UNIT 8 SPECIAL TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Type of Special Foundations
8.3 Foundations for Vibratory Machine
8.3.1 Elements of Vibration Theory
8.3.2 Natural Frequencies of Coupled Rocking and Sliding
8.3.3 Types of Machines and Unbalanced Forces
8.3.4 T y of Machine Foundations
8.3.5 Design Criteria
8.3.6 Block Foundations for Reciprocating and Rotary Machines
8.3.7 Block Foundations for I m p w Machines
8.3.8 Dynamic Soil Properties
8.4 Foundations on Expansive Soils
8.4.1 identification of Swelling Soils
8.4.2 Methods of Elimination/Reduction of Swelling
8.4.3 Types of Foundationson Expansive Soils
8.4.4 Design and Construction of Under-Teamed Piles
8.5 WellFoundations
8.5.1 Elements of Well Foundations
8.5.2 Design Procedure for a Well Foundation
8.5.3 Design of Depth of Well Foundations
8.5.4 Bearing Capacity and Settlement Considerations
8.5.5 Loading Condition
8.5.6 Lateral Stability of Wall
8.5.7 Constructional Aspects of Well Foundations
8.6 Summary
8.7 Answer to SAQs

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have already seen, how ordinary foundations subjected to simple
static loads can be analysed and designed. You also understood how the soil conditions
play an important role in the design, analysis and construction of foundations. In this unit
we shall consider some special types of foundations subjected to complicated loading
conditions, both static and dynamic. We will also understand how difficult soil conditions
exists, such as expansive soils and how to ensure a distress-free life of the structures
founded on these soils. This being an advanced topic in the area of Foundation
Engineering, you are not expected to solve numerical problems and design exercises.
However, you should be able to understand typical solutions pertaining to the analysis and
design of any of these special type of foundations. Advanced level text books are listed at
the end of this Unit for your reference and study.
Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to appreciate the principles involved in the
analysis and design of
. machine foundations subjected to different types of vibratoryldynamic loads,
. special type of foundations particularly applicable to construct distress-free
structures on expansive soils, and
. caissons or well foundations to safely cany large loads coming from
structures such as bridges etc.
Also, you will appreciate the
. importance of correctly evaluating the various dynamic soil properties,
 .
-

Foundation Engineering -11 various methods to identify swelling soils, and

. need to eliminate or reduce the problem of swelling soils.

8.2 TYPES OF SPECIAL FOUNDATIONS

Special foundations find use under following situation:
i) to meet the demands that are arising from uncommon environmental
conditions such as for offshore structures, buried structures, vibration or
earthquake prone structures etc.
ii) to counteract hostile soil conditions such as swelling and swelling pressure
characteristics of expansive soils, polluted soils carrying toxic leachates from
industrial effluents etc.
iii) structures such as bridges, water tanks, silos, chimneys, cooling towers,
telecommunication towers, transmission line towers etc.
Thus, we can categorise special foundations into three types based on
i) demands arising from uncommon loading or environmental conditions,
ii) demands resulting from hostile soil conditions, and
iii) specially of uncommon or unconventional structures.
For this purpose, we have selected illustrations, such as foundations for vibrating
machines, foundations on expansive soils and well foundations.

8.3 FOUNDATIONS FOR VfSRATORY MACHINES

You are familiar with harmonic motion, Newton's second law of motion and other allied
topics from your knowledge of physics of preuniversity level. We will now, use these
concepts to understand the elements of theory of vibrations. The analysis and design of
machine foundations is based on the theory of vibrations of elastic systems.
8.3.1 Elements of Theory of Vibrations
All bodies possessing mass and elasticity can vibrate or undergo vibratory motion. Let us
understand a few basic definitions used to descrihe the vibratory motion. The vibratory
motion of any body or a system can be of three types. They are:
i) Periodic motion,
ii) Transient motion and
iii) random motion.
Figure 8.1 describes each of the above type of motion with respect to time, represented by
the horizontal axis (Figure 8.1).

Figure 81(a): Periodic Motion

The fundamental objective of dynamic analysis of foundation is to solve a problem of

vibration as described above for a block resting on a semi-infinite elastic solid. Barkan
(1962) developed simplified method, called as "linear elastic weightless spring model" to
solve this problem with the following assumptions concerning vibration of solid block
resting on soil.
 Special Types of Foundatiorrr

Figure 8.l(b): Transient Motion

Figure 8.l(c) :Random Motion

i) There is a linear relationship between the soil reacting on a vibrating

foundation and the displacement of the foundation.
ii) The soil underlying the foundation is weightless i.e. docs not have inertial
properties but only have elastic properties.
iii) The foundation block is infinitely rigid.
With these assumptions concerning foundation and soil, it is possible, in the general cases,
to analyse foundation vibration as a problem of solid body resting on weightless spring
bed.
a) Vertical Vibrations
Let us consider a foundation block of area A, placed at a depth of D, below the ground
level (Figure 8.2) and acted upon by a vertical exciting force such that
P, (i) = P, sin at . . . (8.1)

Figure 8.2 :Block Foundation - Actual Condition

For the same anaffifv: it shall be assumed that the block is placed at ground level (Figure
8.3), that is D,= 0.
If thel&dlre of gravity of the foundation and machine and the centroid of the base area of
the toundation in contact with the soil lie on a vertical line that coincides with the line of
action of the existing force P,, then the foundation will undergo only vertical vibration.
Since the foundatton is assumed to be an absolutely rigid body, its displacement is
determined by the displacement of its centre of gravity, and vibrating mass therefore be
considered to be a concentrated polnt mass. As mentioned above, weightless springs serve
Foundation Engineering -11

Figure 8.3 :Block Foundation-Idealised Condition

as a model for the soil. Thus, the machine-foundation-soilsystem now becomes the
equivalent spring-mass system shown in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4: Block FoundatiobLumped Parameter Model

If the displacement of the foundation computed with respect to the equilibrium position
equals z, then the reaction of the spring will be equal to

where,
W = Weight of the foundation,
k, = Equivalent spring constant of the soil in vertical direction for base areaA of
the foundation, C, A and
C,= Barkan's coefficient of elastic uniform compression.
The equation of motion of this system using de Alembert's principle may be written as
-m,+w+P,(t)-R, = 0 . . . (8.3)
or, using Eq. (8.2),we obtain
m, + k, = P, sin ol
where,
m = Mass of the foundation and machine = w/g,
g = Acceleration due to gravity, and
o = Frequency of operation of the machine.
Therefore, the natural frequency of a vertically vibrating system is g i v e q p :~,,! , , ,,.
where, Special Types of Foundations

o, = The circular natural frequency of the soil foundation system in vertical

vibration (redlsec.), and
,/ = Natural frequency of vertical vibration.
The amplit;de of the vertical vibration is given by
P, sin o t
A, =
m (a:, - 02)

b) Sliding Vibrations

In practice, rocking and sliding occur simultaneously. But if the resistance of soil to
compression is large in comparison with resistance to shear, then sliding will occur,
mairily in the direction of the action of horizontal exciting force.
Consider horizontal unbalanced force, Px ( t ) = P, sin of, to act on a block foundation
(Figure 8.5).

-
P~ s ~ n c * t P,Sin st
7

Figure 8.5: Block Foundationthat Slides only and its Equivalent Model

The equation of motion in this case is analogous and may be expressed as

m x + k X x = P,sinwt . . . (8.8)
where.
x = Sliding displacement of the foundation, from its equilibrium position,
k, = The equivalent spring constant of the soil in sliding = CTA , and
C,. = Barkan's coefficient of elastic uniform shear.

The natural frequency of pure sliding vibration of the system is

The amplitude of the pure sliding vibration is given by

'nie expression for frequency and amplitude in sliding are thus similar to the expression
for vertical vibrations.
c) Rocking Vibrations
Rocking vibrations occur mostly in machines that are mounted on high pedestals and have
unbalanced horii..ontal forces and exciting momenta
FoudPtion Enni-ring -11 Let us assume that an externally exciting moment My( t ) acts on the foundation block.
Here, My( I ) = Mysin wt in which My denotes the moment acting In the X Y plane
(Figure 8.4). The footing is symmetrical about the Y axis, and the centre of mass of thc
foundation and the machine and the centroid of the base area lie on a vertical line and in
the plane of moment. The displaced position of the foundation is shown in Figure 8.6 and
its rotation is $.
M v S I Jt
~

a) Block under Excitation due to an Applied Moment. b) Soil Readion Below the Base
Figure 8.6: Rocking Vibrations of a Rigid Block

The equation of motion may be obtained by applying Newton's second law o f motion as
explained below.
I) Moment MI occasioned by the inertia of the foundation
MI = - M,,, $ . . (8.12)
where,
M,, = thc moment OFinertia of the mass of the foundation and machine with
respect to the axis of rotation.
ii) Moment M, occasioned by the displaced position of tlie centre of gravtly ol
the foundation.
M, = WL tan $I = WL . . . (8.13)
where,
L = The distrulce between the centre of gravity and the axis o f rotation, and
W = Weight of the foundation.
iii) Moment MRoccasioned by the soil reaction.
M, = - C , I $ ... (8.14)
where,
C , = The coefficient of elastic non-uniform compression,
I = The mnoment of inertia of the foundation area in contact with the soil
with respect to the axis of rotation.
iv) The exciting moment My( t ) = M,, sin or.
The equation of motion may therefore be written as
.- - ... .,.
 - - -

- Mm0 + W L, = C , I, + M y sin of Special Types of Focmdations

The natural frequency of the system is given by

The amplitude of rocking vibration A$ is given by

M y sin o t
A, =
M,, (0; - 2)
The effect of rocking is to increase the amplitudes of the vertical and horizontal vibrations.
The maximum an~plitudeof vertical motion occasioned by rocking is given by

in which '(1' is the dimension of the footing perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Similarly,
the contribution of rocking, towards the horizontal amplitudes is given by
A,, = h A, . . . (8.19b)

It may be noted that for a footing that rocks about Y axis and has dimensions. a and h
along the X and Y axis, respectively, I is given by

Thc response of the footing to rocking is thus affected by the dimension of the footing
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and this principal may be used to an advantage in
proportioning the foundations undergoing roclung vibration.

Vibrations Accompanied by Simultaneous Rocking, Sliding and Vertical

Displacements
Cons~dera block foundation exc~tedby the forces and moments. referred to the Centre of
Gravity (C.G.)of the foundation and the machine:
1) Vertical force, P, (1) = P, sin of
2) Horizontal force, P, (1) = P, sin of
3) Moment, M y (f) = M y sin of
It is assumed that point 0, the C.G. of the foundation and machine is located on the same
vertical line as the centroid of the base area. If the origin of co-ordinates is located at the

I7-!77
1" / "'$,
Initial position.

