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Notes CH 2
Notes CH 2
Notes CH 2
Defn 1. (p. 65) Let V and W be vector spaces (over F ). We call a function T : V → W a
linear transformation form V to W if, for all x, y ∈ V and c ∈ F , we have
(a) T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y) and
(b) T (cx) = cT (x).
Xn n
X
T( ai xi = ai T (xi ).
i=1 i=1
Proof. .
(1 + (−1))x = 0
1 · x + (−1) · x = 0
Defn 2. (p. 67) Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W be linear. We define the
null space (or kernel) N (T ) of T to be the set of all vectors x in V such that T (x) = 0;
N (T ) = {x ∈ V : T (x) = 0}.
We define the range (or image) R(T ) of T to be the subset W consisting of all images
(under T ) of vectors in V ; that is, R(T ) = {T (x) : x ∈ V }.
Theorem 2.1. Let V and W be vector spaces and T : V → W be linear. Then N (T ) and
R(T ) are subspaces of V and W , respectively.
Proof. To prove that N (T ) is a subspace of V , we let x, y ∈ N (T ) and c ∈ F . We will show
that 0 ∈ N (T ) and cx + y ∈ N (T ). We know that T (0) = 0. So, 0 ∈ N (T ). We have that
T (x) = 0 and T (y) = 0 so T (cx + y) = c · T (x) + T (y) = c · 0 + 0 = c · 0 = 0. (The last
equality is a fact that can be proved from the axioms of vector space.
To prove that R(T ) is a subspace of W , assume T (x), T (y) ∈ R(T ), for some x, y ∈ V and
c ∈ F . Then, cT (x)+T (y) = T (cx+y), where cx+y ∈ V , since T is a linear transformation
and so, cT (x) + T (y) ∈ R(T ). Also, since 0 ∈ V and 0 = T (0), we know that 0 ∈ R(T ).
Let A be a set of vectors in V . Then T (A) = {T (x) : x ∈ A}.
Theorem 2.2. Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W be linear. If β =
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V , then R(T ) = span(T (β)).
Proof. T (β) = {T (v1 ), T (v2 ), . . . , T (vn )}. We will show R(T ) = span(T (β)). We showed
that R(T ) is a subspace of W . We know that T (β) ⊆ R(T ). So, by Theorem 1.5,
span(T (β)) ⊆ R(T ).
Let x ∈ R(T ). Then there is some x0 ∈ V such that T (x0 ) = x. β is a basis of V , so there
exist scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an such that x0 = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn .
x = T (x0 )
= T (a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn )
= a1 T (x1 ) + a2 T (x2 ) + · · · + an T (xn )
which is in span(T (β)).
Thus R(T ) ⊆ span(T (β)).
3
Defn 3. (p. 69) Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W be linear. If N (T ) and
R(T ) are finite-dimensional, then we define the nullity of T , denoted nullity(T ), and the
rank of T , denoted rank(T ), to be the dimensions of N (T ) and R(T ), respectively.
Theorem 2.3. (Dimension Theorem). Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W
be linear. If V is finite-dimensional, then nullity(T )+ rank(T ) = dim(V ).
Proof. Suppose nullity(T ) = k and β = {n1 , . . . , nk } is a basis of N(T ). Since β is linearly
independent in V , then β extends to a basis of V ,
β 0 = {n1 , . . . , nk , xk+1 , . . . , xn } ,
where, by Corollary 2c. to Theorem 1.10, ∀i, xi 6∈ N (T ). Notice that possibly β = ∅.
It suffices to show:
β 00 = {T (xk+1 ), . . . , T (xn )}
is a basis for R(T ).
By Theorem 2.2, T (β 0 ) spans R(T ). But T (β 0 ) = {0} ∪ β 00 . So β 00 spans R(T ). Suppose
00
β is not linearly independent. Then there exist c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ F , not all 0 such that
0 = c1 T (xk+1 ) + · · · + cn T (xn ).
Then
0 = T (c1 xk+1 + · · · + cn xn )
and
c1 xk+1 + · · · + cn xn ∈ N(T ).
But then
c1 xk+1 + · · · + cn xn = a1 n1 + a2 n2 + · · · + ak nk
for some scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , since β = {n1 , . . . , nk } is a basis of N(T ). Then
0 = a1 n1 + a2 n2 + · · · + ak nk − c1 xk+1 − · · · − cn xn .
The c0i s are not all zero, so this contradicts that β 0 is a linearly independent set.
Theorem 2.4. Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W be linear. Then T is
one-to-one if and only if N (T ) = {0}.
Proof. Suppose T is one-to-one. Let x ∈ N(T ). Then T (x) = 0 also T (0) = 0. T being one-
to-one implies that x = 0. Therefore, N(T ) ⊆ {0}. It is clear that {0} ⊆ N(T ). Therefore,
N(T ) = {0}.
Suppose N(T ) = {0}. Suppose for x, y ∈ V , T (x) = T (y). We have that T (x)−T (y) = 0.
