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Dow Know How1 Water Hammer Data PDF
Dow Know How1 Water Hammer Data PDF
Wa t e r H a m m e r
Contents
Table of Contents Page
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2 General - The Problem of Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
2.1 Steady and Unsteady Flow in a Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
3 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
3.1 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
3.2 Elasticity of Fluid and Pipe Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
3.3 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 10
4 The Joukowsky Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
4.1 Scope of the Joukowsky Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
5 Numerical Simulation of Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
5.1 Accuracy of Numerical Surge Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
5.2 Forces Acting on Pipelines as a Result of Water Hammer . .16
6 Computerised Surge Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.1 Technical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
6.2 Interaction between Ordering Party and Surge Analyst . . .17
7 Advantages of Rules of Thumb and Manual Calculations .18
8 Main Types of Surge Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
8.1 Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
8.1.1 Air Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
8.1.2 Standpipes, One-Way Surge Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
8.1.3 Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
8.2 Air Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
8.3 Actuated Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
8.4 Swing Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
9 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
9.1 Case Study: Long-Distance Water Supply System . . . . . . . .25
9.2 Case Study: Stormwater Conveyance Pipeline . . . . . . . . . .26
Model Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Calculation of Actual Duty Data, First Results . . . . . . . . .27
Surge Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
10 Additional Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
1
Introduction 1
1 Introduction thing is clear: the damage caused • How significant are approxi-
by water hammer by far exceeds mation formulas for calculat-
Most engineers involved in the
the cost of preventive analysis ing water hammer?
planning of pumping systems
and surge control measures.
are familiar with the terms “hy- • Can the surge analysis of one
draulic transient”, “surge pres- The ability to provide reliably piping system be used as a
sure” or, in water applications, designed surge control equip- basis for drawing conclusions
“water hammer”. The question ment, such as an air vessel or for similar systems?
as to whether a transient flow or accumulator1, flywheel and air
• Which parameters are required
surge analysis is necessary dur- valve, has long been state of the
for a surge analysis?
ing the planning phase or not is art. The technical instruction
less readily answered. Under un- leaflet W 303 “Dynamic Pres- • What does a surge analysis
favourable circumstances, dam- sure Changes in Water Supply cost?
age due to water hammer may Systems” published by the Ger- • How reliable is the surge con-
occur in pipelines measuring man Association of the Gas and trol equipment available and
more than one hundred metres Water Sector clearly states that how much does it cost to ope-
and conveying only several pressure transients have to be rate it?
tenths of a litre per second. But considered when designing and
• How reliable is a computerised
even very short, unsupported operating water supply systems,
analysis?
pipelines in pumping stations because they can cause extensive
can be damaged by resonant damage. This means that a surge System designer and surge
vibrations if they are not analysis to industry standards analyst have to work together
properly anchored. By contrast, has to be performed for every closely to save time and money.
the phenomenon is not very hydraulic piping system at risk Water hammer is a complex
common in building services from water hammer. Dedicated phenomenon; the purpose of
systems, e.g. in heating and software is available for this this brochure is to impart a
drinking water supply pipelines, purpose – an important tool for basic knowledge of its many
which typically are short in the specialist surge analyst to aspects without oversimplifying
length and have a small use. Consultants and system them.
cross-section. designers are faced with the
following questions, which we
The owners or operators of sys-
hope to answer in this brochure:
tems affected by water hammer
are usually reluctant to pass on • How can we know whether
information about any surge there is a risk of water ham-
damage suffered. But studying mer or not?
the photos taken of some “acci-
dents” (Figs. 1-a, 1-b, 1-c) one
Fig. 1-a: Completely destroyed Fig. 1-b: Destroyed support Fig. 1-c: DN 800 check valve
DN 600 discharge pipe (wall (double T profile 200 mm, per- following a pressure surge in the
thickness 12 mm) manently deformed) discharge pipe
1
Air vessels, sometimes also called “accumulators”, store potential energy by accumulating a quantity of pressurised hydraulic fluid in a suitable
enclosed vessel.
3
2 General – The Problem of Water Hammer
2 General – The problem of With a constant pipe diameter or pressure transients. The main
water hammer and a constant surface rough- causes of transient flow
ness of the pipe’s inner walls, the conditions are:
2.1 Steady and unsteady flow
pressure head curve will be a
in a pipeline • Pump trip as a result of
straight line. In simple cases, a
switching off the power supply
When discussing the pressure of pump’s steady-state operating
or a power failure.
a fluid, a distinction has to be point can be determined graphi-
made between pressure above cally. This is done by determin- • Starting or stopping up one or
atmospheric [p bar], absolute ing the point where the pump more pumps whilst other
pressure [p bar(a)] and pressure curve intersects the piping cha- pumps are in operation.
head h [m]. Pressure head h de- racteristic. • Closing or opening of shut-off
notes the height of a homogene- valves in the piping system.
