Related terms:

Mercerization
Mercerization is an alkali treatment of cellulose fibers which is dependent on Lignin , Sodium Hydroxide,

the type and concentration of the solution, its temperature, time of treatment, Ammonia , Dye, Tension ,

tension of the material as well as on the additives. Tensile Strength, Fiber,

Alkali , Luster, bleaching
From: Developments in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Civil
Engineering, 2013
View full index )

Coloration of technical textiles

I. Holme, in Handbook of Technical Textiles (Second Edition), 2016

9.6.7 Mercerisation
Mercerisation of cotton is a fibre-swelling/structural relaxation treatment that may be carried out on yarns but more
usually on fabrics. 101 •102 Hank or warp mercerisation of yarns often creates dyeability differences because of yarn tension
variations that occur during mercerisation. During mercerisation in a 22-27% caustic soda solution, both mature and
immature cotton fibres swell so that the secondary wall thickness is increased. The fibre surface appearance and the
internal structure of the fibre are modified. This improves the uniformity of fabric appearance after dyeing, and there is
an apparent increase in colour depth after mercerisation that has been claimed to give cost savings of up to 30% on pale
colours (e.g. 1-2% owf(on weight of fibre)) and even 50-70% on heavy depths when using some reactive dyes. 103 ,104
Dead cotton fibres (i .e. those with little or no secondary wall) are, however, not improved after mercerisation.

Woven fabric mercerisation is normally carried out under tension on chain or chain less fabric mercerising ranges 102
whereas tubular fabric mercerising ranges are widely used for weft knitted cotton fabrics. 105 Mercerisation leads to a
number of changes in fibre and fabric properties 101- 105 :

• A more circular fibre cross-section

• Increased lustre

• Increased tensile strength, a major factor for technical textile fabrics

• Increased apparent colour depth after dyeing

• Improved dyeability of immature cotton (greater uniformity of appearance)

• Increased fibre moisture regain

• Increased water sorption

• Improved dimensional stability.

After mercerisation, the structure of native cotton fibres, cellulose I, is converted into cellulose 11 , which is the stable fibre
form after drying.104 The sorptive capacity of mercerised cotton is greater when the fabric is mercerised without tension
(slack mercerising) to give stretch properties to the fabric. An increase in drying temperature can also decrease the
sorptive capacity, especially at temperatures above 80 °C. 106

Finishing ofjeans and quality control

F. Kalaoglu, R. Paul, in Denim , 2015
14.4.4 Mercerising
Mercerisation is an industrial process involving sodium hydroxide for cotton yarns or fabrics to increase the lustre and
dyeability. But the mercerisation of denim is usually carried out after the denim is woven, and so it is different from the
more common method of mercerising cotton yarn. Mercerisation of denim may be used for achieving ring dyeing, thus
keeping the dye on the surface of the yarns or fabrics and to prevent dyes from fully penetrating the fibres. In addition to
increasing the fabric lustre, it also improves its strength. As it significantly increases the cost and lead times of denim
production, at present, it is a relatively rare process.

Surface modification of textiles by aqueous solutions

J. Wang,J. Liu, in Surface Modification ofTextiles, 2009

12.3.1 Mercerization for cotton fabrics

Mercerization is named after John Mercer who, in 1850, discovered that cotton yarn or fabric exhibited swelling and
shrinkage when immersed in a concentrated aqueous solution of caustic soda (Vigo, 1994). The mercerization of cotton
has many beneficial effects including:

• increased tensile strength;

• increased softness;

• increased luster (if mercerized under tension);

• imp roved affinity for dyes;

• improved dyeability of immature fibers;

• higher water sorption.

In mercerization, the chemical effect of concentrated caustic soda solutions is unusual because not only the amorphous
but also the crystalline regions of the fiber are affected. Treatment of cellulose with caustic soda produces a polymorphic
change in the crystalline structure of cellulose, i.e. conversion from cellulose I existing in a parallel chain conformation
into cellulose II existing in an anti-parallel chain conformation (Blackwell et al., 1980; Sakthivel, 1988; Turbak and
Sakthhivel, 1991). This change in the crystal structure is responsible for introducing unique surface properties to
mercerized cotton fibers.

