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Animal Behaviour
BYMIZANUR RAHMAN BHUIYAN· PUBLISHED JANUARY 6, 2014 · UPDATED FEBRUARY 11, 2014
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Tiger

Introduction to Animal Behaviour

Behaviour is a fundamental characteristic of animals, who survive and adapt to their

surroundings only by the dint of it through their interactive expressions for their basic
requirements and competetions. As blessed with locomotive power, the
animals use their behavioural power for various purposes of their life, like –
procuring food, selecting mates and mating with them for their descendants. So,
behavioural changes in animals has been a way of their life since their origin and
adaptive radiation. It is obvious, some of those changes are common to all for
their survival and adaptation, but there are many which are very specific and vary
animal to aninal. The study of animal behaviour has been so important to us at present
that we can not think of an animal without studying its behaviour. Even the human race
itself is not out of it, from the cave-man to the modern one, whom we can study properly
through their behaviour. It becomes clear from the vivid Cave-arts engraved 4000 years
ago that, humans alway wanted to convey some message to their descendents in any of
their behavioural patterns. The termEthology(ethos=character, habit,
custom;logia=the study) has recently been coined, that pertains to a modern science
dealing with animal behaviour. It was first coined by St. Hilaire in the last part of 18th
century, ment as a science of habits and characteristics of animals, either instinct or
acquired and their lerning capabilities or behavioural patterns; which vary time to
time at different situations. So, Ethology has been defined as the study of behaviour
within a zoological context and includes, Ecology, Genetics, Physiology and Psychology

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as well. We are indebted to Karl von Frish, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen for
developing such a section of Zoology in the very recent times, for which they were
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1973 in the field of Physiology and Medicine.

Definition of Ethology

1. The biological study of behaviour, a formation that mentions both observable

phenomenon and methods of study.
2. A scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, especially under natural
conditions.

What is Behaviour

By the term Behaviour, we mean the expressions of animal life for different aspects,
like how it responds to its external (overt) and internal (covert) stimuli, how it learns
to respond to those, how it procures its food, how it builds its house or nest, how it
ensures its security, how it responds to its sexual attitude and convinces others to
respond to it, and after all, how it defends its competents for food, shelter and
sexuality.

Definition of Behaviour

1. Behaviour may be defined as the outwards expressed course of action produced

in organism in response to stimuli from a situation.
2. Behaviour is the movements, that animals make – Niko Tinbergen
3. According to Aubrey Manning(1979), Behaviour includes all those processes by
which an animal senses the external world and the internal state of its body, and
responses to changes which it perceives.

In a word, all the activities done (seen or unseen) by an animal is its behavour which
can be physical or psychological or psycho-physical and is either exposing or
learning.

The Nature of Behaviour

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The Macaque monkeys of the Pacific Islands of Koshima of Japan, alike humans,
washes the sweet potato with water before eating. This habit was not found in
them earlier, but once a mother monkey learnt it from a human child while doing it.
Gradually, the total population acquired this behaviour which they still exhibit. The
Rainbow Lorikeet females comb the eye-plumages of males with their beautiful
beaks, the Starlings (Mynas) clean their nest with neat skills, the Mongooses capture
and dominate over their preys (Snakes) with much speed and clevery, and the
Cheetahs approach their prey with extreem cover, care and silence – all those
are their behavioural skills, according to scientiests, of which some are innate and
others learnt; and the science dealing with those is Ethology.

But, behaviour is not only upto this; like – the running of a prey for saving own life,
running of a predator to capture a prey for own survival, wounderful archetechture
of birds in building their nests and in spiders configuring their web, building under
water entrance in a Beaver’s nest, incubating eggs and post-natal parental care,
inter-continental migration of large and small birds in the same route and to a
particular recurrent destination, non-stop day and night journey of migratory
animals to a particular direction and location, etc. hundreds and thousands of
activities are jointly known as animal behaviour.

To adapt to the ever changing environment and at the same time to respond to
different stimuli, an animal has to bring considerable change in its behaviour. This
simulation continues for years, ultimately making the animal conditioned to it and
which can even be genetically transmitted over generations. The external
environment stimulates the nervous, endocrinal or muscular system of the animal,
and as a reflex, the animal exhibits some other behaviour to respond to those, like –
oral sound, physiclal movement, colour change (camouflage), emission of gas or
smell, aggresive or frightened attetude etc.

What is stimulus

A Stimulus is a signal, which can be identified and represents a sense. It can be both
external and internal. For instance, when our cell phone rings, we can understand
both by its tone and vibration, hence is a case of external stimulus. Likewise, when
we get hungry, there is a different sensation that indulges us to take some food, so it

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is an internal stimulus. Obviously, the response to a cell phone is to respond to the

call, while the response to a hunger is to take some food.

The external stimuli involves – light, temperature, smell or aroma, a sound or a

noise etc., while the internal ones are – love, hatrad, thirst, hunger, feelings etc. It is
noteworthy, all animals do not necessarily have the same type of feelings and of a
same level – rather it varies species to species. Human beings have – vision,
audition, taste, smell and touch, these five types of stimuli which are always active,
but it is never the case with other animals. Similarly, the gravitational and other
magnetic forces have a great impact on birds and some other migratory animals,
while those have no impact on us.