A pumping system can never be
ous liquid column which gener-
operated in steady-state condition • Excitation of resonant vibra-
ates a certain pressure p. Values
all the time, since starting up and tions by pumps with an un-
for “h” are always referred to a
stopping the pump alone will stable H/Q curve.
datum, (e.g. mean sea level, axi-
change the duty conditions.
al centreline of pipe and pipe • Variations of the inlet water
Generally speaking, every change
crown etc.). level.
in operating conditions and every
As a rule, system designers start disturbance cause pressure and Fig. 2.1-b may serve as a repre-
by determining the steady-state flow variations or, put differently, sentative example showing the
operating pressures and volume cause the flow conditions to pressure envelope3 with and
rates of flow. In this context, the change with time. Flow condi- without an air vessel following
term steady2 means that volume tions of this kind are commonly pump trip.
rates of flow, pressures and referred to as unsteady or
pump speeds do not change with transient. Referring specifically to
time. Fig. 2.1-a shows a typical pressures, they are sometimes
steady flow profile: called dynamic pressure changes
Metres
Kote m above sea level
stSatetiao
dnyä-sre
tatD
e rpure
cskshuö
rehheenl
adincieu
rve
hNN+m hm
Length
Länge
2
Not to be confused with the term “static”.
3
The term “pressure envelope” refers to the area defined by the minimum and maximum head curves along the fixed datum line resulting from all
dynamic pressures occurring within the time period under review.
4
General – The Problem of Water Hammer 2
hsteady in Fig. 2.1-b is the steady- pipe“) and is, therefore, inadmis- We will come back to the sub-
state pressure head curve. Pressu- sibly high. As a rule, vapour ject of macro-cavitation, i.e.
re head envelopes hminWK and pressure is a most undesirable liquid column separation, in
hmaxWK were obtained from an in- phenomenon. It can have the fol- section 3.1.
stallation with, hmin and hmax lowing harmful effects:
from an installation without air
• Dents in or buckling of thin-
vessel. Whereas hminWK and
walled steel pipes and plastic
hmaxWK are within the permissible
tubes.
pressure range, hmin gives evi-
dence of vapour pressure (macro- • Disintegration of the pipe’s
cavitation) over a pipe distance cement lining.
from 0 m to approximately • Dirty water being drawn into
800 m. Almost across the entire drinking water pipelines
length of the pipe, the value of through leaking connecting
hmax exceeds the maximum per- sockets.
missible nominal pressure of the
pipe PN 16 (curve marked “PN
700
hmax
600
Metres above sea level [m]
PN Pipe
500
hmax WK
400 hsteady
hmin WK
Elevation of pipe
300
hmin
200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Length of pipe [m]
Fig. 2.1-b: Pressure head envelope of pressure transients following pump trip
5
3 Water Hammer · Inertia
4
Macro-cavitation in pipelines is not to be confused with microscopic cavitation causing pitting corrosion on pump and turbine blades. The latter al-
ways strikes in the same place and is characterised by local high pressures of up to 1000 bar or more that develop when the microscopically small
vapour bubbles collapse. With macro-cavitation, repetitive strain of this kind, or the bombarding of a sharply contoured area of the material sur-
face, does not occur since the pressure rises are considerably lower.
6
Elasticity of Fluid and Pipe Wall 3
5
To withstand the regular pushing and shoving over rare parking spaces, cars have to be elastic. To minimise the damage of a collision at high speed,
however, carmakers spend vast amounts of time and money to make their products as inelastic as possible!
7
3 Elasticity of Fluid and Pipe Wall
8
Elasticity of Fluid and Pipe Wall 3
So, one might ask, what hap- condition prevailing at t = 2Tr. If L = 100 m, DN 100, k = 0.1 mm,
pened to the original steady-state the gate valve were to be sudden- hinlet = 200 m, linear throttling of
kinetic energy of the fluid follow- ly opened at this point, we would Q = 10 l/s at the outlet of the
ing the sudden closure of the gate have the old steady-state condi- pipe to Q = 0, starting at t = 0.1 s
valve? A closer look at Fig. 3.2-b tion at t = 0 again without in a period of time t = 0.01 s.
will reveal the answer. According change, and there would be no
Based on Fig. 3.2-b, the reflec-
to the law of the conservation of elastic energy left.
tion of pressure waves at the up-
energy, it cannot simply disap-
Without friction, the pressure stream and downstream ends of
pear. First it is converted into
fluctuations would not diminish. the pipeline can be explained in
elastic energy of the fluid and the
In actual fact, no system is ever a general manner as follows:
pipe wall, then changes into ki-
entirely without friction, but the
netic energy again as a result of • If a pressure wave p reaches
reduction in pressure fluctuation
reflection, then becomes elastic the closed end of a pipe, p
is relatively small in reality, be-
energy again, and so forth. Let’s becomes twice the amount
cause the energy conversion into
look at Fig. 3.2-b up to the point with the same sign, i.e. p =
frictional heat as a result of the
where t = 1/2Tr. The conversion p ± 2·p. The velocity at the
fluid rubbing against the pipe
into elastic energy takes place pipe ends is always v = 0.