5 ( t a i s p t a c d position

Fiaure 8.7: Rlock suh,jeded to the Aclioa o f Sinlulta~wousVertical Pz (I ), Horizonld PA (1 )

Forces and Mon~entM , s ( l )
Foundation C.G., (O), the following d~splacements01 Lhe foundation need to be cons~dered
(Figure 8.7).
1) Displacement in the vertical direction z,
2) Displacement in the horizontal direction x, at the base, and
3) Rotation of the base 4.
The equations of motion referred to the C.G. may be written by applying d' Aleniberts
principle as follows.
--mi+Z, = 0 . . . (8.20)
- rnx + X , = 0 . . . (8.21)
- Mn,$+ MI = 0 . . . (8.22)
where,
Z, and X, = Projection of all external forces acting on the foundation. on Z and X axis
respectively,
M, = Sum of all external moments acting an the foundation and lying on the XY
plane, and
M, = Mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about an axis passing
through combined C.G. and perpendicular to the plane of vibrations.
By substituting the value of the forces and moments in Eqs. (8.20) to (8.22). one obtains
M i + C,,A, = P, (t) . . . (8.23)
mx+C, AX - C A L $ = P,(t) . . . (8.24)
MI,,$+ C, ALX + (C4 I - WL + CT A L ~ ) $= My (t) . . . (8.25)
Eq. (8.23) contains only the terms of z, and no way depends upon Eqs. (8.24) and (8.25).
Hence it follows that the vertical vibration of a foundation occurs independently of any
other motion. Eqs. (8.24) and (8.25) contain both x and $ and are interdependent.
Therefore, sliding and rocking and coupled modes. Because the vertical vibration of a
foundation is uncoupled, the natural frequency and amplitudes of vertical vibration car1 be
determined as described earlier, i.e., by using Eqs. (8.6) and (8.7) respectively.
8.3.2 Natural Frequencies of Coupled Rocking and Sliding
The system that is considered here is two-degree-of-freedom system. The solutions for
natural frequency are obtained by Barkan by considering the free vibrations on this
system, i.e., the functions in Eqs. (8.24) and (8.25) are replaced by zero.
From this, one obtains

and
M,,$-CALX+(C@I-WL+C,AL~)$=O
Using this two Eqs. (8.26) and (8.27), Barkan developed the following frequency equation:

where,
on='Circular natural frequency of the coupled rocking and sliding vibration ,
n, = Circular natural frequency for purely sliding vibiation.
ng = Circular natural frequency for purely rocking vibration,

M , , = Mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine about an axis that
passes through the centroid of the base contact area and perpendicular to
the plane of vibration = M,, + m ~ ' .
 The roots of equation (8.28) are two principle natural frequencies (w,, and wn2)for the Special Types o€Foundations

coupled vibr:~tion.

Amplitudes of Vibration
Considering forced vibrations, the amplitudes may be expressed in terms of the exciting
torces and moments. With the amplitudes of the exciting force and moment given by P, (t)
and My(t) respectively, the vibration amplitude horizontally (A,) and rotationally (A+)at
any frequency may be expressed as

where.
6 (w2) = 111 MI,, (4,- w2) (mi, - w2)
The total anlplitude of the vertical and horizontal vibrations may be computed by using
Eqs. (8.1%) and (8.19b) respectively.
Thus,

in which h = height of the top of the foundation above the combined C.G.

8.3.3 Types of Machine and Unbalanced Forces

1 ) Reciprocating Machines
Machines involving crank mechanism such as reciprocating pump, compressor or steam
engine, cause to and fro motion of the crank and produce reciprocating forces. A simple
~nechanisn~ is shown in Figure 8.8.

#*
Figure 8.8: Reciprocating Motion

The crank rotates with an angular frequency, which moves the piston P through the
connecting rod CP. The rotary motion of the crank is converted to the translatory motion
ot the piston. A similar mechanism can also be used to convert a translatory motion into a
rotary motion. The force-time or displacement-time response curve is sinusoidal as shown
in Figure 8.9.
2) Rotary Machines
Centrifugal pumps, generators or turbines are examples of rotary machines, where the
moving parts are theoretically balanced. However, in practice, unbalanced forces always
exist, owing to holes, defects of manufacture, installations or attachments, thereby causing
eccentricity of rotating parts and producing oscillating force, as shown in Figure 8.10.
The rimc rcsponsc is a sinusoidal curve (Figure 8.1 1).
 I 1 one cycle L
1

Figure 8.9: Sinusoidal Motion

eccentric
masses

(a) Eccentric Wheel (b) Two Mass Oscillator

Figure 810

Figure 811: Sinusoidal Curve

3) Pulsating Machines
Impulsive loads produced by operation of forge hammer, punch presses, or stamping
machines cause shocks on the foundation, which are released instantaneously. The
response is a pulsating curve. The motion is nearly before the next pulse reappears.
4) Random Forces
Earthquake, nuclear blast, mine explosion, wind action etc. produce motions in which
displacement-time relationship is irregular and random.
In all such loadings, unbalanced (dynamic) forces are developed which Gause vibration
motions, as explained earlier.

8.3.4 Types of Machine Foundations

Considering their structural form, machine foundations are generally classified as follows:
a) Block-type foundations consisting of a pedestal of concrete on which the machine
rests.
b) Box or caisson-type foundations consisting of a hollow concrete block supporting the
machinery on its top.
c) Wall-type foundations consisting of a pair of walls supporting the machinery on their
top.
 d) Framed-type foundation consisting of vertical columns supporting on their top a Special Types af Fou@PSioos
horizontal framework which forms the seat of essential machinery.
Machines producing impulsive and periodical forces at low speeds are generally mounted
on block-type foundations, while those working at high speeds and the rotating type of
machinery are generally mounted on framed foundations. However, owing to certain local
conditions, this may not always be possible, in which case alternative types may be
adopted as found suitable. Certain machines such as lathes, which induce very little
dynamic force, may be bolted directly to the floor without special foundations.
8.3.5 Design Criteria .
1) Machine foundation should be safe against shear failure.
2) It should not settle excessively under static loads.
3) There should be no resonance during machine operations.
In other words, the natural frequency of the foundation system should not
coincide with the operating frequency of the machine. In case of low
frequency machines, the frequency is kept higher than its natural frequency
and vice-versa.
4) Amplitude at operative frequency must be within tolerate limits. The limit of
tolerance for each machine depends upon its function.

1 8.3.6 Block Foundations for Reciprocating and Rotary Machines

A block foundation has, in general. six degrees of freedom and, therefore, six natural
frequencies (one corresponding to each mode of vibration). Three of them are translations
along the three principal axes and other three are rotations about the three axes (Figure
8.12). The vibratory modes may be 'decoupled' or 'intercoupled' depending on the
relative positions of the centre of gravity of the machine foundation and the centroid of its
base area. The natural frequency is determined in a particular mode (decoupled or
intercoupled) and compared with the operating frequency.

Vertical
Tdrsion (yawnlny I

Figure 8.12 : Modes of Vibration of a Rigid Block Foundation

Recommended Method of Analysis for Block Foundations
F*
Barkan's method is recommended for the dynamic analysis of block- type machine
foundations. The theoretical basis of this method is outlined below:
Let us assume that the combined centre of gravity of the machine and foundation lies in
the same vertical line as the centroid of base plane. It was stated earlier that for this case,
the vertical translation and twisting modes are uncoupled, while the sliding and rocking
motions in each of the two vertical planes (xz and yz planes) passing through the common
centre of gravity of machine and foundation are separately coupled. The motion of the
foundation in the plane xz will be examined first. Figure 8.13 shows a block foundation
having a mass m (W/g)and base area A and subjected to the action of oscillating loads
P, (t), P, (t) and a moment M y ( t ) where t is the time parameter. Let the principal axes
through the common centre of gravity G be chosen as the axes of co-ordinates and S is the
height of G above the centre of gravity of base support. Let k,, k , and key denotes
respectively the stiffness of the elastic supports used in vertical compression, horizontal
 Figure 813 :Displacement of Foundation Under Oscillating Forces in x - z plane

shear G d against rotation (about the y axis). Let 8, denotes the mass moment of inertia of
the foundation about the y axis. Then x, z and 8, are respectively the displacements along
x and z axes and rotation about the y axis.
The equations of motion of the foundation for the undamped case can be written as
follows:
a) Vertical
mz + k, z = P, (t) . . . (8.34)
b) Horizontal
m.x + k, (X - S 8,) = P, ( I ) . . . (8.35)
b) Rocking
$,eY - kJx + (k, - WS + K,s~) 8, = My (t) . . . (8.36)
It may be seen that Eq. (8.34) representing the translatory motion along the z axis is
independent of the other two coordinates x and 8 while Eqs. (8.35) and (8.36) which
represent the horizontal sliding and rocking motions respectively, contain both x and 8.
Eqs. (8.35) and (8.36) thus form a coupled set while Eq. (8.34) can be solved
independently as a separate single-degree system.
To obtain the equations of motion in the yz plane, the suffixes x and y should be
interchanged in Eqs. (8.35) and (8.36). The equation of motion for torsion (rotation about
the z axis) under the influence of an oscillating torsional moment To sin a t is given by
$, u + k, u + Tq sin a t . . . (8.37)
where, $, is the mass moment of inertia about the z axis, u is the angle of twist and K, is
the stiffness of the elastic support for rotation about vertical axis.
Eq. (8.37), similar to Eq. (8.34) is independent of the motion of the foundation in other
modes and may be solved as a separate single-degree system. The solution of the
equations of motion (8.34) and (8.37) leads the following expressions for natural
frequencies and amplitudes for the various modes.
a) Vertical Translation
i) The circular natural frequency (a,) for uncoupled vertical translation along
the z axis is given by
w , = v . . . (8.38)
For foundations resting directly on soils
 ii) The vertical amplitude (a,) under the action of an exciting forces p, sin omt, Special Types of Foundations
ombeing the circular operating frequency is given by

I
b) Sliding and Rocking Motion in xz Plane
i) Natural Frequencies
The two natural frequencies on,, on,which represent the coupled motion
(sliding along x axis and rocking about y axis) in the xz plane are given by
the roots of the following quadratic equation in on
oey+ o2
02n + w 8 y 2 0 2 x $ = . . . (8.41)
On- yay aY
where, ay is the ratio of the mass of inertia ($,) about the y axis passing
through centre of gravity to the mass moment of inertia ($ey ) about a parallel
axis through the centre of gravity of the base support.
a y= $#by . . . (8.42)
o2ey= (ko WS) 0y- . . . (8.43)

For foundations resting on soils

The terms oxand oqy are called the limiting frequencies of the coupled
motion, oxrepresents the natural circular frequency for "pure sliding" along
the x axis when the foundation is assumed to possess infinite resistance to
rocking (about the y axis) and oh denotes the natural circular frequency for
'pure rocking' (about the y axis) when the foundation is assumed to possess
infinite resistance to sliding (along the x axis).
The two roots on,and on,of Eq. (8.41) are given by

-- 1
-
%Y
[ogY+ w: + 4( o h + 4)'
- 49. miy 21 . . . (8.47)

The foundation vibrates with circular natural frequencies w,, and on,( where
on,> on,) about two centres of rotation) 0, and 8, (Figure 8.14) - which are
situated at distances a, and a;? respectively from the common centre of
gravity.

(a) First Mode (b) Second Mode

Figure 8.14:Centre of Rotation for Coupled Sliding and Rocking Motion in X-Z Plan
F o u a d ~ n~hghew-!I where

It can be verified that

ii) Amplitudes
The horizontal amplitude (a,) and rotational amplitudes (a,) of the
foundation subjected to the simultaneous action of an exciting force Po sin
w,t and an exciting moment Mysin oi mare given by

and
1
aey = (k& P, + (k, - m %m) My7 ...
f(0,")
where,
flu:) = m$y ( 4 2 - mi) ( 4 2 - mi) . . . (8.54)

The net horizontal displacement (along the x-axis) of the upper edge of the
foundation is equal to
a,+(H-S) w . . . (8.55)
where H is height of foundation.
c) SWmg and Rocking Motion in yz Plane
The natural frequencies of the coupled sliding (along the y axis) aand rocking (about the x
axis) motion of the foundation and rocking are given by an equation similar to Eq. (8.4 1)
obtained with the suffixes x and y interchanged in it.
The amplitude 4, und aeX may likewise be obtained from Eqs. (8.52) and (8.53) with the
suffixes x and y interchanged. The net horizontal amplitudes (along the y axis) of the
upper edge of foundation is then

d) Yawing or Twlstlng Motion about z Axis

As explained earlier, the yawing motion is uncoupled and the natural frequency (%) for
twisting mode and the amplitude under the action of a twisting moment T+sin om$are
given by the following expressions.