Behavioural Changes due to Stimulus

All our mental or behavioural conditions are stimulus based, which brings about
responses. In this case stimulus-response law are applicable; the modernized form of
which is stimulus-orgnism-response law. Further, these three elements combine to
represent an Emotion. To behaviourists, emotion is never a mental contion but a
physical change. Its a physiological, external or behavioural change. According to
them, a change in environment can bring about emotional changes which changes
the behaviour. So, the environment is the factor of behaviour and not the heredity –
they believe.

A Stimulus in an animal body creates emotion and different stimuli can create
different emotions. The basic emotions in humans are – Happiness (Pleasure),
Surprise (Quarry), Sadness (Sorrow), Anger (Temper), Disgustion (Hatrad), Fear
(Shudder) etc. (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989)

1. Hapiness – This emotion happens in a person due to some expected pleasant

stimulus, resulting in a happy expression in the animal. In this case, the face gets
brighter, with a tendency to laugh and the animal rejoices.
2. Surprise – This emotion happens in people, due to a very strong unexpected
stimulus. In this case, a retardness in mental condition happens and the animals
turn motionless.
3. Sadness – This emotion happens in a person due to some unexpected or
sorrowful stimulus. It affects the autonomous nervous system of the person,
resulting in responses, like – shedding of tears, mumbling etc..
4. Anger – It is a basic emotion of animals. In this case, as a relult of a stimulus, the
autonomous sympathetic organ of the animal get very much active, resulting in
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the expression of anger, which brings about physical changes.

5. Disgustion – This emotion happens in a person due to the presence of a special
stimulus. In this case his disgustion changes into dislikings leading to Anger in
its extreme condition.
6. Fear – This emotion happens in a person due to some harmful or scary stimulus.
This results in a flying tendency, abnormal restlessness and change in the heart-
beat.

Physiological changes due to Emotion

The following physiological changes takes place, due to any of the above emotions –

1. Secretion of Pituitary Gland (CSH secretion).

2. Secretion of Adrenal Gland (Adrenalin secretion).
3. Change in Galvano skin response (electricity on the skin).
4. Change in the Glucose level of the body (Insulin activity).
5. Change in body temperature.
6. Change in heart-beat (palpitition).
7. Change in the rate of respiration (breathing rate).
8. Change in blood-pressure level.
9. Change in digestive function.
10. Secretion of certain exocrine glands, like – Salivary gland, Sweat gland,
Lacrymal(tear) glandetc.

Behaviour and Heredity

Behaviour is deeply related to heredity. The process through which paternal or

maternal characteristics are transmitted to their offsprings, is known a heredity, due
to which the latter resemble their parents. But, sometimes in some species variations
are also seen and to understand all those resemblence and variance a branch of
biological science, Genetics is underway for its knowledge and research.

In other words, Genetics is the science of Gene and its functions and Genes are
hereditary units, present in Chromosomal DNA and is responsible for carrying and
transmitting single characters from parents to offsprings and in this way generation
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to generation. It is the peternal or metarnal genes which controls – the height and
structure, complextion, colour of hair and iris etc. and even the mental conditon of a
child, who receive it through pairs of genes, one from father and the other from
mother.

In case of animal behaviour, natural selection and genetics are involved; in fact, the
role of genetics is important in case of animal behaviour. Particular genes for
behaviour are selected naturally and become dominant in offsprings; that’s why the
behaviourists use genetics in analysing the behavioural variations and accept
genetical ideas in the following cases –

1. They use the laws of Mendel in understanding the distribution of the phenotypes
of behaviours.
2. They take help from genetics in understanding the influence of sex linked
(limited) characteristics.
3. To understand a behaviour, they involve genetics to determine the inherited and
natural influence on it.

So, determining the inherited pathway of behaviour is tough to identify, as so many

genes interact among themselves as well as with environment, and along with that,
genetics and environment influence each other. But, we are indebted to Gregor
Johan Mendel, who has postulated two laws of genetics, the first law or the law of
Seggregationand the second law or the law of Independant assortment.

According to Mendel’s first law, a pair of genes (paternal and metarnal) having
contrusting characteristics, is responsible for a given characteristic in an offspring,
which never lose their integrity and seggegate out into two different gametes during
its gametogenesis. Fig. 12.2 shows an example in this favour.

The honey bees are attacked by a bacterial disease, American foulbrood (Bacillus
larvae) resulting in the death of a number of bee larvae. So, the bees expell the
infested larvae to reduce the probable attack and intensity of infestation. W. C.
Rothenbuhler observed and identified two types of behaviour in them.

There are one type of bees, called Hygenic, which can –

1. Uncap the cell-lids in a honey comb to expell the infested larvae.

2. Expells all the infested larvae from the honey comb.
3. Have two separate recessive genes to show above functions.

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Now, if a recessive gene ‘u’ is functional for uncapping the lids; and another recessive
gene ‘r’ is functional for clearing the infested larvae; and, if a cross is made between a
Hygenic bee (u/u, r/r) and a non-hygenic bee (U/O, R/O), then all the honey bees in
the first filial generation will be non-hygenic. Only the worker bees (homozygous
dominent) show normal behaviour.

This is an example of genetical base of a given behaviour. Besides, the science of

genetics is now used to show the influence of heredity upon behaviours related to –
variations, environment and inherited characters:

Types of Animal Behaviour

Animal behaviour can be divided into two categories, like – a. Innate Behaviour and
b. Learned Behaviour.