walls, the inherent fluid friction
within this period of time. Im- • At the open end of a pipe with
and, finally, the deformation of
mediately preceding the reflec- a constant total head (e.g. res-
pipe walls and fixtures is rela-
tion of the wave at the reservoir, ervoir with a constant water
tively small.
the velocity of the liquid column level), the pressure change al-
is v = 0 everywhere, and it is To show the process in a less
ways equals zero.
totally devoid of kinetic energy. abstract manner, Fig. 3.2-c pro-
vides the results of a computer- • At valves, throttling sections,
Instead, the kinetic energy has
ised simulation of the example pumps and turbines, pressure
been changed into elastic energy,
given in Fig. 3.2-b for a real and velocity are always found
comparable to the situation of a
pipeline with the following para- on the resistance or machine
compressed steel spring. The en-
meters: characteristic curve.
ergy conversion in reverse also
becomes apparent from
Fig. 3.2-b – specifically from the
360
Pressure head above pipe centreline at pipe outlet [m l.c.]
300
Fig. 3.2-c: Pressure head up-
stream of gate valve. Compared
240 with the situation shown in Fig.
3.2-b, small differences are ap-
parent. For example, the pres-
180
sure flanks are not perfectly per-
pendicular, because of the finite
120 closing time of t = 0.01 s. As a
result of friction, the pressure
planes are not perfectly horizon-
60 tal – this phenomenon will be
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
discussed in greater detail in sec-
Time [s]
tion 4.1.
9
3 Elasticity of Fluid and Pipe Wall • Resonance
Water hammer occurs when the kinetic energy of a fluid is converted into elastic energy. But only
rapid6 changes of the flow velocity will produce this effect, for example the sudden closure of a
gate valve or the sudden failure or tripping of a pump. Due to the inertia of the fluid, the flow
velocity of the liquid column as a whole is no longer capable of adjusting to the new situation.
The fluid is deformed, with pressure transients accompanying the deformation process. The rea-
son why surge pressure is so dangerous is that it travels at the almost undiminished speed of
sound (roughly 1000 m/s for a large number of pipe materials) and causes destruction in every
part of the piping system it reaches.
Surge pressures travel at a very pump. Immediately following sections in pumping installations
high wave propagation velocity, pump trip, the air cushion starts are particularly prone to reso-
for example a = 1000 m/s in expanding and takes over the nant vibrations transmitted by
ductile or steel piping (see 4.1). pump’s job of discharging the the fluid pumped and by the
They dampen out only gradually water into the pipeline. Provided piping structure. By contrast,
and, therefore, remain danger- that the vessel is properly resonance is all but negligible
ous for a long time. The time designed, it will prevent rapid for buried piping. In order to
needed to subside depends on changes in the flow velocity in design adequately dimensioned
the length of the pipeline. In an the pipeline. Instead, the water anchoring, all pipe anchors in
urban water supply installation, level in the vessel and the pumping installations should be
they only last several seconds. In undeformed liquid column in examined using structural
long pipelines, it can take a few the pipeline will continue to rise dynamics analysis, with the
minutes until a pressure surge and fall over a longer period of pump speed serving as the
has dampened out. time. The process is kept in exciter frequency.
motion by the energy discharged
Knowing these facts, the basic
by the air cushion each time
working principles of all surge
fluid flows out of the vessel and
control equipment, such as air
by the energy absorbed again by
vessel or accumulator, flywheel,
the air cushion on the fluid’s
standpipe and air valves can be
return. The energy stored in the
deduced. They prevent the dan-
air cushion is only gradually
gerous conversion of steady-
dissipated. That is why it takes
state kinetic energy into elastic
many minutes for air vessel
deformation energy. Air vessels
oscillations to die away, in
are ideally suited to explain the
longer pipelines in particular.
underlying principle. The pres-
surised air cushion in the air
vessel stores potential energy. If
3.3 Resonance
there were no air vessel, the
dreaded conversion of kinetic Resonant vibrations are an
energy into elastic deformation exception. These occur when ex-
energy following a pump trip citer frequencies of whatever
would take place at the pump origin, generated, for example,
outlet, which could cause the by the pump drive or by flow
liquid column to separate separation phenomena in valves
(Fig. 3.1-a). However, this does and pipe bends, happen to
not happen, because the energy coincide with a natural frequen-
stored in the air cushion in the cy of the pipeline. Improperly
vessel takes over the work of the anchored, unsupported pipeline
6
The adjective “rapid” is to be seen in relation to the system’s operating conditions. For example, the pressure transients caused by the closure of a
valve in a 2 km long pipeline may well stay within the permissible range, whereas the same closing process could generate unacceptably high pres-
sures in a 20 km long pipeline.