For foundation resting on soils

If the combined centre of gravity of the machine and foundation and the centroid of the
foundation base do not lie in the same vertical line, the vertical vibration is not
independent of horizontal vibration and rocking. In this case, vertical, horizontal and
 rocking vibration in xz (or yz) planes are intercoupled and the three coupled natural Special Typa of Foundatiom
frequencies. o,,o, and o, (three in each plane xz and yz) are given by the roots of the
following expression:
a(w: - mi) (mi, - on;) (wn; - n2)
= . . . (8.60)
o;(w; - 0,')

where w,, o n , ,on,are given by Eqs. (8.38) and (8.43), ex is the eccentricity of the centroid
of base area of foundation measured along the x axis from the centre of gravity of machine
Soundation and

Reciprocating engines having crank-type mechanism include the following category of

machines:
a) steam engines,
b) diesel engines,
[ c) displacement compressors, and
d) displacement pumps.
Foundations of reciprocating machinery are generally of block type with openings
t provided where necessary for functional reasons.
Special Considerations in Planning
The dimensions of the foundation should be such that for low-speed machines (operating
speed less than 500 rpm) the natural frequency is high, and vice-versa. To obtain a high
natural frequency, the foundation must have a large base area and a small self-weight. The
foundation recommended in such cases is either of box or caisson type. To obtain a low
nalural frequency, the foundation must be fairly massive or should be supported on springs
or other suitable materials.
The outline dimensions of the foundation (in-plan) are generally furnished by the machine
manufacturers. The height of the foundation may be fixed tentatively on the basis of soil
strata and the operating levels for the machinery. The dimensions so chosen may have to
be altered, if required in the design stage to satisfy the accepted design criteria which is
given in sub-section 8.3.5.
The following points will be considered while planning the foundation for reciprocating
engines:
i) The eccentricity of the common centre of gravity of machine and foundation referred
to the centroid of base area should not exceed 5% of the corresponding base
dimension of the foundation.
ii) To decrease the transmission of vibrations to adjacent structures, it is necessary to
provide an air gap around the foundation. Where the elastic under layers such as
spring casings are provided below the foundation, the latter should be placed in a
reinforced concrete trough and due provision made to give access to the under lying
layers for periodical inspection of replacement.
iii) In order to reduce the horizontal amplitudes, the height of foundation should be
selected as small as possible. A larger base dimension is selected in the direction of
the rock moment if any, acting on the foundation.
iv) If several machines are located close-by in the same machine hall, a common
foundation may be recommended for all of the machines, particularly when the
underlying soil is soft. However, the analysis of vibrations of the foundation for such a
group of machines, is complicated. For practical purposes, the common foundation
may be considered as broken up to sections corresponding to individual foundations
and the computations carried out as if they were separate foundations. The permissible
amplitudes may be increased to 0.25 mm.
a) Design Criteria J

The principal design criteria for the foundations subjected to periodical forces are as
follows:
Foundation Engineering -11 a) The natural frequency should be at least 50 percent away from the operating speed of
the machine.
b) The amplitude of the foundation should not normally exceed 0.2 mm.
c) The stress on soil (or other elastic layers such as cork, springs, etc. where used) under
the combined influence of static and dynamic loads should be within the respective
permissible values. For preliminary designs, the bearing pressure on soil due to static
loads alone may be taken as 0.4 times the corresponding safe bearing capacity.
The minimum possible dimensions of the foundation should be selected satisfying the
above design criteria.
8.3.7 Block Foundations for Impact Machines
The dynamic analysis of hammer foundation is based on a two-degree system undergoing
free vibration.
Figure 8.15 show a two-degree freedom system consisting of masses m, and r? and
springs having stiffness k, and k,.

Figure 8.15: Two Degree Freedom System without Damping

Free vibrations are induced in the system by giving an initial velocity of displacement to
one of the masses. The differential equations characterising the motion of the masses 9,
and m2 are given by
m1z1+ klz1 + k2 (1,- z2)= 0 . . . (8.61)
m2z2+k; fz2 -z,) = 0 . . . (8.62)
Let on,and on,,be the circular natural frequencies of the system. It can be derived that ,
on,and on,are the roots of the following fourth-order equation (quadratic in mi).
~ I + (1 + a ) 03;
f(wi) = ot - ( C O ' ~ w';~) + (1 + a ) o;, . oi2 = 0 . . . (8.63)
where on,and on,are the limiting frequencies defined as followings

Equation 8.63 can be written as

 . -
Special Types of Foundations
k2
where p = -.
kl
Equation (8.67)is a quadratic in (on which gives two real roots for onwhich are
the two circular frequencies of the system.
The free motion of the two masses can be expressed as
z , = A , sin o,,t + A, sin on2t
and
z2 = BI sin o , , t + B, sin on2t
To obtain the free amplitudes of the two masses, the initial conditions should be used. Let
it be assumed that the free vibrations are set in when the upper mass is given an initial
velocity V. At time t = 0, z , = 0, z2 = V and z , = 0. Using these initial conditions the
displacements 2 , and z, of masses m, and m, can be expressed as
sin on2t
-

sin o n l t
4 2- 4 1
on2

Usually the amplitudes associated with the higher or the two frequencies on,and o, w Q
be small. If on,. on,neglecting the part contributed by the higher natural frequency, the
amplitudes a , and a , can be written as

and

Consideration in Planning
i) The centre line of anvil and the centroid of the base area should lie on the
vertical line passing through the common centre of gravity of the machine
and its foundation.
ii) Where elastic underlayers are used under the anvil and the base, care should
be taken to ensure uniform distribution of loading and protection of these
materials against progressive deterioration. 'The foundation may be laid in a
reinforced concrete trough with an air gap between the foundation and the
side walls.
iii) Timber when used as elastic material should be laid in the form of a grillage
and should be impregnated with preservatives.
iv) 'The thickness of the elastic layers is based on the permissible stresses in the
respective materials. Table 8.1 gives the guidance for the thickness of pads
under the anvil.
Table 8.1: Guidance for the Pad Thickness Under the Anvil

Thickness of Pad for a Falling Weight

Type of Hammer
uptolt(m) 1-3t(m) 3 t (m)
Double acting drop hammer 0.2 0.2 - 0.6 0.6 - 1.2
Single acting drop hammer 0.1 0.1 - 0.4 0.4 - 0.9
Forging hammer 0.2 0.2 - 0.6 0.6 - 1.0

v) When two neighboring foundations are laid at different depths, the straight
line connecting the adjacent edges should form an angle not exceeding 25' to
the horizontal. For close foundations, they may be laid at the same depth
with a common mat as the base.
Foundation Engineering -11 1) The amplitude of the foundation should not exceed 1 . O m . In the case of foundations
on sand below ground water table, the amplitude should be restricted below 0.8 mm.
2) The permissible amplitude of the anvil which depends on. the weight of falling tup are
as follows.
Weight of tup upto 1 t 2t 3t
Permissible Amplitude 1mm 2mm 3-4mm
3) The maximum stresses on the soil and other elastic layers shall be less than the
permissible limits for the respective materials.
Foundations Resting on Soil- Principal Stages in Design Calculations
a) Minimum Weight of Foundation and Base Area Required.
The minimum weight (w,) of the foundation is based on the requirement that the
amplitude of vibration is less than the permissible value. This gives the expression.

where,
k = coefficient of impact,
(k = 0.5 for stamping hammer, k = 0.25 for forging hammers)
v = initial velocity of hammer head (dsec.)
The minimum base area is based on the requirement that the stress on the soil is within the
permissible value (0,). This gives the expression.
wt
Wm,,=20(1 + k ) v . - . . . (8.75)
Table 8.2 gives the minimum thickness of the foundation below the anvil base for different
weights of hammer head.
Table 8.2 : Minimum Thickness of the Foundation Below Anvil

Weight of Hammer Head Minimum Thickness of Foundation Under

2.0 1.25
4.0 1.75

b) Analysis for Vertical Vibrations

Hammer foundations are analysed essentially for vertical vibrations. Principal steps
involved in the analysis are explained below:
The following notation is used.

Mass of tup(1)

Mass of anvil (2)

Mass of foundation (3)

Mass of hammer stand (4)

Area of foundation base

Area of anvil base
 . . \

Thickness of elastic pad under anvil = fa (m) Special Types of Foundations

Modulus of elasticity of elastic pad = Ea ( k ~ l m ~ )

Initial velocity of impact = v (mls)
For the analysis of vertical vibrations of hammer foundation, two typical arrangements of
the anvil and foundation block, as shown in Figure 8.16, are adopted.

(a) Typical Hammer Foundation (b)Hammer Foundation Resting on Soil Directly

figure 8.16
i) Masses

ii) Stiffness of Spring Layeres

The vertical stiffness (k,) of the soil is gi-venby
k;= C z A f
where, CZ= a' Cz
C, = Coeficientl of elastic uniform compression of soil, and
a' = 3.0 for hammer foundation
Stiffness of pad anvil (k,) is given by

?
iii) Limiting Frequencies (o,, o,)
The square of the limiting frequency (61,) defined as the freyuency of natural vibration of
the anvil assuming the soil to be rigid (k, = w) is given by

The square of the other limiting freyuency (o:) of the entire system assuming k, = w is
given by
 -
Foundation Engineering 11
-
@-2.e'""
--@
..
- -@ Source

iazF I
L 4m
1310
1
'I
4m
13:OY 1
7

Typical Receiver records 8

Figure 8.17: Sketch Showing Cross-boreholeTechnique for Memurement of Velocity of Wave Propagation

ii) Up Hole or Down-Hole Wave Propagation Test

Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one bore hole (Figure 8.18).

4
%
'

Source
b) Down hole
Recetver

-El
Figure 818: (a) Up-Hole and (b)Down-Hde Techniques for Measurement of Velocity of Wave Propagation
In the up-hole method, the receiver is placed at the surface, and the shear waves are
generated at different depths within the bore hole, whiIe in the down-hole method, the
excitation is applied at the surface, and one or more receivers are placed at different depths
within the hole (Figure 8.19). Both the Up-hole and the down-hole methods give average
1) Basic Soil Properties Special Types of Foundations

The usual soil properties which are investigated are:

. Dynamic moduli: Young's modulus E, shear modulus G, bulk modulus K,
and constrained modulus, or related parameters such as Barkan's coefficient
. of elastic uniform compression C, and coefficient non-uniform
compression, cg
Poisson's ratio, u
In machine foundation problems, an understanding of dynamic soil moduli (with
corresponding elastic spring constants) and damping is frequently required. Damping is
caused by both geometric dispersion of the wave energy with propagation among from
point sources and also by internal or hysteretic damping within the soil as it undergoes
plastic deformation. The geometric or radiation damping is usually more significant than
the hysteretic damping especially at the low strain amplitudes normal to machine
foundation when the internal damping is small. Poisson's ratio is also needed, even though
it is frequently not determined.
2) Field Methods
Field methods generally depend on the measurement of veIocity of waves propagating
through the soil or on the response of soil structure systems to dynamic excitation. Two
types of waves can be propagated in soils, body waves and surface waves. The following
methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use in different parts of the
world.
i) Cross-borehole wave propagation test,
ii) Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test,
iii) Seismic cone penetration test,
iv) Surface wave propagation test,
V) Footing resonance test,
vi) Cyclic plate load test, and
vii) Standard penetration test.
i) Cross-borehole Wave Propagation Test
This method is considered, by many engineers, to be the most reliable method of
determining the dynamic shear modulus of soil. The essentials of the method is illustrated
in Figure 8.17. A source of seismic energy generated in or at the bottom of one bore hole
and the time for that energy to travel another bore hole by the most direct route is
measured. From the known bore hole spacing and the travel time, the veIocity of the
seismic shear wave V, is computed. The shear modulus G is then determined as

where, LI is mass density of the soil.