The instinctive behaviour is sometimes called Innate, as it is inborn and need no

learning. But there is no shart demarkation in between the two and in developed
animals most of their behaviours is an overlaping of both. As for instance, we can
consider the speech of a human. One can think its innate as all of us talk; but in fact,
everybody can not speak. A born deaf, through tedious endeavour, can be taught how
to speak; otherwise as a deaf is usually a dumb. In general we learn to talk listenning
to others. That’s why our children talk in Bengali and a French child speach French.
In fact, the power of speech in human is inherited, but what we speak, is learned.

Modes of Behavioural Patterns

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The behavioural patterns in animals are the following –

1. Tropism
2. Spatial Orientation (Kinesis and Taxes)
3. Reflexes
4. Natural wit or Instinct
5. Motivations

Taxis (pl. taxes)

A taxis or tactic movement is a type of movement of a freely motile organism, or a

freely motile part of an organism, in response to a directional stimulus. Taxis is
observed in plants and animals as well, and depends upon the nature of the stimulus.
If the stimulus is such that the response draws the animal or plant closer to the
source of stimulus, it is termed as Positive Taxis, and while it pushes plant or animal
away from the source, it is termed as Negative Taxis. Taxis can vary from animal to
animal and from plant to plant, and even from one part of the plant or animal body
to the other. The best example of taxis is the growth of plant root and stem. We
know, the former shows negative phototaxis, while the latter show positive
phototaxis.

Salient features of Taxis

1. It is a particular reaction, moreover a stereotyped pattern.

2. It is concerned wtih special orientation.
3. The total body’s orientation takes place here.
4. The direction of movement is controled by an external stimulus.
5. The orientation is directly proportional with power of the directional stimulus.

Kinds of Taxis

Based upon the type of stimulus, taxis can be divided into the following categories –

1. Phototaxis – The orientation created through the reaction with light is termed as
Phototaxis. For instance, Euglenaswims towards light; same is the case with fruit
fly and a growing stem (shoot), which moves towards a light source. Those are
examples of Positive Phototaxis (Trapotaxis). On the other hand, House fly larva
or maggot searches a dark place for the development of its pupa; newly growing

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radicle of a seed move away from light, which are examples of Negative
Phototaxis (Pharotaxis). Likewiese, Earthworms, Woodlice and Cockroach show
negative phototaxis.
2. Geotaxis – The orientation created due to gravitational force, universal to all
animals, is termed as Geotaxis. Many animals including vertebrates, carry gravity
sensing organs, like – Statocyst, Circular canals etc. In insects there are sensory
cells which can detect the direction of gravitational force. Most of the animals
can critically detect the upward and downward directions and show Positive
Geotaxis (downward movement) and Negative Geotaxis (upward movement).
For instance, some Planula larvae of Cnidarians (Coelenterates) swim towards
the bottom of the sea (+ve geotaxis) and some Ephyra larvae swim away from the
bottom (-ve geotaxis).
3. Phonotaxis – The orientation produced due to a sound or noise source is called
Phonotaxis. Alike Phototaxis (Trapotaxis and Pharotaxis), Phonotaxis is also
precise. For instance, during its movement in the darkness, Bats produce sounds;
echos of which are received through Traggus, special orgnans in their ears, which
help them detect an obstacle in their navigation route. Likewise, certain Moths
can detect those sounds produced by some inectivorous bats, through two
Phono-receptors present on their thorax, which help avoid their potential
predators. Crickets and Grasshoppers produce sounds by organs present on their
forelegs, which help the female approach the sound sourse for mating. Birds and
Mammals can detect a sound sourse and orient themselves accordingly by
comparing the sound received by two years and search movements by moving
their head right and left or up and down. In all those functions, i.e., acoustic
localization, the extended and movable Pinna of Cats, Dogs and Horses are more
functional than that of us.
4. Chemotaxis – It is the orientation produced due to diffused gas or chemicals
exposed in air or water. It is also a common taxis but not precise like Phototaxis
or Phonotaxis. For instance, many insects and animals like Cevets liberate gas on
air containing a pungent smell that attacts the female to detect its source for
mating, is an example of Positive Chemotaxis. The avoiding of insect repellent
(sprays) by the mosquitos, is an example of Negative
Chemotaxis. Parameciumand many protozoans exhibit back and turn movement
in a medium with noxious chemicals; this type of negative chemotaxis is known
as Phobotaxis (Jenning, 1900).
5. Klinotaxis – It is the orientation produced through the gradual change in the
intensity of the tactical source. It is observed in animals with the presence of
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asymmetrical individually working receptors; in this case, they can not balance
between the two and act on individual reception. In case of negative phototaxis,
Blow fly exhibits Klinotaxis, i.e., the more it gets away from the source the less is
its speed. The swinging of head of a larva, right and left to detect a rear light
source, is another example of Klinotaxis; if the left source is stronger, it turns
right and vice versa, showing that it detects the source by its two receptors
separately instead of a balance between them.
6. Tropotaxis – It is also an orientation produced due to gradual change in intensity
of the tactical source. It is observed in animals with the presence of asymmetrical
combinely working receptors; in this case, they can balance between the two and
act on combined reception. For example in Planaria larva, the negative
phototaxis depends on a balanced decision. Another example is Pill woodlouse
(Armadillidium bulgare), which shows positive phototaxis and can directly move
towards the light source; but, if one eye is covered, it moves in a circuar order,
showing that it needed two eyes to balance to find the right track. So, Klinotaxis
differs from Tropotaxis in the way that the former don’t need two receptors
(eyes) to find the right track, while the latter does, it balances between them and
can get the right track.
7. Telotaxis – It is also an orientation produced due to gradual change in intensity
of the tactical source. It is observed in animals with the presence of symmetrical
jointly or individually working receptors; in this case, they can balance between
the two and act on combined reception as well as they can do so, if in case one is
not working. It is found in Honey bee and if somehow (due to pollans) one eye is
covered, it has not impact on detecting its source or moving in a particular
direction with a single eye. In the same way, Hermit Crab exhibit Telotaxis and if
there are two tactical sources, they always move towards one and never in a
median direction.
8. Pharotaxis – It is a complex phototactic orientation, which can be compared to
leading a ship based upon a distant light-house. Most of these cases are misled,
producing destructive results. For instance, some Moths plunge into fire or are
eaten by predators, as they move towards a light source.
9. Menotaxis / Compass Orientation (Griffin,1955) – It is a kind of Pharotaxis in
which the animal maintains an angle to the light source during its movement.
The best example is, using light compass in homing ants, which are partially
influenced by solar positioning. If the positions are changed artificially by
mirrors, the ants show changes in their direction of movement.