10
The Joukowsky Equation 4
4 The Joukowsky equation with their small diameters and
lengths are usually negligible. In
The pressure change DpJou in a
these systems, the kinetic energy
fluid caused by an instantaneous
levels and fluid masses are very
change in flow velocity Dv is cal-
small. In addition, it is practical-
culated by:
ly impossible to close a valve
within the very short reflection
(4.1) time of a domestic water system.
The Joukowsky equation can be
used to calculate simple esti-
Dv: Flow velocity change in m/s
mates. Let’s consider three
r: Density of the fluid in kg/m3 examples:
a: Wave propagation velocity Example 1:
through the fluid in the Nikolai Egorovich Joukowsky
In a DN 500 pipeline, L = 8000 m,
pipeline in m/s
results of his various experi- a = 1000 m/s and v = 2 m/s, a
DpJou: pressure change in N/m2 ments and theoretical studies in gate valve is closed in 5 seconds.
The DpJou formula is referred to 1898. Calculate the pressure surge.
as the Joukowsky equation. As Calculate the force exerted on
It may seem inconsistent that
well as Dv, equation (4.1) con- the gate.
DpJou in the Joukowsky equation
tains the density r and wave (4.1) seems to have nothing to Answer:
propagation velocity a. The rela- do with the mass of the flow in- 5 s < Tr = 16 s, i.e. Joukowsky’s
tionship only applies to the pe- side the pipeline. For example, if equation may be applied. If the
riod of time in which the veloc- the water hammer described in flow velocity is reduced from
ity change Dv is taking place. If the first example in section 3.1 2 m/s to zero as the valve is
Dv runs in opposite direction to had been based on a pipe dia- closed, Dv = 2 m/s. This gives us a
the flow, the pressure will rise, meter twice that of the diameter pressure increase Dh = 100 · 2 =
otherwise it will fall. If the used, A = D2p/4 would have 200 m or approximately Dp =
liquid pumped is water7, i.e. caused the fluid mass and its 20 · 105 N/m2, which is 20 bar.
r = 1000 kg/m3, equation (4.1) kinetic energy to turn out four The valve cross-section measures
will look like this: times as large. What seems to be A = D2 · 0.25 · p Ä 0.2 m2. The
a paradox is instantly resolved if force acting on the gate is p·A =
one considers the force exerted 0.2 · 20 · 105 = 4·105 N= 400 kN.
(4.2) on the shut-off valve, i.e. force
F = Dp · A, the defining para-
meter for the surge load. Because
g: Acceleration due to gravity of A, it is now in actual fact four
9.81 m/s2 times as large as before.
DhJou: Pressure head change in m This shows that one must also
consider the fluid mass to judge
In 1897, Joukowsky conducted
the risk of water hammer, al-
a series of experiments on Mos-
though that does not seem
cow drinking water supply pipes
necessary after a superficial
of the following lengths / dia-
glance at Joukowsky’s equation.
meters: 7620 m / 50 mm,
At the same time, this explains
305 m / 101.5 mm and 305 m /
why the pressure surges occur-
152.5 mm. He published the
ring in domestic piping systems
7
Despite the high flow velocities common in gas pipes, these do not experience surge problems, because p · a is several thousand times smaller than
for water.
11
4 The Joukowsky Equation
8
Mass moment of inertia J: J expressed in kgm3 is the correct physical quantity. Flywheel moment GD2, which was used in the past, should no longer
be used, because it can easily be confused with J!
12
The Joukowsky Equation · Wave Propagation Velocity 4
hmax
∆ hJou
hmin ∆ hJou
Fig. 4.1-a: Pressure head envelope for closing times > reflection time Tr
Friction applies, not even within the reflec- The gate valve in the example
tion time of the pipeline. In a case shown in Fig. 4.1-b closes 20 s
If the liquid pumped is highly
like this, the actual pressure rise after the start of the calculation.
viscous or if the pipeline is ex-
following the sudden closure of a The first steep increase by ap-
tremely long (say, 10 km and
gate valve can be several times prox. 20 bar to approx. 55 bar
more), the work done by the
that of DpJou as calculated by the is DpJou according to the Jou-
pump only serves to overcome the
Joukowsky equation! The pheno- kowsky equation; the continued
friction produced by the pipeline.
menon caused by the pipe friction increase to almost 110 bar is
Changes of geodetic head due to
is commonly called line packing. caused by line packing. Line
the pipe profile, by comparison,
The following flow simulation packing is only of significance
are of little or no importance. The
calculation gives an example of for long pipelines or highly
Joukowsky equation no longer
this: viscous media. It is unlikely to
occur in urban water supply and
120 waste water disposal plants.
Initial pressure, absolute, in bar (approx.)