The changes that occur in cotton upon mercerization depend on the concentration of the caustic soda used, the
temperature of the treatment and whether or not the material is under tension during treatment. In order to reach the
maximum fiber swelling and chemical penetration without fabric damage, the mercerization of cotton fabrics is
frequently conducted at or below ambient temperatures with concentrations of NaOH at or greater than 20%. Swelling
in caustic soda solution leads to a change of fiber cross-section from bean-shaped to round, and is accompanied by
shrinkage in the length of the fibers (Fig. 12.l(a)). When the fabric to be mercerized is slack (mainly used for knitted
cotton fabrics) without tension, shrinkage may occur in the lengthwise direction. When textiles are mercerized under
tension (mainly used for woven cotton fabrics and yarns) the shrinkage can be minimized; at the same time the fiber
surface becomes smoother. The high luster of mercerized cotton results from increased specular reflectance of incident
light from the smooth fiber surfaces (Fig. 12.l(b)). Mercerization of yarns produces more dramatic changes in properties
than mercerization of fabrics due to greater alkali penetration into the cellulosic fibers, causing greater conversion to
cellulose II and changes in crystallite orientation (Zeronian et al., 1985).

Mercerization of woven fabrics is usually done in a continuous process on machines with bowed rollers (chainless) or
with stretching chains. The fabric is saturated with caustic soda solution in the padding and timing section first, and then
passes through a tenter frame where the fabric is placed under tension in both the warp and filling directions. While still
in the tenter frame, the fabric passes under cascades which wash away part of the caustic soda. Further washing is carried
out when fabric is no lon~er under tension . with either hot or cold water. Finallv. the fabric is neutralized with acid to
remove the last traces of caustic soda. Knitted fabrics are usually mercerized in tubular machines or machines ofrelated
design that control and stabilize the shrinkage and tension of knitted fabrics to avoid the particular problems caused by a
variation of the amount of shrinkage and tension from the edge to the center of the fabric when they are wet with alkali
(Greenwood, 1987).

In addition to conventional processes, techniques have been developed to mercerize cotton/rayon and cotton/polyester
blends. Mercerization of rayon produces more pronounced swelling and shrinkage than mercerization of cotton owing to
the lower degree of polymerization of the cellulose, while polyester fibers may be hydrolyzed at the fiber surface when
immersed in alkali solutions (Freytag and Donze, 1983).

Treatment with liquid ammonia produces changes in cotton similar to those produced by mercerization. However, the
magnitude of the changes in cotton is not as great with liquid ammonia as with caustic soda mercerization (Gailey, 1970;
Skaathun, 1970).

Pre-treatment and preparation of textile materials prior to

dyeing ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A.K. Roy Choudhury, in Handbook ofTextile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

Increase in tenacity
Mercerisation tends to increase the tenacity of cotton fibres. The changes in spiral angle and orientation are held
responsible for that fact, but the explanation is controversial. The increase is also attributed to a strengthening of weak
points along the fibre. The weak points include internal strains (spiral reversals), the places of low cross-sectional areas
and the places of high distortions. The other important factors may be crystallite length and degree of crystallinity as well
as the removal of cellulose of very low degree of polymerisation. With decrease in temperature, the increase in tenacity is
more pronounced.

Surface modification and preparation techniques for textile

materials
M.J. John, R.D. Anandjiwala, in Surface Modification of Textiles, 2009

1.4.5 Mercerisation
Mercerisation is another technique and is used for cellulosic and cotton fibres in particular. 7 The process involves the
treatment of fabrics with sodium hydroxide and is named after John Mercer. It has been observed that compared with
untreated cotton mercerised cotton has greater strength and lustre, is more absorbent and has a greater capacity to
absorb dye. When natural fibres are treated with sodium hydroxide, it results in dissolution of hemicellulose and
rearrangement of microfibrils in a more compact manner.

Surface preparation techniques for man-made composites would involve techniques like solvent cleaning with solvents
such as isopropyl alcohol, surface abrasion, and conditioning and neutralisation with suitable chemical agents.