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10. Nemotaxis (Kuhn,1919) / Piloting (Griffin,1955) – It is a kind of complex

orientation by which an animal can identify the path to its destination through
welknown landmarks. For instance, Digger Wasp (Philanthus triangulum)
exhibit this type of taxis in finding its digging places.

Reflex action

The termReflexwas first coined bySherrintonand can be defined as a simple act of

behaviour in which an external or internal stimulus produces a specific, short-lived
response. Reflex means the instant response produced due to a particular stimulus.
It is controled by the Spinal cord and not by the Brain. So, the sequence in a reflex
action is –

Receptor (Epithelium) – Sensory neuron (Cell body) – Dorsal root (Spinal cord) –
Synapse – Grey matter (Spinal cord) – Synapse – Motor neuron (Cell body) –
Ventral root (Spinal cord) – Effector (Muscle).

In this way, it is an instant response of a living body to an external or internal

stimulus, induced through our epithelial tissue (touch or pressure) and responded by
our muscular movements. For instance, any minute object falls in our eye, closes it
or any small food particle stuck in our trachea or oesophagus induces choking. The
parthway of a Reflex action (given above) is known as the Reflex Arc and one have
no control over this action, as it is autonomous.

Usually the Reflex actions are divided into two categories –

1. Inborn or unconditioned Reflex – It is an innate reflex, present from the birth

and not dependant on an experience or habit. Like the constriction of eye-pupil
in a flood-light, or jerking of knee, ankle or biseps muscle etc.
2. Aquired or conditioned Reflex – This type of reflex is based upon experience and
aquired through practice. For example – training a pet animal for a particular
sport (playing with ball etc.)

Innate Reflex actions can be divided into two categories based on the position of
receptors –

1. Superficial Reflex – When the receptor works on the superficial area of a living
body, like – constriction of pupil in a flood-light (pupilary reflex), movement of

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finger in front of one’s eye closes it (conjunctival reflex), tickling on the sole
constricts toes (plantar reflex) etc. are examples of superficial reflex.
2. Deep Reflex – When the receptor is deep inside a living body in the muscle or
tendon, like – Knee jert, Ankle jerk, biceps jert, Triceps jerk, Jaw jerk etc. are
examples of deep reflex.

The Salient features of Reflex behaviour are –

1. They are the simplest unit of complex behaviours.

2. They are the results of a neural mechanism and so, they are innate (inborn)
which exist since post-natal condition.
3. They do not need a stimulus to guide them all the time.
4. They are automatic, involuntary and sterotyped (i.e., can happen multiple times
without any variation).
5. Unlike Taxis, Reflex is the movement of a living body due to a stimulus, while the
former is involved with movement to a particular direction (either positive,
means towards the point of stimulus; or negative, means away from that).
6. They are directly proportional to the stimulus strength; the stronger the
stimulus, the shorter the latent period, likewise, the weaker the stimulus, the
longer the latent period. (The latent period is the time lag between a stimulus
and a response).

Instincts

Instincts are innate natural behabiour that an organism exhibits in response to adapt
to a change in the environment. “They are complex, inborn, stereotyped behavioural
patterns of immediate adaptive survival value to the organism and are produced in
response to sudden change in the environment”. They are unique for a given Species,
differ from Species to Species and vary in their complexity from simple reflex to
more complex one. Nobel loreate Conrad Lorenz explains instincts as – unlearned
specific motor patterns of a given Species due to its biological rhythms, territorial
behaviour, courtship and mating, social hierarchies including altruism. In some the
behaviour is hereditary, like – in migratory birds, who become impatient for flying
during the time of migration, even in captive condition; and when left alone, can find
out its regular route of migration and a particular recurrent destination.