Although a minimum of two bore holes are required, for extensive investigations and for
increased accuracy, three or more bore holes should be preferred whenever possible. In
general, any borehole 10 m or deeper should be surveyed with an inclinometer or another
logging device for determining its verticality.
The l~lajorcriteria for a seismic source are:
1) It must be capable of generating predominately one kind of wave, and
2) It must be capable of repeating desired characteristics at a predetermined
energy level.
Velocity transducers (geophones) that have natural frequencies of 4 to 10 Hz are adequate
for detecting the shear waves as they arrive from the source (Prakash and Puri, 1988).
Foundation Earginee- - 11 iv) Natural Frequencies (on,, wnz)

From the analysis of a two-degree system (Figure 8.15) subjected to free vibrations, the
two circular natural frequencies w,, and on,shall be determined as roots of the following
quadratic equation in 4.
where,

v) Velocity of Tup (v) before Impact

a) For a free fall hammer
v=a w . . . (8.83)
where,
h+ = height of fall, and
a = correction factor which characterises the resistance of
exhaust steam ( a = 1 for well adjusted hammer)
b) For a double acting hammer

where,
P = pressure of piston,
A = area of piston, and
L = length of stroke
= 0.5 to 0.8.
vi) Velocity after Impact (v )
For a cemtra blow, the velocity (v) after impact is given by

vii) Amplitudes (Aa A,)

The amplitudes of foundation (A,) is given by

and

8.3.8 Dynamic Soil Properties

Several problems in engineering practice including the design of machine foundations
require a knowledge of dynamic soil properties. In general, problems involving the
dynamic loading of soils are divided into small- and large-strain amplitude responses. The
strains in the soil are usually small for machine foundations. Strong motion earthquakes
and nuclear explosions can develop large strain amplitudes of the order of 0.1 % strain
whereas some precision equipment such as electron microscopes are sensitive to very
small amplitude vibrations as low as 0.0001 % strain. Since the dynamic properties of soil
are strain dependent, various laboratory and field techniques have been developed to
measure these properties over a wide range of strain amplitudes.
 Special Types pf Foundations

Transducer
7

Figure 8.19 :Sketches of the Downhole Test

values of wave velocities for the soil between the excitation and the receiver.
iii) Seismgc Cone Penetration Test
This test combines the down-hole method and cone penetration testing. To this end, a
small rugged velocity seismometer is incorporated inside the electronic penetrometer and
down-hole measurements of S-wave velocity are performed during brief pauses in one
penetration testing. A significant advantage of the seismic cone is that with a single
sounding test one obtains information for the stratigraphy of the site, low straln moduli of
the various layers, as well as the (static) strength related parameters.
Comparisons with the "cross hole" are very encouraging as seen in Figure 8.20.

-b i m i e C P T
A Cmrrholc

Figuru 8.20 : Sketches of the Seismic Cone Penetration

A limitation ol' this lrlethod is that it may not be appropriate for some types of soil s u d ~as
those conl;~in~ng
co;lrsc gravel.
Foundation lki+-ering - 11 iv) Wave Propagation Test
A vertically oscillating foundation transmits most of its energy as a Rayleigh wave which
is confined to a region close to the surface of the soil. Using an electromagnetic or
mechanical oscillator, a steady state Rayleigh wave can be generated and the surface of the
ground deformed as shown in Figure 8.21. A mechanical oscillator is usually set to work
at low frequency approximately to 10 Hz.

Figure 8.21 :A Harmonically-osaUatingFooting Generates Rayleigh(R) Waves Propagating Along

the Surface of a Soil Deposit
IS: 5249 - 1969 suggests the following method to conduct this test:
A plain concrete block (M 150) of size 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.7 m shall be cast at site at the
particular depth where the machine foundation is to be laid (Figure 8.22). A mechanical ,

Amlo Iron wddod

to bolt

ENLARGED DETAIL OF BOLT

Figure 8.22: Test Pit with Concrete Block

oscillator should be mounted on the block so that the block is subjected to purely s~usoidal
vertical vibration. Two geophones of identical characteristics, are connected to Uie vextical
plates and the other horizontal plates of an oscilloscope are so positioned along a ray do=
from the block in the longitudinal direction so that the Lissajous figure on the oseilloscope
screen becomes a circle. The nearest geophone may be at a distance of 30 cm from the
block and the further are varied in position till this condition is achieved. Figure 8.23
shows the block diagram for the testing arrangement. The distance D between the two positions
of geophones is then measured. The wave length R of the propagating waves is given by
LR = 40 . . . (8.89)
The velocity of the Rayleigh waves V , is then given by
VR = LRf Vs

in whichf is the frequency of vibration of oscillator at which the wavelength has been
measured.
The elastic modulus E and the modulus G of the soil medium are calculated as follows:
 . . (8.91) Special Types of Foundations

ana

Concrete block
Osci [la tor
Motor
- - - - - - - - - - - - -lTPSt
1 pit
I
I
I
1,
ll ' I
I

Figure 8.23: Typical Experimental Setup for in SITU Dynamic Soil Testing
in which Cl is the mass density of the soil and p, the Poisson's ratio of the soil. The
representative values of Poisson's ratio is given in Table 8.3
I Table 8.3 :Values of Poisson's Ratio For Soils

This method cannot produce the accurate and detailed (layer - layer) information of the
bore hole methods. However, it can provide:
i) the near surface wave velocity V, (0), which controls the radiation damping
of high-frequency machine foundation, as well as the response in rocking
and torsion at all frequencies, and
ii) with high power equipment operating at low frequencies, the velocity of
deeper strata that could not be reached inexpensively with a bore hole.
V) Footing(B1ock) Resonance Test
This test is used for determining stiffness of soil by exciting a concrete block foundation
r (1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.7 m) at sultable depth (Figure 8.24) and is excited in vertical

/
/

/
Concrete tor V test /
/ IH 1%) Accelcfdion
tronduccrs
/
/
5 De to br
/
#
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / ///I////

(a) (b)
Figure 8.24 :Set up for a Block-ResonanceTest
 -
Foundntion Endmering 11 vibrations. Two acceleration or displacement transducers are mounted on the top of the
block (Figure 8. 25) such that they sense vertical motion of the block. A mechanical
oscillator, that works on the principal of eccentric masses mounted on two shafts rotating
in opposite directions is mounted on the block so that it generates purely vertical vibration.
The frequency is gradually increased in steps till the resonant stage is passed through. The
frequency corresponding to the peak amplitude is the resonant frequencyf,. Barkan's
coefficient of elastic uniform compression c, is obtained from the formula

where,
m = the mass of the test blockplus mounted mechanical equipment,
f, = the resonant frequency (hertz), and
A, = the contact area of the test block with soil.

0 Ampl i tude

(a) First Mode (b) Second Mode

Figure 825: Plot of Amplitude vs Height
The ratio of the dynamic force to the static weight of the concrete block and oscillator
should be similar to that of the actual machine foundation.
The shear modulus G can be obtainedfrom the experimentally determined value of c,
using the following relations:
E = 2G(l+p) . . . (8.94)
and

Barkan's recommended values of the coefficient a in above equation are listed in Table
8.4 for various values of the aspect ratio U B of rectangular model block used in the test.
Table 8.4 :Barkan's Value of Factor a for Rectangular Footings (Barkan, 1%2)
The coefficient of elastic shear C, can be determined in a similar manner by arranging the Special T y p of F o o n ~ t i o n s
oscillator to vibrate in a horizontal direction. This induces coupled rocking and sliding
vibration. Three vibration transducers are located at different heights on the footing .
(Figure 8.26). Horizontal amplitude versus frequency curves plotted for each of thethree
transducers.show two peaks, which corresponds to the two resonant frequencies of the
coupled system (sliding and rocking).
To determine the mode of vibration, the resonant amplitude at either resonant frequency is
plotted against height of the location of the pick-up above the base of the block.

Figure 8.26: Decay Curve Under Forced Vibration is Plotted Against Height of the Location of the Pick-up
Above the Bacie of the Block

Damping factor O = e f
2fr
-

Frequency
Figure 8.27: Response Curve Under Forced Vibration
If the plot obtained corresponds to Figure 8.27, then the particular resonant frequency (f,,)
corresponds to the first (or fundamental) mode of the coupled motion. However, if it
corresponds to that shown in Figure 8.27, then the resonant frequency corresponds to the
second mode (f,).
The coefficient of elastic uniform shear C, is then obtained from

'where,
P = A,lm
a = MdM,,
Q = .3.46 (Ilm,,)
M, = Mass moment of inertia about a horizontal axis passing through the C.G. of
the block and perpendicular to the direction of vibration,
 -
Foundation Engineering I1 M,, = Mass moment of inertia about a horizontal axis passing through the centroid
of the contact area between the block and the soil and the normal to the
direction of vibration,
I = Second moment of area of the contact area about a horizontal axis passing
through the centroid of the areas and normal to the direction of vibration,
A, = Base area of the foundation, and
rn = Mass of the foundation block and machinery.

The positive sign shall be taken when fxis the second natural frequency (f,,) of the coupled
motion and negative sign when f, is the first natural frequency (f,,).
The soil constants C,, C, for use in actual machine foundation design are obtained from
the following relationships (IS: 5249 - 1969):
C, (Machine foundation) = Cc, ( A ~ A ) ' " . . . (8.97)
C (Machine foundation) = C, (Ab/A)ln . . . (8.98)
where,
A, = base area of the concrete block used in the test, and
A = base area of the actual machine foundation.
The effective damping available in the soil can be determined either from the shape of the
response curve or the decay in the vibration amplitude of a block subjected to free
vibrations. The damping ratio D is obtained from the decay curve of the free vibration test
(Figure 8.26) by using the following equation:.

1 A1
D = - log - ...
2 A,

where, A, and A, are the vibration amplitudes at successive peaks of the decay curve. It is
important to recognise that the damping ratio determined in the test comprises both
geometrical and material damping.
Figure 8.27 illustrates a typical graph of displacement versus frequency from forced

[a)
vibration test. f is defined as the width of this response curve at an amplitude equal to
times the maximum amplitude at the resonant frequency fr.The damping ratio D is
biven'by the following equation when a constant force oscillator is used.
1

- vi) Cyclic Plate Load Test

The equipment for a cyclic-plate load test is similar to that used in a static-plate load test.
After equipment has been set up and arranged, the cycles of loading, unloading, and
reloading are continued until the estimated ultimate load has been reached. The magnitude
of the load increment is such that the ultimate load is reached in five or six increments.
The elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to each intensity of loading can be obtained
from the data obtained during cyclic-plate load tests, as shown in Figure 8.28(a). The load
intensity versus the elastic rebound is plotted as shown in Figure 8.28(b). The values of
coefficient of elastic uniform compressing C, can be calculated from the following
equation:

c, = Uniform Compression @)
Elastic Settlement (Sd
...

This is the slope of the plot as shown in Figure 8.28(b).

 - Special Types of Foundations

Load intensity

Elastic rcbcund-SP
(a 1 (b)
Figure 8.28 :(a) Load intemities Vs Settlement in a Cyclic-plate-loadTest
(b) Load Intensity Vs Elastic Rebound from Cyclic Plate-Load Testr
vii) Standard Penetration Test
A correlation exists between (uncorrected) N values and shear wave velocity, V, (mls),
given by the following relationship:

Then

Prakash and Puri (1988) successfully applied the above relationship in predicting dynamic
soil properties at different depths.
Factors Affecting Dynamic Modulus
Based on the study of dynamic elastic constants, the factors on which these depend are:
1) Type of soil and its properties (e.g., water content and pd)and state of disturbance
level or confining stress.
ii) Initial (sustained) static stress level or c o n f i i g stress.
iii) Strain level.
iv) Time effects.
v) Degree of saturation.
vi) Frequency and number of cycles of dynamic load.
vii) Magnitude of dynamic stress.
viii) Dynamic prestrain.
i) Types of Soil, Properties and Initial Static Stress Level
Since the soil modulus is strain dependent, more than one method is needed to determine
the variation of modulus with strain.
On the basis of analysis of the various soil constants for the large amount of data collected,
the maximum value of the shear modulus, G, (at low shear strain of is expressed by
the following equation.
K (2.973 - e)2
G,, = 1230 OCR ( 00)0.5 ...
(1 + e)
which OCR is the overconsolidationratio, e the void ratio, and K a factor that depends
., the plasticity index of clays (Table 8.5) and 0,the mean effective confining stress in
psi, equals.
 0, = (CJl+o2+o3)/3
or
(3, = (0z+by+(3z)/3

Table 8.5 :Values of K

Plasticity Index PI K
0 0

20 0.18

60 0.30

80 0.41

100 0.50

If the shear modulus is determined at a mean confining pressure of (oo),,its value at any
other mean confining (oo), can be determined from Eq. (76).

