Thermal Stress Analysis of Fused-Cast AZS Refractories during

Production: Part I, Industrial Study

Steven L. Cockcroft and J. Keith Brimacombe
The Centre for Metallurgical Process Engineering, The University of British Columbia.
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada VGT- 124

Dennis G. Walrod* and Thomas A. Myles*

The Carborundum Company, Monofrax-S Plant, Falconer, New York 14733

A study has been conducted to understand and prevent and can range in severity from a few millimeters depth to pene-
the formation of cracks in alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS) tration of the entire block thickness. A photograph of a typical
refractory blocks during solidification processing. A funda- transverse crack on the surface of a longitudinally sectioned
mental approach has been taken, centered on the develop- casting is presented in Fig. 1. In service, these cracks can lead
ment of a three-dimensional mathematical model to predict to spalling, causing structural collapse, and also provide a
heat flow and stress generation in fused-cast AZS refractory larger surface area for chemical attack by molten glass and
blocks. In the first part of a two-part study, the “voidless” vapors, thus reducing the overall erosion/corrosion resistance.
casting process has been carefully examined in an industrial Depending on customer willingness to accept a cracked prod-
setting. From a survey of the distribution, frequency of uct, the blocks may have to be scrapped and recycled at consid-
occurrence, and fracture surface morphology of cracks, an erable cost. Thus, from the standpoint of production costs alone.
attempt was made to link the crack types found in the study there is a considerable incentive to determine the origin(s) of
to process variables. In-mold temperature data collected for these cracks and to eliminate them.
a single casting throughout the normal cooling period have A fundamental approach to solving the crack problem has
been used to validate the heat-flow model which is described been taken, centered on the development of a three-dimensional
in Part 11. The stress analysis, cause of the different cracks, mathematical model to predict heat flow and stress generation
and remedial action are also presented in Part 11. during casting. Because our knowledge of the process was so
rudimentary, a comprehensive analysis of the industrial process
I. Introduction was undertaken as the initial step. The overall study is described
in two parts. Part I presents the results of the study conducted at
D URING solidification processing, fused-cast ceramic com-
ponents are subject to a variety of defects which are similar
in many respects to those found in metal castings. Historically,
a production facility. The development of a three-dimensional
mathematical model to predict heat flow and thermo-elastic
stress is then presented in Part 11, together with recommenda-
these defects have been tolerated, because the components have tions for improving the mold design and preliminary test results
performed adequately in traditional applications and there has with the redesigned mold. Before describing the study, it is
not been a superior cost-effective alternative product. More worthwhile to review briefly the major features of the casting
recently, however, there has been a move toward the control process.
and elimination of these defects, particularly for those applica-
tions that demand high erosion/corrosion and thermal shock
resistance.
The various fused-casting processes that have been devel-
oped have evolved largely on the basis of trial-and-error optimi-
zation. As a result, our understanding of the processes at a
fundamental level is rudimentary and difficult to apply in
design and optimization. In the metallurgical casting industry,
on the other hand, the trend recently has been to a knowledge-
intensive approach utilizing computer-based mathematical
models for process analysis and design to achieve cast product
quality. Equally. the benefits of a more rigorous analysis of the
fused-casting process could be considerable.
The purpose of the present study was to develop a more com-
plete understanding of the cracking problems that arise in the
manufacture of aluminum-zirconia-silica (AZS) fused-cast
refractory blocks. Castings of this grade of refractory suffer
from cracks which occur during the solidification process. The
cracks appear in a variety of shapes, locations, and orientations

M. A. Stett--contribuling editor

Fig. 1. Photograph of transverse fracture on the surface of a longitu-

pinuscript No. 194637. Received April 26, 1993: approved September 30.1993. dinally sectioned 1220 mm X 254 mm X 457 mm (48 in. X 10 in. X
Member, American Ceramic Society. 18 in.) AZS casting.