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Appraisal / Test / Examples of Innate Behaviour

Adaptation is the capability or changes of an organism to synchronize with its ever

changing environment. All Flora and Fauna exhibit the quality to adapt to their
surroundings; and in animals their innate and learnt behaviours help them to do it.

Winter Migration of Birds

Migration (Lat. migratus=wonder) is the movement of organisms temporarily or

permanently from one place to other due to certain environmental causes. Migration
in different birds is their instinct behaviour performed over years from generation to
generation in quest of food, reproduction or cosy atmosphere which is more tolerant
to them over a given period of a year. Migration can be local or continental,
depending upon the need and situation as well as the body weight of the bird.

Many of the bird from the northern hemishpere migrate throusands of miles to go to
their esteemed destination of better food, shelter and spawnning ground in the
southern hemisphere in the same route they perform it every year and at the same
location they had come the previous years. Sometimes the latter is changed in quest
of a better survival and spawnning but this is an uncommon phenomenon. Usually
the tropical locations in the southern hemisphere is more feasible than that in the
much colder northern one, their original habitat. So, migration can also be termed as
a temporary change in habitat and habits. But, the southern hemisphere birds are
found to be locally migrants and never a continental one to the northern. Birds
which undergo migration are known a Migratory birds, who get back to their original
habitat after the tough time has been over.

Migration is an innate behaviour in certain birds and a common example is the

winter bird migration to our country. Birds like – Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus),
Pintail (Anas acuta), Baikal teal (Anas formosa), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna
ferruginea), Shrikes (Laniussp.), Wagtails (Motacillasp.), Leaf Warblers
(Phylloscopussp.), Finches (Pyrrhulasp.), Skylarks (Aludasp.), Swallows
(Hirundosp.) etc. are examples of winter migrants in our country. Besides, Lesser
and Greater Whistling teals (Dendrocygnasp.), Eagles (Haliaetussp.), Pariah Kites
(Milvussp.), White backed Vulture (Gypssp.), Hawks (Avicedasp.), Malcoha
(Rhopodytessp.), few Owls (Strixsp.) etc. are locally migrants. The esturine and
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inland waters as well as the islands and marshy areas are traversed by – Gulls
(Larussp.), Terns (Sternasp.), Spoonbill (Plataleasp.), Ibises (Plegadissp.), Openbill
(Anastomussp.) and Adjutant (Leptopilossp.) Storks, Sarus Crane (Grus antigone)
etc. which are large locally migrant birds.

So, this innate migratory behaviour of birds have been observes, tracked and
experimented since a long time and today through satelite. It has been found that
their navigation is either controlled by solar position by the day or star positions by
the night or they have some other GPS positioning system within their brane still
unknown to us. Anyway, the behaviour is peculiar and found to be trasmitted
generation to generation. Same is observed in Green and other marine turtles who
traverse a long way underwater for laying eggs in the same place they do every year
during a particular period. So, the Stimuli or factors are directly involved with it are
–

1. Environmental Stimuli – A major change in everything in the North Hemishpere

takes place at the advent of winter. Gradually the temperature fall, there is
scarcity of food, situation goes bad or worse for breeding. So, birds have to move
out to another destination where all those facilities can be found. In the same
way in some other part of the year some birds from the south hemishpere
migrate to the north for certain causes, but these instances are very rare.
2. Maturity of Gonads – This sort of behaviour in some birds is a simulated affect of
their hormone secretion and change in reproductive characteristics in a
particular part of the year. So the maturity of gonads works as a stimulus in
favour of their migration.
3. Ultimate Causation – The ultimate cause of this sort of behaviour has been
described as an environmental factor and as a long enduring result of organic
evolution during a longer period of time.
4. Metabolic Activities – As a result of metabolic functions in the body a huge
amount of fat is depositied, which works as an active source of extra energy
suppliment during a migration. So, migration might also be done to maintain a
balance of the body materials in birds.

Spider Web

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The Spider is a surprising animal and more peculiar is its web. Scientists believe this
primitive animal has been existing since the Cretaceous era. The web is actually a
secretion of a Spinneret gland present in its abdominal region and the web is
prepared through its innate instinct. Biochemical experiments reveals that the web
consists of combination of amino acids like – Glycine, Alanine, Serene and Tyrocine.
The web is used for various purposes and the most significant and common one is
capturing its prey through the web.

Web Spinning

Scientists believe that, during its change from the aquatic to terrestrial habitat in
Devonian Era, the spider wrapped its body with a protective silky device, the web.
Later, with considerable change in its constituents and conplicacy in weaving, the
web has been an wounderful device today for both housing and food capture. The
fibre used in it, just like in silk moth larva, is a secretion of their abdominal
Spinneret gland, secreting 8 types of fibre today, each used for a different purpose.
Some of those are used in climbing, others in housing, food capture, wrapping a prey
and much more. Spiders are only animals in the world which captures their prey
without minimum loss of energy; and that is possible by the dint of the web.

But, it is noteworthy, a lot of time, energy and endeavour is spent by a Spider in

building and maintaining its web through proteins out of its body. Moreover, the
fibres lose their temper withing a short time when they have to rebuilt it losing more
energy. The fibres are durable like Nylon, but more elastic; and at the same time they
are stronger than steel fibres of the same diameter. From the weight bearing point of
view they are next to fused Quartz fibres.