100
80
60
40
20
0 80 160 240 320 400
Time [s]
13
4 The Joukowsky Equation · Wave Propagation Velocity
Gas content a
% by volume m/s
0 1250
0.2 450
0.4 300
0.8 250
1 240
14
Numerical Simulation of Water Hammer
Accuracy of Numerical Surge Analysis
5
5 Numerical simulation
of water hammer
In current theory, the dependent (5.1)
model variables are the pressure
p and the flow velocity v in the
two partial differential equa-
tions (5.1) for every single pipe
of a piping system; the time t
5.1. Accuracy of numerical The real energy losses due to
and an unrolled reach of pipe x
surge analysis friction, and the degree of warp-
are independent variables.
ing of pipeline and pipe fixtures
Computer programs based on the
Equations (5.1) are generally valid are somewhat larger than the
characteristics method produce
and cover the effects of both forecast supplied by simulation.
solutions whose accuracy by far
inertia and elasticity. Mathema- The first pressure peaks and val-
exceeds that which is called for in
tically, the pipe ends serve as the leys, therefore, tend to be simu-
practice. This is evidenced by
boundary conditions of equations lated very precisely, whereas the
numerous comparisons with
(5.1); different types of boundary pressures further down the line
actual measurements. Significant
conditions are introduced to in- are on the whole depicted with
differences were only found for
clude internal components such as an increasing lack of dampen-
calculations aimed at predicting
pipe branches, vessels, pumps and ing. But imperfections of this
macro-cavitation or dampening of
valves in the model. For example, kind are negligible compared
pressure waves inside a pipe.
the creation of a complete piping with inaccuracies caused by
system by connecting a number of For example, the pressures com- entering wrong or insufficient
individual pipes is done by taking puted using the standard model input data.
a pipe node to be the boundary of vapour cavitation derived
Some of the potential sources of
condition. The starting condition from equations (5.1), i.e. the
error are:
of equation (5.1) is the steady- assumption of a simple cavity of
state flow inside the pipe con- low pressure following liquid • Inaccurate valve and/or pump
cerned before the onset of the dis- column separation, are always characteristics.
turbance. Equations (5.1) are higher than what they are in real- • Lack of knowledge about the
solved by means of the character- ity. However, the advantage of actual wave propagation
istics method, which provides the the conservative outcome is that velocity inside the pipeline.
basis for almost all surge analysis one is always on the safe side.
• Lack of information about
software available today.
tapping points in a main pipe.
The time frame covered by
• Unawareness of the degree of
equations (5.1) is less appro-
incrustation inside the pipes.
priate for computing resonant
vibrations. These can be calcu- This shows that the quality of
lated much more precisely using the surge analysis stands or falls
the impedance method, or, in with the accuracy of the input
other words, by looking at the data.
frequency range.
15
Accuracy of Numerical Surge Analysis ·
5 Forces Acting on Pipelines as a Result of Water Hammer
16
Computerised Surge Analysis 6
6 Computerised surge analysis 6.2 Interaction between - Piping elevation profile
ordering party and surge - Lengths
6.1 Technical procedure
analyst
A surge analysis will not provide - Diameters
First of all, a distinction has to
direct solutions for the required - Wall thickness
be made between the quotation
parameters, such as, for exam-
phase and the calculation itself. - Materials of construction, lining
ple, the optimum air vessel size,
During the quotation phase, the material, pipe connections
compressor settings, valve clos-
surge analyst requires the
ure characteristics, flywheel di- - Pressure class, design pressure
following information from the
mensions, etc. Instead, the surge head curve
plant engineering contractor to
analyst must specify the type of
compute the cost involved: - Permissible internal pipe pres-
surge control to be employed
sures (pmin, pmax)
and provide estimates of the 1. A rough flow diagram of the
relevant parameters. After installation indicating all im- - Method used to lay the pipes:
checking the outcome of the portant equipment, such as buried or placed on supports
surge analysis, the original para- pumps, valves, additional in- - Modulus of elasticity of pipe
meters are suitably adjusted and let and outlet points, as well materials
a complete re-run of the surge as any existing safety devices,
analysis is made for the system. such as aerators, air vessels, - Surface roughness coefficient
After several runs, the values etc. The flow diagram can by - Provision of air valves at the
supplied will come very close to all means be in the form of a highest points of the piping
the technical and economical quick sketch, which does not
- Branch connections
optimum. As surge analyses take more than a couple of
necessarily need to be performed minutes to draw. - Zeta or flow factors as well as
by surge specialists, they remain valve closing characteristices
2. A rough list of all main para-
time and labour intensive de- - Characteristic curves or perfor-
meters, i.e. principal pipe
spite the use of modern compu- mance charts and characteristic
lengths, diameters and flow
ter technology. data of all hydraulic equipment
rates.