Wood fibres as reinforcements in natural fibre composites:

structure, properties, processing and applications
D. Dai, M. Fan , in Natural Fibre Composites, 2014

Mercerization
The process was devised in 1844 by John Mercer of Great Harwood, Lancashire, England, who treated cotton fibre with
sodium hydroxide. 158 This treatment caused the fibres to swell; about 25% of hydrogen bonds are broken during the
swelling process in the post-treatment (drying). 159 These bonds will re-bond and the consequent effects of the re-bond
have been reported in the literature: including (i) decreasing the spiral angle of the microfibrils and increasing the
molecular direction;1 (ii) producing fibre fibrillation, i.e. axial splitting of the elementary fibres (or microfibres that
constitute the elementary fibre). 160- 162 This process leads to a decrease in fibre diameter, increasing the aspect ratio and
the effective surface area available for wetting by a matrix in a composite; there is also an increase in fibre density as a
consequence of the collapse of its cellular structure; and (iii) changing the fine structure of the native cellulose I to
cellulose 11. 163- 166 These changes may result in an improvement in fibre strength and hence stronger composite
materials.161, 167, 168

It was reported that after immersion in alkali for 48 h, the globular pultrusion presented in the untreated fibre
disappeared, leading to the formation of a larger number of voids. Systematic investigations 159 have already revealed
three important phenomena of cellulose swelling in aqueous alkali, i.e. (i) the passing of the swelling value through a
maximum, depending on lye concentration; (ii) a qualitatively similar, but quantitatively different, behaviour of all the
alkali hydroxides in aqueous solution from LiOH to CsOH on interaction with cellulose in an aqueous medium; and (iii) a
phase transition within the region of crystalline order above a lye (alkaline) concentration of 12-15% due to a so-called
intracrystalline swelling caused by inclusion of NaOH and H20 into the crystallites.
The mercerization process increases the number of hydroxyl groups on the wood fibres surface, which in turn favours
water absorption, 169 therefore, wood fibres with mercerization should not be suitable for hydrophobic matrices. It was
reported that the alkaline treated wood fibres incorporated in polypropylene (PP) can induce the hexagonal phase of iPP
and the mechanical performance of the wood-PP composite was increasedY0 Alberto et a/. 171 modified wood fibres with
(i) cold water, (ii) hot water and (iii) hot water with sodium hydroxide (1% concentration), and found that the third
treatment could increase the compatibility factor significantly for the fibres from]ambire and Wimbe with a compatibility
factor of84.77% and 83.77% respectively. The main mechanism of the reinforcement by alkaline treatment may be due
to the degradation of hemicellulose and amorphous content, as the alkaline treatment products are more effective than
the polar extractive treatment. 172

The use of rice straw and husk fibers as reinforcements in

composites
M. Bassyouni, S. Waheed UI Hasan, in Biofiber Reinforcements in Composite Materials, 2015

13.4.1 Mercerization
Mercerization is the most widely used surface treatment methodology for rice straw. Many studies report use of an alkali,
usually NaOH, for surface modification of rice straw and husk (Liao et al., 2011; Sherif et al., 2009). Maleic anhydride is
usually the coupling agent. The concentration of alkali, the duration of treatment, and the temperature during treatment
determine the mechanical properties of the rice straw composite. Alkali treatment causes fibrillation of the straw by
releasing lignin and hemicellulose. Increases in alkali strength and duration of treatment increase the tensile and flexural
strength of the composite (Liao et al., 2011). For production of rice husk composite panels, both NaOH and steam
treatments are used. Steam explosion removes the fibrous matter from the rice husk, whereas dry grinding produces
segmented particles only (Park et al., 2004). Steam treatment is used mostly for production of straw particle boards and
husk composite panels. Steam-treated phenol formaldehyde rice husk panels provide a better modulus of rupture and
elasticity than alkali-treated rice husk, due to improved interfacial bonding (Ndazi et al., 2007). For rice straw
particleboards, steam-treated rice straw gives better results in comparison with straw treated chemically (e.g. with oxalic
acid; Li et al., 2011). Therefore, in both cases, of particleboards and of composite panels (Fuad et al., 1995), rice straw and
rice husk behave identically: steam-treated fiber leads to better mechanical properties of the composite than does
rhPmir:illv trP:itPrl fihPr
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Mechanical performance of polyethylene (PE)-based