The web maintains a lot of diagrametic archetechtural designs, that varies from
species to species, but same for a given one. They can be sperical or ovoid, octagonal
or multigonal, funnel shaped, spiral or tube shaped. But, whatever is its size the
arrangement of fibre is very much even and scientific. The web is always attached to
more than one substratum with equal strain at all sides. Usually the size depends
upon the spider which is seen sitting at the centre or it hides building different
structures on the web. Flying insects all over the world and even small birds in
Amazon velly (taken by Brazilian large spiders) are confused by the web and never
feel conscious about it.

The fibre is liberated from the gland as liquid, made up of amino acids like – Glycine,
Alanine, Serene and Tyrocine, which over its exposure to air and strain changes into
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a sticky fibre with much strain. The spider fixes the fibre at different points and
move in a particular direction keeping even spaces among the central and circular
weaving attachments in a web. The claws in its eight legs and unsmooth bristles
around help them in weaving the net as well as walking at ease on any surface or in
jumping. Sometimes it hangs for a long distance to understand the air flow and in
quest of a suitable place for its web. Spiders are very intelligent creatures and keen
listeners which can receive a vibration upto 1 GHz. Some of them build their web
very quickly on the path of a flying insect, listenning to it buzzing and measuring its
speed, weight and direction. It understands its success by the vibration produced in
the net, when it comes forward and very quickly wrappes its prey with huge fibre.
When the prey has almost lost its energy, the spider poisions it and takes time in
sucking its body materials gradually.

Parental Care in Fishes

Parental care in fishes is rare but very distinctive in some. Each of the functions
related to offspring like – Egg laying, Preparing a nest and securing it for egg laying,
raring of newly spawned fries for a definite period, all fall under parental care. In
fishes, the male or female or both take part of share in the practice.

The male Sun fish prepares a cup-like nest for the egg laying purpose of the female.
Lung fishes like Protopterusand Lepidosirenmake out deep holes where the female
lays their eggs. During the spawnning the male guards the nest.
Likewise, Amiaprepares a circular nest with acquatic plants.

The male Three-spine Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) selects a place and

prepares a nest with plant parts and roots, mixing sticky materials secreted from
their kidneys. The nest has a central tunnel where the female lays its eggs and the
male fertilizes them later. Then they stand at one side of the tunnel and fan with
their Pectoral fins so that a water current is produced through the tunnel increasing
the Oxygen content of the water in it. In this way they wail till the eggs are hatched
and again they guide the fries for the next 15 days till they become able to move in
shoals.

Besides, Tilapia (Tilapia mossabica) is a mouth breeder, i.e., the fertilized eggs are
housed in the buccal cavity and released later. The male Sea Horse (Hippocampus
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sp.) carry fertilized eggs and care them till hatching.

Parental Care in Toad

The parental care in Amphibians like – Toad or Frog is very rare and not more than
20%. But, they adopt innate techniques, for egg laying, protecting, proper hatching
and protecting the young ones. Frogs’ (e.g.,Toad-like Frog Alytes) tendency for
parental care depends upon their habitats especially the area of water body they
spawn in. Usually the intensity and variation of parental care increases with smaller
water bodies. As the probability of attack from a predator is higher in a larger water
body, the amphibians adopt a number of preventive measures to protect their young
ones. Sometimes it is observed that they lay eggs on the shores and regularly keep
them moist for a better hatching and then transfer the hatched ones into the water.
Parents take part in all those events. All their events can be summerized in the
following points –

1. Seclection of a safer place for egg-laying – A secured place is the most important
necessity for egg laying. Some amphibians lay eggs in protected places next to a
water body, some lay eggs on leaves of trees (arboreal frogs) very near to a water
body, so that the eggs may drain with rain into the water.
2. Preservation of eggs and security of the spawning area – Amphibians with a tail
protects an intruder by its tail, some protect their eggs directly. The female
animal after laying move them for better ariation and Oxygen supply. The tailless
amphibians protects their eggs physically and ensure security of the spawning
ground. A few of them lay eggs inside thick jelly but others lay eggs in a muddy
place, protected by the males.
3. Parental care – Some amphibians are wounderful examples of parental care and
rendering sucurity to their young ones. Like, Salamanders lay their eggs in
shallow moist places and encircle their eggs like a sanke to protect them. A few
species of frogs lay their eggs first on ground and then attach them on their back
and carry them till hatiching. Some uses jelly like protective media for egg
protection (toad and frog). The marsupial frogs/toads keep their eggs withing the
sac they carry on their back and protect them till hatching.
4. Delivary of offsprings – A few tailess ovo-viviparous amphibians retain their eggs
in the oviduct and later deliver mature offsprings, reducing the probability of

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their loss due to environmental factors or predators.

In this way, Amphibians exhibit wounderful parental care from their egg laying stage
till the growth of larvae into adult stage.

