could be measured and the right amount of pulsing applied, then the
remedy could be beneficial; however giving a cure without knowing the underlying side
effects can be harmful to the battery.

Most stationary batteries are kept on float charge and this works reasonably well. Another
method is the hysteresis charge that disconnects the float current when the battery goes to
standby mode. The battery is essentially put in storage and is only “borrowed” from time to
time to apply a topping-charge to replenish lost energy due to self-discharge, or when a load
is applied. This mode works well for installations that do not draw a load when on standby.

Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A topping charge should be
applied every 6 months to prevent the voltage from dropping below 2.05V/cell and causing
the battery to sulfate. With AGM, these requirements can be relaxed.

Measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) while in storage provides a reliable indication as to
the state-of-charge of the battery. A cell voltage of 2.10V at room temperature reveals a
charge of about 90 percent. Such a battery is in good condition and needs only a brief full
charge prior to use. (See also BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge.)

Observe the storage temperature when measuring the open circuit voltage. A cool battery
lowers the voltage slightly and a warm one increases it. Using OCV to estimate state-of-
charge works best when the battery has rested for a few hours, because a charge or discharge
agitates the battery and distorts the voltage.

Some buyers do not accept shipments of new batteries if the OCV at incoming inspection is
below 2.10V per cell. A low voltage suggests a partial charge due to long storage or a high
self-discharge caused by a micro-short. Battery users have found that a pack arriving at a
lower than specified voltage has a higher failure rate than those with higher voltages.
Although in-house service can often bring such batteries to full performance, the time and
equipment required adds to operational costs. (Note that the 2.10V/cell acceptance threshold
does not apply to all lead acid types equally.)

Under the right temperature and with sufficient charge current, lead acid provides high charge
efficiently. The exception is charging at 40°C (104°F) and low current, as Figure 4
demonstrates. In respect of high efficiency, lead acid shares this fine attribute with Li-ion that
is closer to 99%. See BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion and BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to
Die?
Figure 4: Charge efficiency of the lead acid battery.
At the right temperature and with sufficient charge current, lead acid provides high charge
efficiency.
Source: Power-Sonic

Watering

Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid battery; a
requirement that is all too often neglected. The frequency of watering depends on usage,
charge method and operating temperature. Over-charging also leads to water consumption.

A new battery should be checked every few weeks to estimate the watering requirement. This
assures that the top of the plates are never exposed. A naked plate will sustain irreversible
damage through oxidation, leading to reduced capacity and lower performance.

If low on electrolyte, immediately fill the battery with distilled or de-ionized water. Tap water
may be acceptable in some regions. Do not fill to the correct level before charging as this
could cause an overflow during charging. Always top up to the desired level after charging.
Never add electrolyte as this would upset the specific gravity and promote corrosion.
Watering systems eliminate low electrolyte levels by automatically adding the right amount
of water.

Simple Guidelines for Charging Lead Acid Batteries

 Charge in a well-ventilated area. Hydrogen gas generated during charging is

explosive. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)

 Choose the appropriate charge program for flooded, gel and AGM batteries. Check
manufacturer’s specifications on recommended voltage thresholds.

 Recharge lead acid batteries after each use to prevent sulfation. Do not store on low
charge.

 The plates of flooded batteries must always be fully submerged in electrolyte. Fill the
battery with distilled or de-ionized water to cover the plates if low. Never add
electrolyte.

 Fill water level to designated level after charging. Overfilling when the battery is on
low charge can cause acid spillage during charging.

 The formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the battery is
reaching full state-of-charge. (Hydrogen appears on negative plate and oxygen on
positive plate).

 • Lower the float charge voltage if the ambient temperature is higher than
29°C (85°F)..

 Do not allow a lead acid to freeze. An empty battery freezes sooner than one that is
fully charged. Never charge a frozen battery.

 Avoid charging at temperatures above 49°C (120°F).

Lead acid battery charger circuit

 Here is a lead acid battery charger circuit using IC LM 317.The IC here provides the
correct charging voltage for the battery. A battery must be charged with 1/10 its Ah value.
This charging circuit is designed based on this fact. The charging current for the battery is
controlled by Q1 ,R1,R4 and R5. Potentiometer R5 can be used to set the charging
current. As the battery gets charged the the current through R1 increases .This changes
the conduction of Q1.Since collector of Q1 is connected to adjust pin of IC LM 317 the
voltage at the output of of LM 317 increases. When battery is fully charged charger
circuit reduces the charging current and this mode is called trickle charging mode.

3.5 CIRCUIT BOARD

The acronym of the printed circuit board is PCB, it is a self contained board with
interconnected electrical and electronic components found in various devices ranges from
beepers to pagers, radios, radar and computer systems. The circuits are produced by a slight
layer of conducting material deposited on the outside of an insulating board called as the
substrate. Separate components are located on the surface of the substrate & soldered to the
connected circuits. The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single
sided, double sided and multi layered.The components on a PCB are connected electrically to
the circuits by two different methods such as hole technology and surface mount. In hole
technology, every component consists of thin leads, which are pressed through tiny holes in
the substrate & soldered to connection boards in the circuits on the reverse side.In surface
mount technology, J-shaped or L-shaped terminals on every component get in touch with the
PCB directly. A solder paste includes a glue, solder and flux are applied at the contact point
to grip the components in position until the solder is liquefied.

Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards

PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are located They
are specially designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy. Though,
making the PCB necessitates special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards
mainly include the following

 Single Sided PCBs

 Double Sided PCBs

 Multilayer PCBs

 Rigid PCBs

 Flex PCBs

 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Single Sided PCBs

This single sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or
substrate. One end of the substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper
because it is a good electrical conductor. Generally, a protecting solder mask be seated on
the peak of the copper layer, and a last silkscreen coat may be applied to the top to mark
elements of the board.
 Single Sided PCBs
Double Sided PCBs
This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the board’s
substrate include metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well. Holes in
the PCB let circuits on a single side to attach to circuits on the other side.

Double Sided PCBs

 REFERENCES
[1] R.J.M. Vullers, R.V. Schaijk, I. Doms, C.V. Hoof, and R.Mertens "Micropower
energy harvesting" Solid state electron,vol. 53,no 7,pp .684-693, 2009

[2] P.D. Mitcheson, E.M Yeatman, G.K. Rao, A.S Holmes and T.C.Green "Human and
machine motion for wireless electronicdevices" Proc. IEEE vol. 96, no. 9, pp.1457-
1486,sep.2008

[3] M. Ferrari V. Ferrari, D. Marioli and A. Taroni "Modeling,fabrication and

performance measurements of a piezo electricenergy convertor for power harvesting in
autonomous microsystem", IEEE Trans. Instrum Meas vol.55,no.6'pp.2096-
2101,Dec 2006

4] Jaydev Ghosh, Supratim Sen, Amit Saha, Sameer Basak “Electrical Power Generation
Using Foot Step for Urban Area Energy
Applications”- 2013 International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications,
and Informatics (ICACCI)
5] Prabaharan R, Jayramaprakash A, Vijay Anand. “Power Harvesting by Using Human Foot
Step”- International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science Engineering and Technology, vol.2, issue 7, July 2013
6] Ramesh Raja R, Sherin Mathew.”Power Generation from Staircase (steps)”- International
Journal of Innovative Research
in Science Engineering and Technology, vol.3, Issue 1, February 2014
7] Itika Tandon, Alok Kumar.”A Unique Step towards Generation of Electricity via New
Methodology”- International Journal
of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, vol.3, Issue 10,
October 2014.