Lecture 8

Characterization of Air Emissions

 AIR POLLUTION

 Air quality is affected by various economic and industrial activities which alter the
composition of air and affect the environment locally, regionally and globally.
 It is estimated that anthropogenic sources have changed the composition of global air by
less than 0.01%. However, this change has adversely affected the climate of the earth.
 Both natural and/or anthropogenic activities introduce air pollutants which can be solid
(large or sub-molecular), liquid or gas into the atmosphere that pose problem to human
health and other life forms on earth.
 These air pollutants include CO, SOx, NOx, SPM, CO2, ozone, photochemical smog, etc.
[1].
Classification of Air Pollutants
 Natural contaminants: Natural fog, pollen grain, bacteria, volcanic eruption, wind blown
dust, lightning generated fires.
 Particulate (aerosols): Dust, smoke, fog, mists, fume.
 Gases and odor: SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, halogen compounds, hydrocarbons, radioactive
compounds.

PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)

 PM is a complex mixture variable in size (0.01- 100 μm), composition (metals, nitrates,
sulfate, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), volatile organic compound (VOC),
etc.) and concentration.
 Toxicity and penetration depends on the composition and size of the particles.
 Solid or liquid particles with sizes from 0.005 – 100 μm
 General term is aerosols
 Dust originates from grinding or crushing
 Fumes are solid particles formed when vapors condense
 Smoke describes particles released in combustion processes
 Smog used to describe air pollution particles

Health Effects of Particulate Matter

  Impact depends on particle size, shape and composition
 Large particles trapped in nose
 Particles >10 μm removed in tracheobronchial system
 Particles <0.5 μm reach lungs but are exhaled with air
 Particles 2 – 4 μm most effectively deposited in lungs
 Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse particles.
 Coarse particles
o aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as asthma.
 Fine particles
o increased hospital admissions and emergency room visits for heart and lung
disease
o increased respiratory symptoms and disease
o decreased lung function
o premature death
Other Effects of Particulate matter
 Decreased visibility
 Damage to paints and building materials

Table 1.8.1. Gaseous air pollutants, their properties and significance.

Name Formula Properties of Importance Significance as Air Pollutant
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Colorless gas, intense acrid Damage to vegetation, building
odor, forms H2SO3 in water materials, respiratory system
Sulfur trioxide SO3 Soluble in water to form Highly corrosive
H2SO4
Hydrogen H2S Rotten egg odor at low Extremely toxic
sulfide concentrations, odorless at
high concentrations
Nitrous oxide N2O Colorless; used as aerosol Relatively inert; not a combustion
carrier gas product
Nitric oxide NO Colorless; sometimes used Produced during combustion and
 as anaesthetic high-temperature oxidation; oxidizes
in air to NO2
Nitrogen NO2 Brown or orange gas Component of photochemical smog
dioxide formation; toxic at high concentration
Carbon CO Colorless and odorless Product of incomplete combustion;
monoxide toxic at high concentration
Carbon CO2 Colorless and odorless Product of complete combustion of
dioxide organic compounds; implicated in
global climate change
Ozone O3 Very reactive Damage to vegetation and materials;
produced in photochemical smog
Hydrocarbons CxHy Many different compounds Emitted from automobile crankcase
and exhaust
Hydrogen HF Colorless, acrid, very Product of aluminum smelting;
fluoride reactive causes reactive fluorosis in cattle;
toxic

Table 1.8.2. Monitoring systems used to determine the quality of ambient air [2].
Parameter Sampling or monitoring system
SPM/PM10 ISO/TR7708/DP 4222 (measurement of atmospheric deposit; horizontal
deposit gauge method) ISO/DP 10473 (measurement of the mass of
particulate matter on a filter medium; beta ray absorption); ISO/DIS 9835
(determination of a black smoke index) 40 CFR, Part 50, Appendix J (for
PM10); Appendix B (for SPM)
Sulfur dioxide ISO 4219/4221; 40 CFR, Part 50, Appendix A (pararosaniline method)
Nitrogen ISO 6768, 7996; 40 CFR, Part 50, Appendix F (gas phase chemiluminescence
dioxide method); Salzman automatic colorimeter (method used in Japan)
Ozone 40 CFR, Part 50, Appendix D; measurement of photochemical oxidants using
the neutral buf-fered automatic potassium iodide colorimetric method; used in
Japan
 Lead ISO/DIS 9855; 40 CFR, Part 50, Appendix G (extraction with nitric and
hydrochloric acids and analysis by atomic absorption spectrometry)
Asbestos ISO/DIS 10312/VDI 3492 (fibers counted using scanning electron
microscope)
Note: SPM, suspended particulate matter; CFR, United States, Code of Federal Regulations;
ISO, International Organization for Standardization.

Table 1.8.3. Monitoring systems can be used to monitor air emissions [2].
Parameter Sampling and analytical methods
Stack gases Extractive methods using pitot tubes; 40 CFR, Part 60, Appendix A,
Methods 1–4; BS1756:1977, Part 2
PM10/ TSP In situ nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry and extractive
gravimetric; ISO 9096; ISO/TC 146/SCI/WG1N16(1994); 40 CFR, Part
60, Appendix A, Methods 5, 5A, 17; BS 3405:1983 VDI 2066, Parts 1, 2
Sulfur oxides Extractive nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry; ISO 8178; 40 CFR,
Part 60, Appendix A, Method 6; BS 1756:1977, Part 4; VDI 2462, Parts
1–7
Nitrogen oxides Extractive fluorescence; ISO 8178; 40 CFR, Part 60, Appendix A,
Method 7, 7A–7E; VDI 2456 Parts 1–7
VOCs Extractive flame ionization; 40 CFR, Part 60, Appendix A, Method 18;
VDI 3493, Part 1
Total Extractive nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry; 40 CFR, Part 60,
hydrocarbons Appendix A, Methods 25, 25A, 25 B; VDI 2460 (Parts 1–3), 2466 (Part
1), 3481 (Parts 1, 2), 2457 (Parts 1–7)
Carbon monoxide Extractive nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry; 40 CFR, Part 60,
Appendix A, Methods 10, 10A, 10B; VDI 2459, Part 6
Chlorine/hydrogen Extractive nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry; VDI 3488, Parts 1
chloride and 2; VDI 3480, Part 1
Hydrogen sulfide Extractive electrochemical analysis; VDI 3486, Parts 1–3
Note: Metals are usually analyzed by the methods outlined in Table 2. BS, British Standards
Institute; CFR, United States, Code of Federal Regulations; ISO, International Organization
for Standardization, Method for the Gravimetric Determination of Concentration and Mass
Flow Rate of Particulate Material in Gas-Carrying Ducts (Geneva 1994); VDI, Germany,
Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, Air Pollution
Control Manual for Continuous Emission Monitoring (Bonn, 1992).
REFERENCE
[1] http://moef.nic.in/modules/rules-and-regulations/ifs/
[2] World Bank, “Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook: toward Cleaner
Production” World Bank in collaboration with the United Nations Environment
Programme and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1998.