biocomposites
A.R. Kakroodi, ... D. Rodrigue, in Biocomposites, 2015

Physical surface treatment of natural fibers

Alkalization (or mercerization) is a common method for physical treatment of natural fiber surfaces. In this method,
lignocellulosic fibers are immersed in aqueous NaOH solution (Seki et al., 2012; Lu and Oza, 2013a). Lignin, wax, and
oils will be removed from the surfaces of natural fibers due to immersion in NaOH solution and a clean and porous
cellulosic surface will be obtained (Arrakhiz et al., 2013). This treatment leads to increased fiber mechanical properties
due to higher mechanical properties of cellulose compared to lignin. Furthermore, specific surface area of natural fibers
is also increased, which leads to better interaction (mechanical interlocking) with the matrix. The main drawback of this
approach is the increased hydrophilic behavior of natural fibers due to an increased number of exposed cellulose fibers
on the surface. As a result, this method is usually proposed as a first step for other chemical modifications such as the
addition of silanes or maleic anhydride (Bledzki and Gassan, 1999).

Surface covering of natural fibers using matrix (in the absence of a chemical reaction) is also a physical approach that
leads to better wetting offibers. Herrera- Franco and Aguilar-Vega (1997) produced composites based on LOPE and
henequen fibers before and after preimpregnation offibers in an LOPE-xylene solution. They reported that modification
of fibers resulted in improvement in tensile strength of composites and also level of dispersion of fibers. In the case of
composites containing 30% (by volume) henequen fiber, tensile strength increased from around 14 to 16.5 MPa due to
fiber treatment.

The use ofjute fibers as reinforcements in composites

J.A. Khan, M.A. Khan, in Biofiber Reinforcements in Composite Materials, 2015

1.9 Preparation and properties of mercerized jute composites

Alkaline treatment, or mercerization, is one of the most common chemical treatments applied to natural fibers when
they are used to reinforce thermoplastics and thermosets. Alkaline treatment disrupts the hydrogen bonding in the
network structure, thereby increasing the surface roughness. This treatment removes a certain amount of
hemicelluloses, lignin, wax and oils covering the external surface of the fiber cell wall, and exposes the short-length
crystallites [72]. During alkaline treatment, the fibers are immersed in NaOH solution of different concentrations for a
given period oftime and at a given temperature. The effects of NaOH concentrations, soaking time and temperatures on
the thermo-mechanical and degradation characteristics of jute-PP composites were extensively studied by Khan et al.
[42]. Jute fabrics were soaked with different concentrated solutions of NaOH (5, 10 and 20%) in aqueous medium for
periods of 30, 60 and 90 min at room temperature (30°C). The results of this treatment are shown in Table 1.11. The
mechanical properties of the composites increase with increasing NaOH concentration and also with increasing soaking
time except at 20% NaOH concentration, where the mechanical properties of the composites were found to decrease
after 60 min soaking.

During mercerization, fibrillation occurs in jute fabrics, increasing the effective fiber surface available for wetting by the
matrix. The removal of cementing materials and an increase in crystallinity also contribute in improving the mechanical
properties. However, with 20% NaOH treatment and after 60 min of soaking the fibers became somewhat brittle owing
to excessive fibrillation. On application of stress, these fibers suffered breakage as a result and could not effectively
transfer stress at the interface.

The effects of temperature on the mechanical properties of20% NaOH-treatedjute composite at 60 min of soaking are
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carried out at lower temperature (0°C). The study also shows that decomposition of the hemicelluloses and a-cellulose of
mercerized jute fabrics occur at 294.2°C and 363.6°C respectively. NaOH treated composites exhibit higher thermal
stability compared to control composites and PP by 12.9°C and 39.8°C respectively. The mercerized jute-PP composite
shows a lower water uptake tendency due to better fiber-matrix adhesion, reduction of polar groups and removal of
hemicelluloses from the fibers during mercerization. The mercerized jute composite is less degradable in soil and water
and less sensitive to weather conditions.