Effective overburden pressure a, may be used in place of a, in Eq. (8.106).

iii) Straln Level
The other important factor affecting soil modulus is strain level. Figure 8.29 shows strain

MaQnibde of strain 16 . 16 10'

I L I I
Cracks, differential Sllde,compaction
Phenomena Wave propagation,vibmtion kttlement llqulfamtion

--
Mec hanlcal
Elastic Elaatic plastlc Failure
character~stics
Angle of inlorna 1
Constants Shear mOdulus, Poisson's ratio,&mping ratio frict iofyohrsion

Seism~cwave

-2 i ,.
met hod

.-
a in

--
vlbratitntet
--
a Re,matod
loading test L-
I

Wave p r o m t i o n
n test
cz
Resonant
columntest
f
Repeated
E ,locrdlng l e s t I
I

Figure 8.29: Strain Level Associated with Dierent In-SITU and Laboratory Test
levels associated with different phenomenon in the field and corresponding field and
laboratory tests. Typical variations of G versus shear strain amplitude for various in-situ
tests are shown in Figure 8.30 (Prakash and Puri, 1988). The soil modulus may vary by a
factor of 10, depending upon the strain level.
It is customary to plot a graph between normalized modulus (defined as G values at a
particular strain, divided by Gm,,at a strain of lo4) and shear strain (Figure 8.31).
 2
w
Spesial Types of Foundations
0 : Forced v~brahontest
A : Free vibration test
2m,- .
0 Cyclic plotc load test
1 0 . Shear modulus test

0L
lo
I 1 1 1 1
id
I I
1 o4
I , [ -
1 v w , , ,I@ 10'
S t r a i n amplitude

Figure 8.30: Dynamic Shear Modulus vs Shear Strain

1.2) I

I I I
-- I I
'10-6 10- 5 10-4 10-3 0 2 101
Oynam~cshear s t r n i n y
Figure 8.31 :Normalized Shear Modulus (G I C M ~ $vs Shear Strain
The shear strain induced in soil may not be precisely known. The shear strain induced in
soil depends on superimposed loads, the foundation contact area, and the soil
characteristics. The measured values of amplitudes, or settlement take care of the factors
affecting them. In vertical vibrations, the shear strain amplitudes, p9,is equal to the ratio
of the amplitude or settlement to width of the oscillating footing for all practical purposes,
but at low and high strains. For values of 0 and p, in the range of interest, it is reasonable
to assume and berefore, that p 0 = E (Prakash and Puri, 1988).
Time Effects
The effect of duration of confinement at constant presqure on the magnitude of shear
moduli is well established both in natural and prepared soils. The time dependent
behaviour at low strains are shown in Figure 8.32.

Duration of confinement (log scale 1

-
Figure 8.32 :Phase of Modulus time Response in Soils
1 Foundation Engineering - At the initial phase modulus changes rapidly with time but at the second phase, the
modulus increases almost linearly with the logarithm of time. The second phase effects
may be described by
1) Coefficient of shear modulus increase with time, I,
I, = 6 G/log,, (t2/tl)
in which t, and t2 are the time after primary consolidation and G is the change in
low-amplitude shear modulus f r h t , q d t2. Numerically, I, equals the value of G for one
logarithmic cycle of time.
2) Normalized shear modulus increases with time, NG

in which G,,, is the shear modulus measured after 1000 minutes of constant confining
pressure (after completion of the primary consolidation).
v) Frequency and Number of Cycles on Dynamic h a d
Hardin and Black (1969) found that for number of cycles between 1 and 100, the dynamic
shear modulus of dry sands increased slightly with number of cycles whereas for cohesive
soils the modulus decreased. Low strain shear modulus was found to be practically
unaffected by the frequency of loading.
vi) Dynamic Prestrain
The effect of strain history on the dynamic shear modulus on sands was investigated using
torsional-vibration-type resonant column equipment (Prakash and Puri, 1988). The soil
samples were first subjected to high-amplitude vibrations (dynamic prestrain) for a
predetermined number of cycles and then the low-amplitude-vibration modulus are
determined. The value of the dynamic shear modulus generally increased with the number
of prestrain cycles.
Selection of Design Parameters
The modulus of a given soil particularly varies with strain and the confining pressure. It is
therefore to make a plot o i G v,shear strain. G values are determined at a near effective
confining pressure corresponding to the depth of soil and at a shear strain that may be
induced in the'soil when the foundation is subjected to dynamic load. Prakash and Puri
(1988) used a mean confining pressure oO1 of 1 kg/cm2or (1000 k ~ l mto~ reduce
) the data
from different tests to a common confining pressure for compaction purpose only using
the following equations.

SAQ 1
i) What is meant by coefficient of restitution ?
ii) What is the difference between free and forced vibration ?
 Special Types of Foundations
8.4 FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS
Soils which undergo volume changes upon wetting and drying and exert swelling pressure
are termed expansive soils (swelling soils). Soils exhibiting this behaviour to a marked
degree are usually montmorrillonitic clays or combination of montmorillonite and illite
clays with high plasticity indices (Black cotton soils in India).
8.4.1 Identification of Swelling Soils
A distinction must be made between soils that have the capacity to swell and those
actually exhibit the swelling characteristics in the field.
The behaviour of soils exhibiting high swelling potential depends on
i) the physical condition of the material at the beginning of the construction,
and
ii) the changes in stress and moisture content to which they are subjected.
The swelling and swelling pressure characteristicsof expansive soils depends on the
following factors:
1) Type and amount of clay minerals present.
2) Specific surface area of the clay.
3) Structure of the soil.
4) Pore-water salt concentration.
5) Valence of exchangeable ions.
The swelling potential of a soil is related in a general way to the plasticity index
(Table 8.6).
Table 8.6 :Relation Between Swelling Potential of Soils and Plasticity Index
Swelling Potential Plasticity Index
Low 0-15

I Medium 1 10-35 I
High 1 20-55
I
Very high 55

Whether a soil with high swelling potential will actually exhibit swelling characteristics
depends on the following factors:
1) The difference between the field moisture content at the time the
construction is undertaken and the equilibrium moisture content that will
finally be achieved under the conditions associated with the completed
structure.
If the equilibrium moisture content is considerably greater than the field
moisture content, vigorous swelling may occur, as evidenced by upward
heaving of the soil or structure or by the development of large swelling
pressures. If the equilibrium moisture content is less than the field moisture
the soil will not swell but, on the contrary, shrink.
2) The degree of compaction of the soil if in a fill, or the degree of
overconsolidation if an undisturbed natural material. Relatively high
compaction or high previous overburden pressure favour swelling as
moisture becomes available.
3) The stress to which the material will be subjected after construction is
completed. The less the imposed load, the greater the swelling.
Swelling Tests
Swelling tests conducted under conditions duplicating as closely as possible the
anticipated field conditions also provide useful information.
When it is practicable to obtain virtually identical pairs of undisturbed samples at the
moisture content expected to prevail at the time construction is undertaken, the most
 -
Foundation Engineering I1 reliable estimates of heave due to swelling can be obtained by means of the double
oedometer test. The practical difficulties in obtaining identical samples for double
oedometer tests have led to the use of simpler tests giving results that can be interpreted
only in qualitative than quantitative fashion.
The following types of tests are commonly performed to identify the swelling soils:
i) Unrestrained swelling test, and
ii) Swelling-pressure test.
i) Unrestrained Swelling Test
A sample at the moisture content expected to prevail at the time of construction is fitted
tightly as possible into consolidation ring and subjected to a small vertical pressure such as
1 lb/in2 (6.9 k ~ / m ~The
) . porous disks placed above and below the sample must be air-dry
at the beginning of the test. Water is admitted then through the porous disks. The vertical
expansion of the sample is measured as a function of time until the expansion practically
ceases. The swell, in percentage, is determined as below:
Increase in thickness
Swell =
Original thickness
This is a measure of the rnax. percentage increase in volume that the material could be
expected to experience as a consequence of increase of moisture content. The degree of
expansion of soils can be classified based on the percentage of volume change (Table 8.7)
and the original thickness.
Table 8.7 :Percentage of Volume Change

The volume change Degree of expansion

< 1.5 % low swell

1.5-5 % medium

5-25% high .
> 25 % very high

ii) Swelling-Pressure Test

The swelling-pressure tcst is conducted with similar equipment, but the vertical expansion
of the sample upon access to water is prevented. The force required to prevent the
expansion is determined as a function of time. The swelling pressure ultimately
approached is a measure of the maximum force per unit area that can be exerted by the soil
under extreme swelIing conditions.
SweIling pressures below 20 k ~ / r regarded
n~ as low pressures and high
pressure > 2000 k ~ / mare ~occasionally encountered.
The two types of swelling tests give useful indications of extreme behaviour. In most
instances, however, swelling is partially restrained. Consequently, the magnitudes of swell
and swelling pressures are likely to be intermediate between those determined by the two
tests. If tests of either type indicate a high degree of swelling, a soil should be considered
suspect.
Unsatisfactory performance of structure associated with swelling. Distress to various
structures are illustrated in Figure 8.33.

Figure 8.33 :Distress to Structures in Expansion Soil Area

The soil-supported interior floor gradually rises, takes the shape of an irregular dome, and Special Types of Foundations
cracks. The swelling clay beneath the floor tends to expand and exert pressure laterally as
well as vertically. It therefore tilts the footing walls outward and leads to cracking of the
exterior walls of the structure, particularly at the comers. Damage is also often apparent at
the connection between the walls and the roofs or floors where the movement is restrained.
Because the accumulation of sufficient moisture of produce large displacement occurs
slowly, the detrimental effects may not be apparent immediately after construction but
only after several years.
Deeper foundations, intended to support the structure below the zone of seasonal variation
in moisture content, may themselves remain stable. However, if the grade beams
supporting the partitions or walls between the pairs are left in contact with the underlaying
soil, they are ultimately forced upward and crack.

8.4.2 Design Principles of Elimination/Reduction of Swelling

1) Complete or Partial Replacement of Expansive Soil
If the layer thickness is small, removal of expansive soil either completely or
partially and replacing it by a more stable material, can solve the problem. of
detrimental movement. However, this method is very expensive and in many cases
impracticable, because it involves disposal of a larger quantity of excavated soil.
2) Prewetting by Flooding the Construction Site and Prevention of Moisture
The ground can be prewetted to moisture content equal to the equilibrium value.
Depth of boring can be taken less than 0.5 m of design depth of wetting. Surface
marking can be done at the interval of 5 m; after 7-10 days the levelling should be
done. After wetting, upper part of the layer should be removed and replaced by
soil-bed with a thickness of 0.3 - 1.0 m. Then the design of foundation should be
done according to the characteristics of wetted soil and the moisture of wetted soil
is maintained.
This method is rarely effective because of long time required for penetration of the
moisture to any greater depth, and because of non-uniformity of the penetration
under field conditions and maintaining of moisture fuel.
3) Constructing the Swelling Pressures by Downward Pressures Beneath
Foundation
Downwards loads can be induced large enough to equal or exceed the swelling
pressure. If the entire area can be covered with a non-swelling material to a depth
L), such that yD, equals or approaches the swelling pressure, swelling can be
effectively prevented. Counteracting the swelling pressures by downward pressures
beneath foundation units is not readily accomplished, partly because of the
comparative unreliability of the methods of evaluating and predicting the swelling
pressures and partly due to fill height restraints.
4) Chemical Stabilization
Stabilization of expansive soils by the addition of lime may be remarkably effective
if the lime can be mixed thoroughly with the soil and compacted at about the
optimum moisture content. The appropriate percentage, which usually ranges from
about 2 to 6, is estimated on the basis of pH tests and checked by compacting,
curing and testing samples in the laboratory. The lime has the effect of reducing the
plasticity of the soil and, hence, its swelling potential. Clays of montmorillonitic
origin are highly unstable and plastic. Their instability is further increased if they
contain organic matter. The 'black cotton soils' existing over large areas of Central
India are examples of such clays. The properties of these clays can be successfully
improved by the admixture of hydrated lime or calcium hydoxide. Chemically,
hydrated lime replaces sodium Ca(OH),.
Cations : this converting an acid or alkaline clay into the more stable calcium clay.
It also replaces like acidic hydrogen in humid acid produced by organic matter
forming a neutral humus which is more stable.
The quantity of lime required depends mainly on plasticity index. As little by 112 96
hy weight has been used for soils of low P.I. However, normal requirement is 2 96
ro 0 [%I by dry weight. The lime stabilization can be accomplished in two ways.
 -
Foundation Engineering 11 Dry or as a Slurry : Better penetration is obtained when it is used as a slurry. After
a first mixing, the material is lightly compacted at or somewhat above the optimum
moisture content and then is allowed to cure for three or four days. After this, soil is
remixed and pulverised so that 100 % will pass a 4 cm sieve while 60 5% should
pass through I.S. Sieve 4.75 cm. After remixing and pulverization the material is
again compacted and allowed to cure for 7 days. During the curing period the '
surface should be kept wet by sprinkling.
5) Thermal Stabilization
A high temperature, in excess of 100°C (Table 8.8), drives off the absorbed
moisture on a clay, thereby increasing its strength. Temperatures of the order of 400
to 600°C irreversibly change certain clay minerals to less water sensitive minerals.
At about 900 - 1000°C, certain clays begin to fuse and in effect become bricks.
Table 8.9 :Temperature of Fusion < '