Parental Care in Bird

The parental care in Aves, i.e., birds is very distinctive feature in them. We observe a
kind of helplessness to self-reliance attitude in their life. Many of the altrician
birdlings are smaller in size, sight and featherless, devoid of movement, seriously
helpless and depended on parental care and nestling. But, on the other hand many
precocian birdlings can move, are feathered and collect their own food i.e., are
selfdependant. So, the former type needs parental care over a longer period of time
while the latter needs it for a very short period. The stages of parental care in birds
are as follows –

1. Nesting (Nest building) – Nest building is the most archetechtural exposure of a

bird and the nests vary Species to Species, for their shape, size, altitude and
above all their configuration and structure. A nest is usually not used twice but in
big birds, who mend or reconstruct it every time. The nest building materials
vary considerably Species to Species, but each Species uses more or less the same
materials for their nest. In one hand each nest is water ringing and dry but in
other hand each one is secure with well-perculation of air but well-retainer for
incubation heat. It is contructed in such a way that never dismantles or dislocates
easily even in strong winds and is a safe housing for both parents and the eggs or
the birdlings. Sometimes they are deserted as the birds need to change their
location (microhabitat). Birds build their nests any where, like – on the roof
(House Swift) or ventilator (Sparrow) of an old building, on a suitable triradiate
branch junction (Black Drongo), rolling a large leaf (Tailor bird), or on debris
(Larks) or holes on river basins (Bank Myna). The bottle-like hanging nest of
Baya Weaver birds found hanging from Palm trees are pobably the most
important example of nature’s architechtural innate capability transmitted over
generations.
2. Incubation – Both precocial and atrical types of bird need to incubate their eggs
for a given period of time depending upon their body size and weight. Usually in
smaller ones the period is less as the egg-size is smaller, while in bigger ones the
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time is more, as the egg-size is bigger. In smaller ones the period extends from
12-14 days, while in bigger ones it can take even 40-50 days. In Albatros it takes
80 days. The body temperature in birds is around 100oF and the male or female
or both exert it on the eggs depending on Species. For instance, the Hen usually
incubates the eggs, but in Ostrich the male does it; in cases like Jungle Babbler
both male and female does it in turns. The altrical birds need a longer incubation
period than the precocial ones.
3. Parental care – Hatching of eggs in bird comes under two heads – a. Precocial
and b. Altricial. In the former type the birdling is immaturely hatched out but is
found more selfdependant that the other. It can see, procure its food, covered
with hatching plumes and almost unrest in nature. They can run and even swim,
but can not fly. Koels, Chicken, Ducks, Doves etc. fall under this category. But,
the other type is maturely hatched out but is found very much dependant upon
its parents. Like, Swifts are plumeless and blind as they are hatched. They have
to be in the nest throught the following week or more, solely dependant upon
their parent’s nestling. The parents ensure their security and food as well as the
extra heat needed for their further development. But, afterwards, they pleume
and grow very quickly and learn how to fly and become selfsufficient, but it needs
much more time than the other type.

Learning or Learned Behaviour

The behaviour which is acquired and modified in response to experience is called

learned behaviour. For instance, a birdling of 3 days learns how to peak at food and
Honey bees learn to identify flowers with more necter. The main benificial feature
that works inharently in learning behaviour is adaptability, in comparison to innate
behaviour. So, it can be changed keeping pace with the surrounding requirements or
changes. In one word, a learning behaviour is the achievement of a new behavioural
pattern, based upon previous experience.

W. H. Thorpe (1963) has defined learning as – “That processes which manifests itself
by adaptive changes in individual behaviour as a result of experience“. Lorenz (1969)
defined learning as – “An adaptive change in behaviour that results from
experience“.

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Types of Learning

There is no acceptable or unanymous classification of Learning yet. But, it can be

categorized as follows –

1. 1. Habituation

It is the simplest learning behaviour. In this case due to the continued lack of prize
or punishment the animal gradually turns nonresponding to a given stimulus. So, it
rather can be termed as a learning not to respond to a given stimulus. The merits of
habituation includes responding to a peculiar stimulus with a probability of danger
and subsequently not responding to it feeling safe due to the lack of any consequense
of it.

Habituation is a common learning behaviour, observed everywhere in the animal

world. For instance, when touched even by a leaf, a snail retreats back into its shell.
It continues doing this over and over as touched more and more. But, after a few
retructions, it avoids the stimulus being habituated not receiving any harm from it; it
continues its movement without responding to the stimulus. Another instance is the
fledding of Pegions from crop field with a Gunshot bird-scaring device. The birds
respond to it in the primary sequences but not later, as they observe it over a period
of time that there is no reaction or consequense of those noises. Later instead of the
noise, they continue their feeding peacefully in the cropfield without flying away,
what they did in the beginning, a few times.

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Likewise, we can easily sleep inside a loud but familiar noise, but on the other hand
we wake up in a small sound, which is new or peculiar to us.

1. Conditioning or Associative Learning

Associative learning includes the involvement of two or more Stimuli at a time. In

this process an animal can identify a Stimulus and can understand what is going to
happen along with it; as it knows the situation which happened multiple times
earlier. In this case the animal involves two Stimuli together. For instance, the going
of a Farmar to his cropland by a Tractor is reacted by his Cattles, but doing such on
other veheicles are overlooked. Because, the Cattle involves the Tractor and the
Farmar with their food. Conditioning is of two types –

A. Classical or Pavlovian Contioning and

B. Operant Conditioning (Trial and Error Learning)

1. A. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

In 1902 a Russian Physiologist, Ivan P. Pavlov(1849 – 1936) studied the secretion of

saliva in Dog due to food reaction. He observed, the vision, smell and the taste of
food induces or changes the section of saliva. His experiment (Fig. 12.3) was as
follows –

1. He let the Dog hear the Ding-dong sound in a Metronomy Machine, when there
was no change in the amount of saliva secretion.
2. He then presented some powdered meat to the Dog and measured the amount of
saliva secreted.
3. Then he represented to the Dog powdered meat and Ding-dong sound
simultaneously and repeated it 5 or 6 times.
4. Then he observed the secretion of saliva in the Dog only with Dong-dong sounds,
never seen before in Case-1.
5. With the repeatition of Case-4, the amount of saliva secretion falls gradually due
to the lack of its involvement with food.