T (x − y) = 0. Then it must be that x − y = 0. This implies that −y is the additive inverse
of x and x is the additive inverse of −y. But also y is the additive inverse of −y. By
uniqueness of additive inverses we have that x = y. Thus, T is one-to-one.
Theorem 2.5. Let V and W be vector spaces of equal (finite) dimension, and let T : V → W
be linear. Then the following are equivalent.
(a) T is one-to-one.
(b) T is onto.
(c) rank(T ) = dim(V ).
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Cor 1. Let V and W be vector spaces, and suppose that V has a finite basis {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }.
If U, T : V → W are linear and U (vi ) = T (vi ) for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, then U = T .
Defn 4. (p. 80) Given a finite dimensional vector space V , an ordered basis is a basis
where the vectors are listed in a particular order, indicated by subscripts. For F n , we have
{e1 , e2 , . . . , en } where ei has a 1 in position i and zeros elsewhere. This is known as the
standard ordered basis and ei is the ith characteristic vector. Let β = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } be an
ordered basis for a finite-dimensional vector space V . For x ∈ V , let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be the
5
an
Defn 5. (p. 80) Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces with ordered bases β =
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } and γ = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn }, respectively. Let T : V → W be linear. Then for
each j, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, there exists unique scalars ai,j ∈ F , a ≤ i ≤ m, such that
m
X
T (vj ) = ti,j wi 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
i=1
So that
t1,j
t2,j
... .
[T (vj )]γ =
tm,j
We call the m × n matrix A defined by Ai,j = ai,j the matrix representation of T in the
ordered bases β and γ and write A = [T ]γβ . If V = W and β = γ, then we write A = [T ]β .
Fact 2. [a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ]B = a1 [x1 ]B + a2 [x2 ]B + · · · + an [xn ]B
Proof. Let β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Say xj = bj,1 v1 + bj,2 v2 + · · · + bj,n vn .
The LHS:
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = a1 (b1,1 v1 + b1,2 v2 + · · · + b1,n vn )
+a2 (b2,1 v1 + b2,2 v2 + · · · + b2,n vn )
+···
+an (bn,1 v1 + bn,2 v2 + · · · + bn,n vn )
= (a1 b1,1 + a2 b2,1 + · · · + an bn,1 )v1
+(a1 b1,2 + a2 b2,2 + · · · + an bn,2 )v2
+···
+(a1 b1,n + a2 b2,n + · · · + an bn,n )vn
The ith position of the LHS is the coefficient ci of vi in:
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn
And so, ci = a1 b1,i + a2 b2,i + · · · + an bn,i .
The RHS: The ith position of the RHS is the sum of the ith position of each aj [xj ]β , which
is the coefficient of vi in aj xj = aj (bj,1 v1 + bj,2 v2 + · · · + bj,n vn ) and thus, aj bj,i . We have
the ith position of the RHS is a1 b1,i + a2 b2,i + · · · + an bn,i .
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Fact 2. (a) Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces with bases, β and γ, respectively.
[T ]γβ [x]β = [T (x)]γ .
Proof. Let β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Let x = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn . Then
[T (x)]γ = [T (α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn )]γ
= [α1 T (v1 ) + α2 T (v2 ) + · · · + αn T (vn ))]γ
= α1 [T (v1 )]γ + α2 [T (v2 )]γ + · · · + αn [T (vn )]γ by fact 2
t1,1 · · · t1,n α1
. . .
=
. . .
. . .
tn,1 · · · tn,n αn
= [T ]γβ [x]γ
Defn 6. (p. 99) Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V → W be linear. A function
U : W → V is said to be an inverse of T if T U = IW and U T = IV . If T has an inverse,
then T is said to be invertible.
Fact 4. v and W are vector spaces with T : V → W . If T is invertible, then the inverse of
T is unique.
Proof. Suppose U : W → V is such that T U = IW and U T = IV and X : W → V is such
that T X = IW and XT = IV .
To show U = X, we must show that ∀w ∈ W , U (w) = X(w). We know IW (w) = w and
IV (X(w)) = X(w).
U (w) = U (IW (w)) = U T X(w) = IV X(w) = X(w).
Theorem 2.18. Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces with ordered bases β and
γ, respectively. Let T : V → W be linear. Then T is invertible if and only if [T ]γβ is invertible.
Furthermore, [T −1 ]βγ = ([T ]γβ )−1 .
Proof. Assume T is invertible. Let dim V = n and dim W = m. By the lemma, n = m. Let
β = {∨1 , ∨2 , . . . , ∨n } and γ = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn }.
We have T −1 such that T T −1 = IW and T −1 T = IV .
We will show that [T −1 ]βγ is the inverse of [T ]γβ .
We will show the following 2 matrix equations:
To prove (1) we will take the approach of showing that the ith column of [T ]γβ [T −1 ]βγ is ei ,
the ith characteristic vector.
Notice that for any matrix A, Aei is the ith column of A.
Consider [T ]γβ [T −1 ]βγ ei . By repeated use of Fact 2a, we have:
To prove (7) the proof is very similar. We will show that the ith column of [T −1 ]βγ [T ]γβ is
ei , the ith .