SI.No. Temperature OC Small Index, Cs

1) 105 0.11

2) 200 0.09
3) 500 0.06
4) 750 0.03

5) 1000 0.02

Thermal stabilization for improving partially saturated loessial soils are widely used
in the former U.S.S.R. The most advanced technique is the injection of a controlled
mixture of liquid fuel and air at a pressure of approximately 0.3 atm into the ground
through a network of pipes (at a typical spacing of 8 m). The fuel-air mixture is
fired for a period of 10 to 12 days and produces a cylinder of solidified soil at about
2.5 - 3 m in diameter. The maximum depth to which stabilization has been affected
is about 3.5 m.
8.4.3 Types of Foundations on Expansive Soils
Like other soils, expansive soils must fulfil two basic requirements of foundation design,
viz. bearing capacity and settlement. In the past the traditional type of foundation have
tried to meet these requirements with the following measures :
i) Footings with low safe bearing value of 50 to 75 k ~ / m ~ .
ii) Minimum depth of foundation as 2 m to 3 m.
iii) Cushioning layer of CNS (Figure 8.34).

!?.c.C.?lob 1.0, thick C.N.S.

Y
0.30m thick C.N.S.

L
l m , 72
1.0m thick \r.,..a. -
blanket
BED FILLING 2 m AND BELOW

.3m thick C.N.S.

3m thick sand blanket

C.N.R.
BED FILLING 2 m AND ABOVE

Figure 834(a) :Canal Section in Embankment with C.N.S.

 L lm thick C N S layer
Figore 8.34 (b) :Canal Sedion in Cutting with C.N.S.

i) What is meant by resonance ?

ii) Will sand exest swelling pressure ?
iii) Under what situations can use of well foundation is warranted ?
In the dry state, expansive soils are hard or stiff. However, wetting by rain water or due to
rise of water table, makes them very soft and undependable. The soils exhibit evidence of
overconsolidation and have numerous hair cracks or fissures. Undisturbed samples are
difficult to procure and extract, for laboratory evaluation of soil properties. These features
make the measured data extremely unreliable.
For saturated clays, Skempton's equation may be used for bearing capacity evaluation,
using a liberal factor of safety (not less than 3), with the cohesion parameter obtained from
laboratory testing.
Thus,
for D , / B 5 2.5 (8.1 12)

Footings on expansive soil show distress in the form of tilting or progressive sinking,
leading to structural cracks in various structural components. With high values of tolerable
settlement, safety against shear failure becomes the governing criterion in determining
allowable soil pressures. Building codes allow pressures of 150 k ~ l m for ~dry soils (less
than 50% saturation) and 50 to 100 kN/m2 for wet soils. Some building codes have
recommended bearing values as small as 25 kNlm2.
Design Principles
The following principles are used for safe design of foundation on soils.
1) Use of Low Values of Allowable Soil Pressures
This will prevent failure in case the soil is subsequently saturated.
2) Prevention of Wetting of Foundations
This is done by providing an impervious blanket of concrete or asphalt, concrete
curtain or interceptor and surface drains.
3) Maintaining Water Content Level of Foundation Soil
This keeps the volume changes to a minimum. This is achieved by stabilizations
with bitumen or resin or by prevention of surface evaporation through vegetation,
or water proofing with asphalt.
4) Anchoring of Foundation at Depth of Little Volume Change
In black cotton soils, volume changes below about 2 m depth are negligible. Hence,
foundation is established at depths greater than 2 m and anchors to prevent lifting,
by forming a spread.
5) Crack Preventive Design
Cracks due to differential movement may be minimized either by making the
structure rigid enough to resist large bending moments or differential movement.
Counteracting Swelling Pressures
Swelling pressures are counteracted if loading intensity exceeds the swelling
pressures. This is possible for multistoreyed buildings. ?he heavy loads must,
 -
Foundation Engineering 11 however, match the low bearing capacity of the saturated soil. The allowable soil
pressure should exceed b e swelling pressure, but in no case it should be more than
safe bearing capacity in the saturated state.
Construction Techniques in Expahsive Soils
Traditionally, the following techniques have been adopted in construction practice to solve
the problems in expansive soils.
1) Complete or Partial Replacement of Expansive Soil
If the layer thickness is small, removal of expansive soil either completely or
partially and replacing it by a more stable material, can solve the problems of
detrimental movement. However, this method is very expansive and in many cascs
impracticable, because it involves disposal of a large quantity of excavated soil.
2) Location of Foundation below the Depth of no Volume Change
This solves the problems of severe movement. But it involves costly excavation and
additional cost on account of masonry and concrete. Besides, problems of
movement of concrete ground floors remain unresolved.
3) Aprons, Blankets and Drainage Meausures
Prevention of wetting by prevision of aprons and blankets and draining by surface
and subsurface drains, keeps the soil beneath the structure at more or less constant
moisture content, thus minimizing volume changes.
4) Stiffening of Structural Components
Provision of R.C.C. bands at various levels, reinforced brickwork, or R.C.C.
framework ensures crack proof design.
5) Rigid Design
Provision of R.C.C. framework,both for foundation and superstructure in the form
of raft, grade beams or column-beam-slabsystem increases the structural resistance
to cracking.
6) Flexible Design
Use of lime mortar or mud mortar for walls makes the structure flexible and pennits
large movements without damage. Brick construction can tolerate much higher
differential settlement compared to concrete members.
Use of Stabilized Backfill
Use of lime (6 %) or cement (5 %) or a mixture of lime and cement to stabilize expansive
soils has been successfully made. Such stabilized mixtures can be used as back-fills or
filling for flooring and as cushioning layer for foundations. Lime can be injected under
pressure as a slurry of slaked lime or can be introduced in bore holes in the form of quick
lime, for an in-situ application. Recent researches have shown that a thin layer of 0.3 to 1
m of cohesive-non-swelling (CNS) soil controls the expansion and shrinkage of expansive
soils (Figure 8.35).

R C C Column

SECTIONAL V I E W

Figure 8.35 :C o n s t ~ d o n
of Single Storey Buildmg in Expamive Soid Area using Cohesive
Non-swelling Soil (CNS) Layer of 1 m Thickness in Foundation System
 ., ?*
8.4.4 Design and Construction of Under-reamed Piles Special Types of Foundations

A broad-in-situ pile shaft provided with one or more spreads or bulbs, along its length
made during the boring operation, is known as an under-reamed pile. Under-reamed is a
device used to make the spread at the desired depth. In expansive soils, such piles are one
of the satisfactory solutions to make crack-free constructions for light structures. They
cnsure safety and economy. In expansive soils it is necessary to rest the foundation below
rhe Lone 01' no-volume-change. Traditional footings become costly due to deep excavation,
masonry m d concrete construction and backfilling. With a bulb, established below depth
of nnn-volu~ricchange, the foundation is anchored to prevent vertical movement.
Increased bearing area ensured large bearing load. Load tests have shown that even for a
group of underreamed piles, the settlement is less than 25 mrn even under very heavy
loads.
The contribution to the pile load comes both from the bearing on the area of the bulb and
from the shaft resistance aIong the length between the extreme bulbs.
Under-reamed piles are employed to support waIl and column foundations at suitable
spacing (1.5 m to 2.5 m depending on shaft diameter) with one at the junction. The piles
are topped by R.C.C. cap beams or footings and may need lateral bracings at the plinth
level. Beams should rest with a gap of 75 mm over ground level in expansive soils, while
they may rest on the ground surface or may be cast in trenches in non-cohesive soils. The
! length of piles ranges from 3 to 4 m but the length may be increased for higher loads.
EQuipment, commonly available permits the use of 250 mm to 450 mm dia piles, reaching
upto 4 m with double under reams. 7he first bulb should not be located too close to the
ground [minimum should be (1 $5to 2) D,] (Figure 8.36). Minimum spacing of piles
should be 2 D, (reduced to 1.5 D,, with load decreased by 10 %).

C w
kjgure 8.36 :Typical Details of Bored Cast in Situ Under-reamed Pile Foundation I

This type of pile is particularly useful in swelling soils like expansive soils. More than 3
bulbs are not found to increase the bearing capacity appreciably.
Most of the traditional methods of design of foundation systems for expansive soils have
been found to be either unsatisfactory or too costly. The present trend is to provide short
bored piles or under-reamed pile foundations, or use of CNS layer. CNS means cohesive
I
non-swelling soil, either natural or stabilized. CNS soil can be used as a back-fill, as a
cushioning layer or as filling for flooring.
1) Floor Design
I A satisfactory design of foundation leaves the design of floor untouched. The
t swelling o f expansive soil below the floor causes the concrete flooring to crack
Foundation Engineering - 11 Excessive heaving may even interfere in the nonnal use of the floor. The following
measures may be employed.
a) Partial or complete removal and replacement of underlying expansive soil.
Gravel, sand, murum or stabilized soil may be used as replacement material.
b) Suspended R.C.C. flooring on R.C.C. grade-beam system. This becomes
very expansive.
c) Partially reinforced flooring also supported on underlying soil. Design
assumes 50 O/n taken by the soil. The slab should be so constructed as to have
free vertical movement.
d) R.C.C. raft, as inverted thick slab or ribbed mat.
e) Preconstruction wetting of underlying soil and murum or sand filling
between plinth and ground level. ?his rninimises swelling in wet season, but
shrinking during dry spells may be detrimental. Excessive wetting may
soften the foundation soils.
The safe loads on single and double under-reamed piles for sands and clays are shown in
Table 8.10.
Table 8.10 :Safe Loads on 3.5 m Under-reamed Piles Sands and Clays

Bearing Resistance (kN)

Pile Diameter
Single Double Increase per Decrease per m
Under-reamed Under-reamed m Length Length
I

* The bearing loads are based on pile load test, for S = 12.5 mm.

** The pile length should be increased to 4.5 mm.

Notes :
1. Capacity of a group of piles equals capacity of a single pile times the number in the group
2. Safe load should be reduced to 75 % if bore hole is filled with water during concreting and increased by
25 %for dense sands and stiff clays.
3. Safe load should be increased for additional bulbs by the difference between double and single
under-reamed safe loads.
4. When used as single or two pile supports, the lateral bracing is necessary.