Considering that powerful surge - Mass moments of inertia of all
3. A list of all major operation
analysis software is now com- hydroelectric generating sets
and downtime periods.
mercially available, users may
wonder whether they cannot do 4. A list of all known incidents - Characteristic curves and data
their own analysis just as well. that could have been caused on surge control equipment al-
As reliable9 surge analysis soft- by water hammer. ready installed in the system
ware is far from a mass product, 5. Irregularities observed during - Characteristic values of all ae-
the low sales volume makes it operation. ration and deaeration equip-
expensive. Add to this the high ment
If a surge analysis is to be per-
cost of training and hands-on
formed, additional data to be - Settings of control equipment
practice. Also if the software is
specified by the surge analyst - Water levels in tanks and reser-
not used for some time, opera-
will have to be obtained. Some voirs
tors usually have to brush up
examples of additionally re-
their skills. So, if users require - Rates of flow in the individual
quired data are:
fewer than, say, ten analyses per piping branches
year, the cost involved in doing
their own will probably not be - Degrees of opening of all shut-
worthwhile. off and throttling valves
– Operating pressures
9
Users are in the uncomfortable position of not being able to verify the workings of surge analysis software. It is, therefore, important that a reput-
able manufacturer vouch for the quality of the product. Surge analysis software, as a rule, is developed by specialist university institutes. There are
some examples of programs that were bought by commercial enterprises and provided with a sophisticated user interface, which makes them easier
to handle for the user.
17
7 Rules of Thumb and Manual Calculations
18
Rules of Thumb and Manual Calculations 7
• Before the days of modern These are the only manual cal-
computer software, the graphi- culation methods. This apparent
cal Schnyder-Bergeron method lack is more easily understood if
was often employed and pro- we take another look at the air
duced relatively reliable surge vessel, our representative exam-
analysis. For practical reasons, ple of before. Reading the total
use of this method is limited to volume of the vessel from a
systems comprising a single design curve is not all that is re-
pipeline. Friction can only be quired. The way the air vessel
taken into account by complex works depends to a large extent
procedures. Besides, it takes a on the ratio of water volume to
specialist to apply this method air volume in the vessel, or, in
and obtain the desired results. other words, on the question
Fig. 7.1 is an example of a whether pre-pressurisation of
typical Schnyder-Bergeron dia- the vessel is “hard” or “soft”.
gram, which shows how the The pre-pressurisation level has
pressure wave propagation an impact on the total vessel
due to the closure of a valve is volume required. The pipeline
determined by graphical profile also plays a significant
means. part. For example, if it has a
high point which should not be
• Application of the Joukowsky
intersected by the minimum
equation for rapid changes in
dynamic pressure head curve
flow velocity v (examples un-
following pump trip (area of
der 4).
low pressure), the basic condi-
• Graphical method to deter- tions for designing the vessel
mine the required air vessel will be different, even if the
sizes.*) plant parameters are otherwise
• Graphical method used to the same. The vessel will have to
estimate the condition of line be considerably larger. In many
packing.*) cases, the swing check valve and
throttle installed in a bypass will
• The largely ideal valve closing
keep the reverse pressure wave
characteristics for the ex-
from causing an impermissible
ceptional case of a single-con-
rise in pressure levels in the air
duit pipeline can be calculated
vessel. It is impossible to de-
by approximation.*)
termine these crucial variables
using rules of thumb or
graphical design methods.
*) Expertise required.
19
8 Surge Control Systems
8 Main types of surge control 8.1 Energy storage 8.1.1 Air vessels
The purpose of surge control is With air vessels and standpipes, Air vessels come in the form of
to stop kinetic energy from energy is stored as pressure en- compressor vessels (Fig. 8.1.1-
being converted into elastic ergy; when a flywheel is instal- a), [bag-type] accumulators (Fig.
deformation energy. This can be led, the energy stored takes the 8.1.1-b) and vessels with a vent
done by the following basic form of rotational energy. There pipe. Compressor- and accumu-
methods: is a sufficient amount of energy lator-type air vessels basically
stored to maintain the steady- work on the same operating
– Energy storage
state flow for a relatively long principle. The reason for choos-
– One-way surge and venting time and to make sure the de- ing one or the other is based on
facilities crease in flow velocity due to dis- technical or commercial conside-
– Optimisation of valve closing sipation will be slow to take full rations. Because of their design,
characteristics10 effect. A rapid pressure drop is accumulators are only suitable
thus prevented. If air vessels and for small volumes.
– Optimisation of the strategy
standpipes are installed upstream
designed to control the piping As explained earlier, the vessel
of a pump in a long inlet pipe,
system volume is not the only impor-
they not only prevent a pressure
tant factor. If the water-to-air
transient by means of energy dis-
volume ratio is carefully chosen,
sipation, but also the other way
a vessel with a substantially
around, by absorbing energy.
lower total volume may be used.
D0
Va
Compressor on
100 mm
HWIN
Compressor off
Vw WSH
ZB
Z1
Hgeo
D1 D2
Z2
Fig. 8.1-a: Schematic layout of a compressor-type air vessel. To avoid excessive pressures on return of the
vessel water, the connecting pipe may have to be fitted with a swing check valve with a throttled bypass.