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Now we assume A = [T ]γβ is invertible. Call its inverse A−1 . We know that it is square,
thus n = m. Let β = {∨1 , ∨2 , . . . , ∨n } and γ = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn }. Notice that the ith column
of A is Ai = (t1,i , t2,i , . . . , tn,i ) where T (vi ) = t1,i w1 + t2,i w2 + . . . + tn,i wn
To show T is invertible, we will define a function U and prove that it is the inverse of T .
Let the ith column of A−1 be Ci = (c1,i , c2,i , . . . , cn,i ). We define U : W → V by for all
i ∈ [n],
U (wi ) = c1,i ∨1 +c2,i ∨2 + · · · + cn,i ∨n
. Since we have defined U for the basis vectors γ, we know from Theorem 2.6 that U is a
linear transformation.
We wish to show that T U is the identity transformation in W and U T is the identity
transformation in V . So, we show
(1) T U (x) = x, ∀x ∈ W and
(2) U T (x) = x, ∀x ∈ V .
Starting with (1.). First lets see why, ∀i ∈ [n], T (U (wi )) = wi .
T (U (wi )) = T (c1,i ∨1 +c2,i ∨2 + · · · + cn,i ∨n )
= c1,i (t1,1 w1 + t2,1 w2 + . . . + tn,1 wn )
+c2,i (t1,2 w1 + t2,2 w2 + . . . + tn,2 wn )
+ · · · + cn,i (t1,n w1 + t2,n w2 + . . . + tn,n wn )
Gathering coefficients of w1 , w2 , . . . , wn , we have:
T (U (wi )) = (c1,i t1,1 + c2,i t1,2 + · · · + cn,i t1,n )w1
+(c1,i t2,1 + c2,i t2,2 + · · · + cn,i t2,n )w2
+ · · · + (c1,i tn,1 + c2,i tn,2 + · · · + cn,i tn,n )wn
We see that the coefficient of wj in the above expression is Row j of A dot Column i of
A−1 , which is always equal to 1 if and only if i = j.
Thus we have that T (U (wi )) = wi .
Now we see that for x ∈ W then x = b1 w1 +b2 w2 +· · ·+bn wn for some scalars b1 , b2 , . . . , bn .
T U (x) = T U (b1 w1 + b2 w2 + · · · + bn wn )
= T (b1 U (w1 ) + b2 U (w2 ) + · · · + bn U (wn ))
= b1 T (U (w1 )) + b2 T (U (w2 )) + · · · + bn T (U (wn ))
= b1 w1 + b2 w2 + · · · + bn wn
= x
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Theorem 2.22. Let β and γ be two ordered bases for a finite-dimensional vector space V ,
and let Q = [IV ]γβ . Then
(a) Q is invertible.
(b) For any v ∈ V , [v]γ = Q[v]β .
and
Defn 13. (p. 112) The matrix Q = [IV ]γβ defined in Theorem 2.22 is called a change
of coordinate matrix. Because of part (b) of the theorem, we say that Q changes β-
coordinates into γ-coordinates. Notice that Q−1 = [IV ]βγ .
Theorem 2.23. Let T be a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space V , and let
β and γ be ordered bases for V . Suppose that Q is the change of coordinate matrix that
changes β-coordinates into γ-coordinates. Then
[T ]β = Q−1 [T ]γ Q.
Let β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. As usual, we look at the ith column of each side. We have
Q−1 [T ]γγ Qei = [IV ]βγ [T ]γγ [IV ]γβ [vi ]β
= [IV ]βγ [T ]γγ [IV (vi )]γ
= [IV ]βγ [T ]γγ [vi ]γ
= [IV ]βγ [T (vi )]γ
= [IV (T (vi ))]β
= [T (vi )]β
= [T ]ββ [vi ]β
= [T ]ββ ei
The ith column of [T ]ββ .
Cor 1. Let A ∈ Mn×n (F ), and let γ be an ordered basis for F n . Then [LA ]γ = Q−1 AQ,
where Q is the n × n matrix whose j th column is the j th vector of γ.
Proof. Let β be the standard ordered basis for F n . Then A = [LA ]β . So by the theorem,
[LA ]γ = Q−1 [LA ]β Q.
Defn 15. (p. 115) Let A and B be in Mn (F ). We say that B is similar to A if there exists
an invertible matrix Q such that B = Q−1 AQ.
Defn 16. (p. 119) For a vector space V over F , we define the dual space of V to be the
vector space L(V, F ), denoted by V ∗ . Let β = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } be an ordered basis for V .
For each i ∈ [n], we define fi (x) = ai where ai is the ith coordinate of [x]β . Then fi is in V ∗
called the ith coordinate function with respect to the basis β.
Theorem 2.24. Suppose that V is a finite-dimensional vector space with the ordered basis
β = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Let fi (1 ≤ i ≤ n) be the ith coordinate function with respect to β and
let β ∗ = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn }. Then β ∗ is an ordered basis for V ∗ , and, for any f ∈ V ∗ , we have
Xn
f= f (xi )fi .
i=1
Therefore, f = g.