In the absence of any test data, the value of cohesion may be taken as c = 80 kN/m2.
The tabulated values of safe loads are empirical and apply to medium sands and clays. For
dense sands and stiff clays the safe loads may be increased by 25 %. The table loads are
generally on the conservative side. An overload of 10 % may be allowed if falls short of
the required load. If the pile bears on a hard layer (murum or rock) the safe load will be
governed by the properties of bearing layer. Pile load test is essential. For details refer
IS : 291 1 (Part - 111).
a) Components
i) Pile Shaft
This is a short pile with one, two or three reams or bulbs. Addition of a bulb
increase the bearing load by about 50 %. However, more than 3 bulbs may
not increase the pile load in the same proportion. The pile shaft is 200 mm to
500 mm in diameter and the under-ream is two to three times the diameter of
shaft. Patented equipment are available for boring, under-reaming and
concreting. The bulbs are spaced at 1.5 to 2 times the dia. of under-ream, the
 centre of the first under-ream being at a minimum depth of 1.75 m. Spacing Special Types of Foundations
of pile should not exceed 3 m, with a minimum of two under-ream diameters
(Figure 8.36).
ii) Capping Beams or Pile Caps -
Piles may be used either to carry strip loads or column loads. Capping beams
are used to transfer the strip loads to the piles and footing caps are used
under columns.
In deep deposits the length of the under-reamed piles may exceed 3.5 m. In
shallow deposits, it is carried down into noncohesive layer to a depth of at
least 0.6 m. The boring in hard layer, should go as far as possible. The
spacing of piles may vary from 1.5 m to 3 m. The bulbs are spaced at 1.5
times the bulb diameter and the first bulb not less than 1.75 m below the g.s.
iii) Reinforcement
The pile reinforcement consists of a vertical cage of 4 or 6 bars of 10 to 16
mm dia. with 6 mm stirmps. The steel reinforcement does not exceed 0.8 %.
Longitudinal bars should be provided for full length of the pile. The cage is
to be inserted in the finished bore hole before concreting.
b) Pile Construction
i) Boring
Boring is usually done by manual earthquake, handled by a tripod hoist and
winch. Three men can easily advance 3.5 m of a hole of diameter up to 300
mm in about 6 hrs in normal conditions.
The verticality of the hole is ensured by a guide frame. If the soil is dry and
stiff, it is loosened by a cutting tool and removed with the auger. Casing pipe
may be used in loose top soil. Extension rods are available for deep boring.
Obstructions to boring are broken down with a cutting tool. In case the
obstructions cannot be handled, pile location needs to be shifted. For boring
in non-cohesive soils drilling mud is used to keep the sides stable. It consists
of bentonite clay mixed with water to form a slurry (5 % mix). A bag of 50
kg will be sufficient for two 3.5 m long piles. A major problem is to form a
bulb in under-water condition.
ii) Under-reaming t

After reaching the desired depth, the bore is enlarged with a special
under-reaming tool. It consists of two collapsible cross-blades with a bucket
at the bottom to collect the scraped soil. The under-reamer is lowered in the
bored hole and rotated with progressively increasing diameter. The scraped
soil callected in the bucket is lifted up and disposed off from time to time.
The depth of bore hole should be checked before inserting the under-reamer,
otherwise the position and size of the bulb will change. Correct
under-reaming is an important requirement. The spread should be checked
before concreting. If anchoring is not required (as for piles in non-expansive
soils) only bottom spread may provide the required bearing capacity.
iii) Concreting
Piles should be concreted soon after boring, under the supervision of a
qualified person. Prefabricated reinforcement cage is inserted in the hole and
concrete M - 15 of suitable workability (slump 100 to 150 mm), is poured
down through a chute funnel. For under-water construction, concrete of
higher slump should be placed by displacement method using tremie pipe
and drilling mud (Figure 8.50). For tremie concreting 10 % extra cement
should be used. Prodding is normally sufficient to compact the tremie
concrete. A suitable mould is used for concreting the position above ground
level. Tremie can also be used for dry placement if segregation of aggregates
is to be avoided.
Group Action
For a group of N, under-reamed piles the safe load is obtained as N times the safe load of a
single pile. Settlement of a group of piles under the same unit load, is somewhat greater
 -
Foundation Engineering 11 than that of an individual pile. Consolidation settlement may be determined considering
rigid raft at the lower most bulb level, as for, bearing piles.
Applications of Under-reamed Piles
It has been established that under-reamed piles combine safety, economy and speed for
construction, especially in expansive soils. These piles are finding wide usage for a variety
of structures, transmission line towers, TV towers, overhead tanks, machine foundations
etc., both in expansive clays as well as in loose to medium non-expansive soils. In India,
where manual labour is cheap, use of manually operated boring and concreting makes
under-reamed piles up to 40 mm diameter particularly suitable in foundation engineering.
Following are some of the structures for which under-reamed pile foundations can be used:
1) Residential buildings,
2) Industrial sheds, workshops, godowns, '

3) Machine foundations,
4) Retaining walls, boundary walls, fences,
5) Anchors, reaction frames,
6) Transmission line towers and pole footings,
7) Water tanks, silos and bins, cooling towers, and
8) Bench marks, international boundary posts.
The pile should generally satisfy the requirement in the I.S. 291 1 (Part 111). One pile out of
20 should be load tested. The test load is applied through a hydraulic jack, in increments
equal to one-fifth of the design load, reacting against a knowledge or anchor piles. The
routine test is terminated at 1.5 times the design load or at the load showing a total
settlement of 12.5 mm, whichever is smaller. Sometimes a group of piles may also be
required to be tested.
Limitations of Under-reamed Piles
Under-reamed piles in expansive soils is one of the widely used solutions, but it cannot bc
considered the best. Failures of structures supported on under-reamed piles have also been
reported. As such, it cannot be treated as a 'fool proof' method, in black cotton soils.

SAQ 2
i) What is meant by resonance ?
ii) Will sand exest swelling pressure ?
iii) Under .what situations can use of well foundation is warranted ?

8.5 WELL FOUNDATIONS

Well foundations are also lcnownas caissons, have been in use for foundations of bridges
and other important structures since many decades.
Well foundations have been used for most of the major bridges in India. Materials
commonly used for construction are reinforced concrete, brick or stone masonry. Use of
well or caisson foundations is equally popular in United States of America and other
western countries.

8.5.1 Elements of Well Foundations

Well Foundations are classified into three types depending upon the method of construction
a) Open Well Foundations
The top and bottom are open during construction. The well foundation is sunk in place as
soil is removed by grab buckets through water. Upon reaching its final position, a concrete
 seal, usually 1.5 rn to 5 m thick, is deposited through water. After the concrete is matured, Special Types of Foundations
the well foundation is pumped dry and filled with concrete (Figure 8.37 (a)).

Dredging wells sealed at bottom

after completion of sinking

Figure 8.37 (a) :Open Well Foundation

Consideration in Planning
1) Feasibility of extending to great depths.
2) Relatively low construction cost.
3) Soil directly under the hatched portion near the cutting edges may require
hand excavation by diver.
4) Construction is slowed down if obstruction of boujders or logs is
encountered.
b) Pneumatic Well Foundations
The top of a pneumatic well foundation is closed, and compressed air is used to deep water
from entering the working chamber, thus, excavation and concrete are done in the dry. The
well foundation is sunk as excavation proceeds. Upon reaching its final depth, the working
chamber is filled with concrete (Figure 8.37 (b))

,Air locks
Air shafts
\ rlb

Figure 8.37 (b) :Pneumatic Well Foundation

Advantages
p Advantages of Pneumatic Well Foundations are:
1) All work is done in the dry therefore, control over the work and foundation
preparation are better.
2) Plumbness of the well foundation is easier to control as compared with the
open well foundations.
3) Concrete placed in the dry obtains good and reliable quality.
4) Obstruction from boulders or logs can be readily removed. Excavation by
blasting may be done if necessary.
Disadvantages
1) The construction cost is high due to the use of compressed air.
Foundation Engineering - I1 2) The depth of penetration below waler is limited to about 35 m. Higher
pressures are beyond the endurance of the human body.
c) Box Type Well Foundations (Floating Well Foundations)
The bottom of the box type well foundation is closed. This type of well foundation is cast
on land. After the concrete is matured, it is launched in water and towed to the site. It is
sunk in position by filling the inside with sand, gravel, concrete, or water. Sometimes the
well foundations are provided with false bottoms (temporary bases made of timber) for
floating to the site (Figure 8.37 (c)).

Dredged b ~ d

Figwe 837 (c) :Floating Well Foundation

Advantages
Advantages of Box Well Foundations are:
1) The construction cost is low.
2) It is used where construction of well foundations at the site is costly or
unfeasible.
Disadvantages
1) The ground must be level or excavated to a level surface.
2) This type is feasible if the stratum suitable for supporting the well foundation
is near the ground surface. Deep excavation is costly because the saturated
soil tends to flow into the excavation.
3) Provisions must be made to protect against undermining by scour.
4) The bearing stratum is often not very compact.
Well foundations may be constructed with any structural material: steel, reinforced
concrete, or timber. However, timber well foundations are used less frequently than
before.
Reinforced concrete well foundations utilize concrete to provide the structural strength as
well as the weigth for sinking. They are often more economical than the steel well
foundations. However, concrete well foundations must be poured in sections (lifts), and
the sinking operation must be interrupted while pouring each lift and while waiting for the
concrete to mature. Everytime the sinking is started from a stationary position, additional
effort is required to overcome the static friction. Furthermore, the cyclic operation of stops
and starts takes a long time to sink the well foundations.
Steel well foundations are made of steel skin plate, internal structural steel framing, and
concrete ballast or fill. The concrete fill is used only to fill up the space in the steel well
foundations for the purpose of providing the necessary weight for sinking. As opposed to
the concrete well foundation, the steel well foundation requires no form work and the
sinking operation is continuous. Therefore, the construction time and the sinkhg effort are
kept to the minimum. In locations where the water is deep, a large portion of the steel well
foundation can be floated to site.
8.5.2 Design Procedure for a Well Foundation
Determination of the cross-section and the depth constitute the main considerations in the
design of well foundations. The cross-section is generally determined based on relatively
simple considerations such as the size of piers and the width of the bridge, in the case of Special Types of Foundations
bridges across rivers; on the basis of the superstructure dimensions in the case of office
buildings and the overall dimensions in the case of a dry dock.
Determination of the depth of well foundation depends on the loads, the subsoil conditions
and, in the case of bridges across rivers, on the basis of depth of scour, in addition to the
loading and s ~ s o iconditions.
l

8.5.3 Design of Depth of Well Foundations

For bridges across rivers, the following aspects are to be first evaluated.
i) Normal scour depth,
ii) Local scour depth, and
iii) Grip length.
Normal scour depth is the depth upto which scour will take place in a river bed depth
floods (without the presence of obstructions such as bridge piers). Local scour depth is the
depth to the bottom of scour hole around an obstruction such as a well foundation. Grip
length is the depth of well foundation beyond the local scour level.
Considerable research and in-situ measurements were made and there are several factors
which influence the depth of local scour. The normal scour depth and the local scour depth
are expressed with reference to the highest flood level. The normal scour depth is
generally worked out using Lacey's equation. The local scour depth is generally assumed
to be twice the normal scour depth (both being measured below the highest flood level) in
the design of railway and highway bridges.
The grip length required below the maximum local scour level depends on the loads to
which the bridge structure is subjected to and the subsoil conditions below the local scour
level. The minimum grip length considered for railway bridges is half the local scour
depth below the highest flood level. The common practice for road bridges is to consider a
minimum grip length of 30 O/o of the maximum scour depth.