Improving the properties of natural fibres by chemical

treatments
J.A. Rippon, D.J. Evans, in Handbook of Natural Fibres: Processing and Applications, 2012

3.5.3 Mercerisation
Treatment with sodium hydroxide (mercerisation) is perhaps the most important commercial process used for modifying
the properties of cotton. 211 • 212 In particular, the treatment changes dye substantivity, lustre, smoothness, chemical
reactivity, dimensional stability and tensile strength. 213 Other changes obtained by mercerisation include increased
moisture uptake and an improvement in the overall uniformity of the substrate. 214

The original patent granted to John Mercer in 1851 215 describes a method of changing the properties of cotton fabric,
yarn or fibres by treatment with a concentrated solution (32% w/v) of an alkali metal hydroxide, usually sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda). Following removal of the alkali, by rinsing with water and neutralisation with acid, the effects of the
treatment on the properties of cotton were found to be permanent to subsequent wet finishing. The contorted and
flattened tape-like cross-sections ofraw cotton were converted into smoother, less convoluted fibre shapes having more
elliptical cross-sections. There was also an increase in strength and a large increase in the substantivity of dyestuffs.
Mercer regarded the latter as the major benefit of his invention. The disadvantage of the treatment was a contraction in
fibre length of up to 18%, which was accompanied by an increase in fibre diameter. With an already short fibre, the
decrease in fibre length limited the commercial success of Mercer's process, which is now called either causticisation,
mercerisation without tension, or (more commonly) slack mercerisation.

In 1889, Lowe discovered that preventing fibre shrinkage during both the caustic soda treatment and the
rinsing/neutralisation steps produced fibres with substantially round cross-sections, as shown in Fig. 3.24.215 There was
an increase in the substantivity of dyes and an increase in fibre strength. Unlike Mercer's method, however, preventing
shrinkage during the treatment produced a high degree of fibre lustre. Lowe's discovery improved the usefulness of
Mercer's causticisation process and turned it into the true mercerisation process, carried out under tension, as we know
it today.

Slack mercerisation is carried out in cases where lustre is not important. This procedure, in which the cotton is allowed to
shrink, is used to improve dyeing properties and in the production of products where elasticity is required.

The visible effect of caustic soda on cotton fibres varies with the concentration of the reagent. 214 Concentrations up to
7% (w/v) do not produce any discernible swelling, but cause the convolutions to disappear and the fibre cross-sections to
become elliptical. As the concentration is increased, progressive swelling occurs and at around 11% the lumen is
completely filled. At a concentration ofl4% and above, the outward swelling is at a maximum, with the primary wall fully
extended.

The high affinity of caustic soda for cellulose enables it to penetrate both the crystalline and amorphous regions of
cotton. The inter-chain interactions are weakened and the strength of the fibres is decreased. The strength recovers when
the fibres are rinsed and dried. The irreversible changes in the fine structure of cotton produced by mercerisation include
partial conversion of the crystal lattice from cellulose I to cellulose II. This is accompanied by a decrease in crystallinity
with a reduction in the length of the crystallites. 212
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in the outside shape of the fibre from a flat ribbon to a more circular configuration. The degree of lustre increases as the
ratio of the minor to the major axis of the of the fibre cross-section approaches unity. 215 The effect of mercerisation in
increasing moisture uptake results from the decrease in crystallinity of the fibre. The change in crystallinity is also
responsible for the improved dye uptake because it produces an increase in the accessibility of dye sites within the
fibre. 202 A second effect of mercerisation is that, even for the same amount of dye, mercerised cotton appears darker. The
magnitude of this effect varies with the depth of shade, but can be as high as 60% compared with untreated material. 216
The increase in the depth of shade of mercerised cotton results from the changed fibre shape, which affects the internal
scattering oflight. 217

Mercerisation under tension is usually carried out, with an alkali concentration in the range 20-30% (w/v), on yarns or
fabrics, because these substrates can be mechanically constrained to prevent shrinkage during the treatment. 214• 215
Mercerisation may be carried out either before or after scouring and bleaching. It is, however, usual to de-size cotton
fabric before treatment. Mercerisation of cotton yarn or fabric may result in an uneven treatment. This is due to
incomplete penetration of the highly viscous solution of concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide, particularly into tightly
woven fabrics and into the centre of high twist yarns. The problem is exacerbated by the very high level of swelling of
cotton in the alkali, which closes up the structure of fabrics and yarns and impedes penetration of the reagent. Recently, a
method has been described for mercerising cotton slivers under tension. 218 This method, which avoids the problems
caused by yarn and fabric geometry, has been found to give a very even treatment between the fibres in a sliver.