So, in this experiment, the Dog learns the involvement (relationship) of sound with
food. This type of learning is termed as Classsical Conditioning. The response of
saliva secretion with the ring of bell is a case of Conditioned Reflex. It is obvious that,

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the presentation of food is necessary within 1:00 minute of the sound production, to
trigger the condioned reflex.

Features of Conditioned Reflex

1. It is the involvement of two different stimuli presented at a time.

2. It is totally a temporary condition.
3. The response is totally involuntary.
4. It is reinforced by its repeatition.
5. Removal of the cerebral cortex totally ceases the response.

1. 3. Complex Learning : Imprinting

Imprinting is a kind of simple but specialized learning. In comparison to others the

Imprinted behaviour is fixed and not easily adapted. During the early days of their
life cycles, Birds and Mammals undergo imprinting specially in their Receptive Stage
(Critical period – Lorenz; Sensitive period – Recent). At this period the newly born
individuals develop a bond with a comparatively large moving object and develop
their permanent relationship on the basis of physical contact or heat reception. For
example, a newly hatched goose follows anything moving infront of it. Naturally,
mother is their first target of movement they try to follow. But, Australian zoologist
and founder of Ethology, Conrad Lorenz, in his renowned book – King Solomon’s
Ring describes that, parentless gooselings and ducklings followed him and
considered him as their alternative parent. He revealed and described a wounderful
practical instance of imprinting in Greyleg Goose (Anser anser) (Fig. 12.4)

In nature there are examples exposing adaptive significance, like – the learning
capability through parents; e.g., learning how to fly, capture a prey, fight a foe or run
away from a predator. For instance, the `smell’ of the steam in which migratory
Salmon were hatched and to which they return to spawn.

Altruism or Cooperation to each other

The term Altruism (Fr. altruisme, Ital. altrui) is a philosophical theory, postulated by
welknown French Philosopher August Kooth. The term means –

1. Unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others.

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2. Behaviour by an animal that is not beneficial to or harmful to itself but that

benefits others of its species.

According to this theory, each and every individual has its own generic
characteristics which increases peace and happiness and decreases sorrow or
unhappiness in others. One thing has to be found in this context, whether peace or
happiness is the real target of life. The answer is, the real peace lies under the
happiness of others, i.e., peace is achieved only when someone does some selfless
dedication for his mates.

Altruistic Behaviour in Honey Bee Hive

The Honey bee (Apis) is a social insect and maintains a peculier life style. They live a
colonial life in a bee hive, containing about 60,000 – 70,000 members, maintaing an
organized systematic order of life with a division of labour for each and every
individual. There are three castes found in a hive – The Queen, Drones and Workers.

The queen is the only fertile female in the colony, easily identified for its very large
size and shape, who lays about 1000 – 1500 eggs per day; eggs can be fertilized and
unfertilized. Within a week of its birth, the queen can mate a Drone and starts laying
eggs within the next 2-3 days. She survives for 2-3 years and continuously enriching
its colony. Form her fertilized eggs are produced the Workers, huge in number and
from the unfertilized ones the Drones, few in number.

The Drone is bigger than a worker but smaller than the queen, healthy in structure
and doing only a single function – mating the queen and survive a period of 2-12
days. According to some, they die just after the copulation and are taken up by other
members (canabalism).

The workers are unfertile females, unable to produce eggs. But, some can give
unfertilized eggs in absence of a queen from which small unfertile males generate.
These female worker bees are called egg laying workers and can produce at best 28
eggs in their total life. The workers perform almost all the duties in a colony other
than fertilizing an egg or mating, like –

1. They consturct the bee hive with their body wax and ensure the security of the
total colony.
2. They forage a long distance in quest of honey and flower and bring information
to the colony.

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3. They lead the total workers’ team to the esteemed target flowers and collect
honey as a team-work.
4. They scoop up the necter from the nectries of flowers and keep it for a time being
in their very large crop where they let the necter to mix with their enzymes and
which then converts into honey.
5. They then pour the honey in a given pocket of the bee hive and fan it for
dehydration.
6. They rare the eggs keeping them in special cells in the hive, take care of larvae as
they come out of eggs by feeding them Royal Jelly, a paste prepared with honey
and their salivary juice; some larvae are fed with bee-bread, a mixture of pollen
and honey.
7. The royal jelly fed larvae turn into workers and drones, while the bee-bread
eaters turn into queens.
8. After a few ecdysis (moulting) the larvae convert into adult bees, but the interim
guidance is given by workers.
9. In case that the colony members have attained their maximum limits, a new
queen with a number of drones and a huge number of workers, start for a new
destination, built a hive there and lead a next colony.
10. Even in that case, the workers bring information and location of the new colony
site and build a hive in there.
So, the social life of Honey bees, especially the workers, is the best example of
Altruistic behaviour.

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