10
The valve closing characteristics describe the closing angle of a valve as a function of time.
20
Surge Control Systems 8
• The bag-like enclosure in an
Membrane accumulator would be punc-
tured by the sharp objects
Gas
contained in the waste water,
such as razor blades, nails, etc.
• There is a major risk of in-
crustations, deposits and
blockages.
Grid to limit the
expansion of the membrane
Provided they are adequately
Liquid
monitored, the operating relia-
bility of air vessels is high. Dur-
Fig. 8.1.1-b: Schematic of an accumulator
ing their operation, attention
has to be paid to the following:
To make sure compressor vessels in a piping system. For example
are always filled to the correct in long inlet pipes, an additional • Monitoring of the water level
levels, they can be equipped air vessel at the inlet end of the in the vessel.
with sensors which will switch pump provides effective surge • For reasons of hygiene, the
the compressor on or off as re- control. If the pump fails or water volume must be conti-
quired. Bag-type accumulators trips, an upstream vessel will ab- nuously or regularly replaced.
are typically adjusted by pre- sorb energy, while a down-
pressurising the gas inside the stream vessel will dissipate en- • The compressed air must not
bag or membrane enclosure to a ergy. contain any oil.
certain initial pressure prior to • To be able to take the air
Air vessels or accumulators are
installation. vessel out of service for an
not suitable for waste water dis-
Air vessels are not just installed posal systems11, because inspection, spare vessels
at the pump discharge end to should be available.
• With waste water, it is not
guard against the consequences • It must be possible to lock the
possible to measure the water
of pump trips. They can also be shut-off valves in the connecting
level needed to set the com-
installed in other suitable places pipeline against unintentional
pressor.
closure; the open position has
to be monitored.
• Maintenance of the compres-
sor (compressor vessel).
8.1.2 Standpipes, one-way
surge tanks
Standpipes can only be installed
at points of a piping system
characterised by low-pressure
heads. As a rule, a standpipe
cannot replace a downstream air
vessel. Fitted with a swing check
valve in the direction of the flow
and a filling mechanism (one-
way surge tank), it is used to
stop the pressure falling below
atmospheric at the high points
Fig. 8.1.1-c: Accumulators
11
An exception is a vessel fitted with a vent pipe; this arrangement, comprising an air vessel, a standpipe and a vent valve, is very rarely used in Ger-
many.
21
8 Surge Control Systems
m · r2
J = ––––––
2
22
Surge Control Systems 8
8.2 Air valves The reliability of aerators / deae-
rators depends on their design
Air valves should not be used
and is the lowest of all surge
until every other solution has
control equipment. They have to
been ruled out. Their drawbacks
be tested for proper functioning
are:
in regular intervals and it may
• They require regular mainte- be necessary to filter the in-
nance. coming air.
• If arranged in the wrong place
or mounted incorrectly, they
8.3 Actuated valves
can aggravate pressure varia-
tions instead of alleviating Suitable actuation schedules for
them. the opening and closing of
valves are calculated and veri-
• Under certain circumstances,
fied by means of a surge analysis
operation of the plant may be Fig. 8.2-a: Duojet*) two-way air on the basis of the valve
limited, because the air drawn valve with a medium-operated characteristic.
into the system has to be re- single-compartment valve.
moved again. The valves will give very reliable
Large vent cross-section for service if, on valves with electric
• The handling of waste water drawing in and venting large actuator, adequate protection is
calls for special designs. amounts of air during start-up provided for the actuating times
Air valves (Fig. 8.2-a) have to be and shutdown of pumping and the break points of the actu-
carefully designed. On large dia- systems. ation schedules or if, on valves
meter pipelines, one has to ar- Small cross-section for removing with hydraulic actuators, ade-
range air outlet valves on top of small amounts of air during op- quate safety elements, such as
domes, to make sure that the air eration against full internal pres- orifice plates or flow control
drawn into the system will col- sure. valves, are used. Proper valve
lect there. As long as the fluid functioning has to be checked at
flow has not reached the steady regular intervals with regard to
state, air drawn into pipes can, and out through a small cross- the actuating times and closing
under unfavourable conditions, section. characteristics.
have a very negative effect. Air
cushions normally have a damp-
ening effect. However, the air
drawn into the pipeline can also
give rise to dangerous dynamic
pressure increases. It has to be
pressed out of the piping slowly;
a large air outlet cross-section
would lead to sudden pressure
variations towards the end of
the air outlet operation. For this
reason, aerators and deaerators
have different nominal dia-
meters depending on which way
the air flows. Air normally flows
in through a large cross-section
Fig. 8.3-a: Motorised shut-off butterfly valve
23
8 Surge Control Systems
8.4 Swing check valves unfavourable effect, because manner after the pump trips.
they take a long time to close, This feature is important on
The dynamics of swing check
which means reverse flow sets in pumps operated in parallel,
valves often have a major in-
while they are still partly open, when one pump fails whilst the
fluence on the development of
and the valve disc re-seats with remaining pumps continue to
surge, because the valve’s clos-
considerable impact. The pheno- run and deliver flow against the
ure, after reversal of flow, gener-
menon is known by the term tripped pump. In a case like this,
ates velocity changes which,
“check valve slam” and is much controlled closing is achieved by
according to Joukowsky’s equa-
dreaded. Since the closing time adjustable hydraulic actuators
tion (4.1), produce pressure
is the main criterion for check without external supply but
variations.