8.5.4 Bearing Capacity and Settement Considerations

For Well Foundations resting on Rock, allowable Bearing Values can be worked out using
Guidelines given in IS 12070-1987: "Code of Practice for Design and Construction of
Shallow Foundations on Rocks" and also from IRC:78 - 1983, which also suggests the use
of relevant Indian Standards, namely, IS 2950 (PART I) - 1981: "Code of Practice for
Design and Construction of Raft Foundations" and IS 8009 (1980): "Code of Practice for
Calculation of Settlements of Foundations", Part - I Shallow Foundations; Part - 2 Deep
Foundations. IRC:78 - 1983 also gives recommendations for factors of safety to be
allowed on the ultimate bearing capacity for arriving at the safe bearing capacity, in clause
706.2%. It also gives factors of safety from considerations of stability in clause 706.2.2.
8.5.5 Loading Conditions
Any well foundation must be designed to resist two types of loads which act at different
times on the well foundation, namely :
1) Permanent Loads
Permanent loads are the maximum vertical and lateral forces acting on the water well after
it is constructed and sunk in place.
a) Vertical load includes the load from superstructure plus the weight of well
foundation minus buoyancy force. The latter should be determined at low
water level. The total vertical load is assumed to be carried to the bottom of
the well foundation if it penetrates a relatively shallow depth of soil.
Actually a part of the vertical load is transmitted to the surrounding soil by
skin friction along the surface of the well foundation embedded in soil. For
deep well foundations, the design is usually made by assuming one-half of
the skin friction is effective in supporting the vertical load. This skin friction
should be computed for the most critical conditions when the soil is removed
to the maximum depth of scour and when the water is at such a level as to
produce the maximum net vertical pressure at the bottom of the well
foundation.
Foundation Engineering - 11 b) Lateral loads include the forces due to wind pressure on the structure above
water or ground surface and on the traffic over the bridge, the tractive force
from traffic, ice pressure, and pressure due to current flow. In earthquake
zones, the wind pressure should be replaced by the earthquake force.
c) Lateral forces also include earth and water pressure. The earth pressure is
generally taken at the active value. The combined earth and,water pressure
should be determined for the condition producing the maximum lateral
pressure. Under this lateral pressure, the flexural stresses in the well
foundation walls may be determined by the method of moment distribution.
2) Temporary Loads
A well foundation is likely to be subjected to large stresses during the construction period.
Generally, it is considered desirable to provide the well foundation with an ultimate
strength to withstand any of the following contingencies.
a) The well foundation is hung up near the top by skin friction. The lower
portion of well foundation is then subjected to tension. Sufficient strength
should be provided in the well foundation to carry the weight of the lower
portion.
b) The well foundation is supported on one side only or on two opposite comers
only.
C) The well foundation is subjected to unbalanced earth pressure. Under this
condition the well foundation may be analyzed as a vertical beam or a
cantilever.
d) The well foundation is pulled to its correct position. Large racking force and
earth pressure would be introduced by pulling.
e) The well foundation is dropped suddenly during sinking.
8.5.6 Lateral Stability of Wall
IRC : 45 - 1972 gives recommendations for estimating the resistance of soil below the
maximum scour level against lateral forces.
The distribution of lateral earth pressure around a well foundation at worlung loads is
given in Figure 8.38.
I W~

Figure 8.38
8.5.7 Constructional Aspects of Well Foundations Special Types of Foundations
There are several aspects which require careful consideration during sinkiig of well
foundations. They are
i) preparations for constructions in dry river bed,
ii) sand island method for small water depths,
iii) well foundation-type construction for large water depths,
iv) tilting of wells during sinking, and
v) seating of wells in rock.
Construction of a well foundation is a large engineering operation which requires heavy
equipment. In each well foundation construction, a variety of usual and unusual problems
will be encountered which taps the ingenuity of the construction engineer. The general
procedure of well foundation construction is discussed before a brief description of some
of the usual problems and difficulties.
a) General Construction Procedure
Well foundations may be constructed in slipways on barges, or on sand islands. The ones
constructed in slipways are launched and towed to their final location by floating. False
bottoms made of wood are necessary for open or pneumatic well foundations floated to
position. Guide piles are commonly used for sinking the first few lifts of well foundations.
Well foundations are sunk by their own weight while the soil is being excavated from the
dredging wells. As sinking operation progresses, additional sections (lifts) are successively
installed. Upon reaching its final depth, the bottom of the well foundation is plugged by a
concrete seal. In open well foundations, this plug is placed in water. The procedure of
placing concrete in pneumatic well foundations is discussed in Sec. 8.5.1.
When hard, cemented material is encountered, underwater blasting may be necessary. The
charges of explosives are placed by divers. Divers may also be required to remove
boulders, logs, or other obstructions.
The excavation of soil in open well foundations is done by dredging with grab buckets or
similar equipment. The volume of excavated soil always exceeds the volume of the
embedded portion of the well foundation, because the soil outside the cutting edge tends to
flow into the excavation. In granular soils, the excess may be 100 per cent of the volume
displaced. Grab buckets do not reach the area near and below the cutting edge; therefore,
divers may be required to remove the soil under the cutting edge by hand if the soil does
not flow into the excavation.
The sinking operation for concrete well foundations must be stopped during the time of
casting and curing.
After the concrete seal is matured, the water in the wells is pumped out (open well
foundations) or the air pressure is released and the equipment removed (pneumatic well
foundations). The top of the concrete seal should be cleaned and made free of laitance or
soils before placing concrete above it. A progress report should be kept to include the
location, the elevation of the cutting edge, the amount of tilting or misalignment, and all
other unusual events occurring during the construction period.
b) Jetting and Lubrication
To facilitate the sinking, the exterior surface of well foundation is sometimes applied with
a film of grease, andor the jetting is used. Jet pipes 1.5 inch to 2 inch. diameter with
nozzles are cast in the concrete, usually one series of jet pipes is provided on the sloping
surface immediately above the cutting edge, and one or two series on the periphery of the
well foundation at several feet above the bottom of the cutting edge. All jets are arranged
symmetrically to induce straight sinking. Since fixed jet pipes can readily become
plugged, movable jets have been found more efficient. Eight inch diameter wells may be
cast in the concrete for inserting movable jet pipes for inside jetting.
c) Tilting
Well foundations are never sunk perfectly straight and true to position. A certain amount
of deviation from the planned location should be permitted. For a deep well foundation,
the actual centre may be 12 inch from the required location. It is important to keep the well
 -
FouadotionEngineering 11 foundation in the vertical position during the entire process of sinking. As soon as it is 2
inch or 3 inch off centre, corrective measures should be taken:
1) Excavating the high side ahead of the low side, but not stopping excavation
on the low side,
2) Dredging on the outside of the high side,
3) Jetting on the outside and inside of the high side,
4) Pulling the well foundation, attached cables to a deadman or dolphin and
apply tension as the sinking proceeds, and
5) Blocking under the cutting edge on the low side, this can be done readily in
pneumatic well foundations.
It should be noted that it is impossible to plumb a well foundation without lowering it as a
whole.
d) Placing Concrete Underwater
Concreting underwater should be carefully conducted to prevent honeycomb structure, and
segregation between aggregates and cement paste. Underwater concrete is usually placed
by the following methods.
1) Tremie Pipes
A tremie is a watertight pipe with a diameter of 6 to 10 inch. The pipes are made in
detachable lengths about 6 ft. long. It extends from above the water level to slightly below
the surface of the fresh concrete on the well foundation bottom. The concrete is fed into
the pipe by a hopper. A full column of fresh concrete is maintained in the pipe as the
concrete is flowing out from the bottom. Sometimes a valve is equipped at the lower end
of the tremie. In the absence of a valve, the lower end is plugged with cloth or burlap
sacks. When the pipe is lowered into position and concrete fills the pipe, the plug is forced
out by the weight of the concrete.
2) Buckets
A bucket is a large pipe with a bottomdump door or doors. It is filled with concrete which
is covered with a canvas or a lid and is lowered into the well foundation. Upon reaching
the bottom, the door opens and the concrete flows out.
3) Grouted Aggregates . .
Coarse aggregate is first placed m the space where concrete are desired. Cement grout is
then pumped into the voids through pipes extending to the bottom of well foundation. The
well foundations for the Mackinac Bridge Piers are concreted by this method.

8.6 SUMMARY
Soil Moduli under dynamic loads depends on soil characteristics, such as void ratio,
relative density, stress history, preconsolidation pressure, confining pressure, and strain
level. There is no universal and unique relationship between soil moduli and strain.
However, a normalized plot of moduli versus strain is an adequate guide for deciphering
values from one site to another in similar type of soil conditions.
A wide variety of laboratory tests and field tests can be used to define the dynamc
properties of soils. All of the testing methods are brought with possible errors and a great
deal of care is necessary to obtain reliable results. Results from several methods of testing
should be compared to obtain the best estimates of the soil properties. None of the tests
discussed are simple and inexpensive so that for less important projects reliance may have
to be placed on empirical correlations and these could be supplemented with down-hole
wave propagation tests or possible cyclic plate load tests or resonant footiong tests on
more important projects.
In this Unit we understood the need for providing special type of foundations such as
foundations to support vibrating machinery, foundations to effectively encounter
expansive soils and the foundations to be built on river beds to suppcrtthighway and
railway bridges. In all the above mentioned cases you have appreeiaredhow the twding,
conditions are different from those imposed on ordinw fOumhtbns under nwmal
circumstances. Now you have understood how machine foundations should be adequate to
support the dynamic loads coming from vibrating machinery at various operating Special ~ y p e d
s FO~E&&(H~S
trequencies. Similarly the foundations on expansive soils should adequately resist swelling
pressures. You have also understood how the well foundations for bridges across rivers
should take into considerations the depth of scour in river beds experiencing floods. Also
the concept of grip length in the design of well foundations is something which yu did not
encounter in the design of ordinary foundations which you studied in the previous units.
This belng an advanced topic in the area of foundation engineering, you are not expected
to solve numerical problems and design exercises. That is way SAQs and answer to SAQs
have not been included in this unit. However you should be able to understand typical
solutions pertaining to analysis and design of any of these special type of foundations,
described in advanced level text books listed at the end of this unit.
If you feel like reading more than what we have given in our course, you may consult the
following techinical papers and books.

8.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

For Answers to all SAQs, refer the preceeding text.
 -
Foundation Engineering I1
FURTHER READING
1) Barkan, D.D. (1962), "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations", McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 434 p.
2) Bowles, J.E. (1988) "Foundation Analysis and Design", International Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore, 1004 p.
3) IS: 291 1 (Part 111) - 1980, "Code of Practice for Design and Construction of P i b
Foundation: Part 111 - Underreamed Pile Foundations", Indian Standards publication
of Bureau of Indian Standards.
4) Moore, P.J. (1985), "Analysis and Design of Foundations for Vibrations", published
by A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 512p.
5) Murthy, V.N.S. (1988), "Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering", Dhanpet Raj
and Sons, Delhi, 763 p.
6) Prakash, S. and Puri, V.K. (1988) "Foundationsfor Machines: Analysis and Destgn",
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 657 p.
7) Tornlinson, M.J. (1980), "Foundation Design and Construction", ELBS edition,
Pitman Books Limited, London, 793 p.
8) 'Foundation Analysis and Design', Joseph E. Bowles, McGraw Hill.
9) 'Foundation Design and Construction ', M.J.Tomlinson, Pitman.
10) 'Foundation Design', Teng, Prentice Hall Inc.
11) 'Construction and Geotechnical Methods in Foundation Engineering', P. Koerner,
McGraw Hill.
12) 'Methods of Foundation Engineering' (1979), Zdenek Bazant, Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Co.
13) 'Foundation Engineering for Difficult Subsoil Conditions' (1973), Leonardo Zeevaea,
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
14) 'Residential Foundations (1979) Design, Behaviour and Repair', R.W. Brown, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co.
15) National Building Code of India.
16) 'Foundations', A.L. Little, Edward Arnold.
17) Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A.S.R., (1991), Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, Wiley
Eastern Ltd.
18) Mohan, D (1988), Pile Foundations, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
19) Venkatramaiah, C. (1993), Geotechnical Engineering, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
20) Bowles, J.E 9(1982) Foundation Design and Analysis, McGraw Hill Book Company