valve slam, limit position dam- with a lever and counterweight,
Check valves generally have to pers will improve the situation, with the free-swinging valve disc
meet the following two contra- but not eliminate the risk alto- opening in the direction of the
dictory requirements: gether. In waste water systems, flow and, upon actuation,
• bring the reverse flow to a nozzle check valves cannot be closing in one or two stages
standstill as quickly as used because they tend to clog according to a set closing
possible, up. This means that valves with characteristic.
free-swinging discs and limit po-
• keep the pressure surge gener- The operating reliability of
sition dampers are the only re-
ated during the process as check valves is relatively high. In
maining option, despite their
small as possible. operation, they have to be
drawbacks.
checked for proper functioning
Drinking water pumping instal- Pump check valves installed in at regular intervals.
lations protected by air vessels the cooling pipes of a power
should ideally be equipped with station are designed to throttle
nozzle check valves. Free-swing- the reverse flow in a controlled
ing valve discs can have a very
Fig. 8.4-a: Swing check valve equipped with a hydraulic actuator and counterweight
24
Case Studies 9
9 Case studies a schematic diagram of the op- Fig. 9.1 shows the head and
erating principle is shown in Fig. flow curves of the system pro-
The case studies below were
8.1.1-a. In the present case, the tected by an air vessel arrange-
taken from surge analyses
throttling action is achieved ment plotted against time (heads
performed by KSB. Although we
with the aid of a short length of expressed in m above mean sea
have altered the system para-
DN 200 pipe fitted with a stan- level).
meters, so that the installations
dard DN 80 orifice. Fig. 2.1-b
concerned remain anonymous,
shows the calculated pressure
the problems involved and the
envelope with and without air
way these were resolved have
vessel. The maximum head
not been altered.
curve obtained with an air vessel
hmaxWK is now only slightly above
9.1 Case study: long-distance
the steady-state head curve hsteady
water supply system
and the associated minimum head
The system parameters are indi- curve hminWK runs at a wide safety
cated in Fig. 2.1-b. A steady- margin above the peak point of
state flow Qsteady = 500 l/s is the pipe.
pumped through a DN 600
pipeline of ductile cast material
with a total length of L = 2624
by three centrifugal pumps oper-
ating in parallel at a total head H inlet [m above MSL]:KN=1/Pipe No. System with air vessel
of the pumps hsteady = 122.5 m
into an overhead tank. The dis-
turbance under investigation,
which leads to excessive dyna-
mic pressures, is the simultane-
ous failure of all three pumps.
The dynamic pressure peaks Time s
produced by far exceed the per- Q inlet [l/s]:KN=1/Pipe No. 1 System with air vessel
25
9 Case Studies
26
Case Studies 9
Model pipeline L2 to L10: Pump failure without surge control
Material: steel
Dinside: 349.2 mm
k: 0.1 mm
a: 1012 m/s
(from equation 4.1)
Min. permissible pressure: vacuum
Time s
Pressure class: PN 10
H inlet [m]:KN=1/Pipe No. 1 Pump failure without surge control
-40
of 90° elbows had to temporari-
ly withstand longitudinal forces -60
27
9 Case Studies
-20
more than 5% of the initial
kN
KarftkN
-40
revealed that the existing check
-60 valves could be dispensed with.
Fig. 9.2-f shows – on the same
-80
scale as in Figs. 9.2-d and 9.2-e
-100 to facilitate comparison – the n,
time
Zeit{s}
s
H and Q curves of the surge-
protected system plotted over
Fig. 9.2-g: Longitudinal force acting on L8 if the stormwater line is time; Fig. 9.2-g shows the forces
suitably protected
28
Case Studies 9
of the surge-protected system
plotted over time. The global
pressure envelope of the rehabi-
litated installation, as well as the
curves of the system without
surge control, are shown in Fig.
9.2-h.
220
200
180
mean sea level
hmax
h ohne DS
maxwithout SC
160
müNN
140
above
Elevation in mKote
120
100
hhmax with SC
max mit DS
80
60
hhmax ohne DS
minwithout SC
hh mitSC
with DS Rohrkote
Elevation of pipeline
min
max
40
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
abgewickelte
Pipeline Rohrlänge
section in m covered by the m
analysis
Fig. 9.2-h: Pressure envelope of the stormwater conveyance pipeline with and without surge control
29
10 Additional Literature
Authors
30
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