1505
I506 Journal of the American Ceramic Sociew-Cockcroji et al.
11. Fused-Cast Refractory Process
The molding and casting procedures for the production of
fused-cast AZS refractories are analogous in many respects to
those followed in typical iron/steel foundries. Refractory com-
ponents, which primarily contain 47%-57% Al,O,, 3 3 % 4 1 o/o
ZrOz and 10%-15% SiO,, are manufactured by first melting the
raw materials in an electric-arc furnace and then pouring the
resulting liquid into sand molds. The basic molding lay-up for a
1220 mm X 254 mm X 457 mm (48 in. X 10 in. X 18 in.)
casting with end-pour is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.
Depending on the particular component and casting technique.
the casting may be repositioned under the furnace and poured
again after an hour or so in order to fill shrinkage voids ("void-
less" or "reduced void" casting technique) before it is left lo
cool for a period of time ranging from several days to weeks.
In the existing technology. the mold is constructed from a
rigid bonded silica form which is placed into a mild steel bin, or
flask, and then surrounded with loose sand (often referred to as
annealing sand). Graphite boards, or "chills," are sometimes
strapped to the exterior of the bonded sand form adjacent to the
major face to prevent bulging during solidification. The bonded
sand form is assembled from sections and is held together with
glue.
111. Literature Review
Ceramic materials, in general, exhibit a high degree of sus-
ceptibility to thermal shock failure, owing to their low thermal
conductivity and low strain-to-failure. For example, refractory
linings in high-temperature industrial furnaces often fail as a
result of stresses which arise during thermal cycling.'-' A math-
ematical model to predict the temperature distribution in solidi-
fying electrocast AZS refractories has been developed by
GottardLx Although sophisticated in their treatment of aspects
of the heat flow analysis, their model is limited to only two
dimensions and yields little insight into the mechanism for
crack formation in AZS during manufacture. Likewise, metallic
materials can also suffer from defects that are related to thermal
stresses generated during thermal processing.""
The role of various factors such as thermal history. stress
generation, and loss of ductility in the formation of cracks in
static cast steel ingots has been examined recently by Thomas
e/a/."-" Foremost in their study was the development of a
mathematical model to predict stress generation during thermal
processing. Numerical analysis of the process with the model
I i I I
Fig. 2. Mold/flasking lay-up for 1220 m m X 2S4 m m X 457 mm
(48 in. X 10 in. X 18 in.) AZS casting. The dimensions are
millimeters(inches).
Vol. 77, No. 6
indicated major regions of tensile and compressive stress linked
to an expansion on cooling associated with the y-a transforma-
tion in steel.'" The results of their investigation are particularly
noteworthy in view of the similar contraction/expansion behav-
ior of AZS shown in Fig. 3." In AZS, this behavior can be
attributed to the tetragonal-to-monoclinic transformation
occurring in zirconia.IXOn cooling, the martensitic transforma-
tion to monoclinic ZrO, results in an expansion of AZS of
roughly 0.8% by volume, which is similar in magnitude to that
caused by the y- transformation occumng in steel-around
0.9% by volume."
As well as the magnitude and distribution of stress. Thomas
tv a/." I" emphasized the importance of large thermal strains
acting on zones of low ductility as a mechanism of defect for-
mation. Fused-cast AZS solidifies into a complex fine-grained
composite of crystalline alumina and zirconia in a glassy sili-
ceous matrix." The thermomechanical behavior of this mateyial
obviously will be complex and dependent on the as-cast struc-
ture. Chan and Nicolson'" have examined the influence of the
glassy matrix on crack propagation and have found an increase
in the fracture toughness in AZS as the glassy phase begins to
soften at about 400°C followed by a maximum at about 650°C.
At temperatures above 650°C. the fracture toughness rapidly
decreases as the glassy phase loses strength, becoming more
liquidlike. This glassy phase likely will have a significant bear-
ing on the ductility of AZS refractory and thus its capacity to
tolerate thermal stresses.
IV. Industrial Study
The principal objectives of the industrial study were four-
fold: firstly, to develop an understanding of the distribution and
frequency of the cracking problem: secondly, to attempt to
establish links between the crack type(s) and process variables;
thirdly, to characterize the morphology of the fracture sur-
face(s); and fourthly, to collect temperature data which could be
used to validate the heat-flow mathematical model.
( I ) Survey of Fused-Cast Blocks
The "voidless" casting technique, shown schematically in
Fig. 2, was selected for the study, owing to its high susceptibil-
ity to crack formation. Moreover, at the industrial facility
involved in the study, this casting format is utilized for a variety
of different block sizes and compositions and hence provides a
good opportunity to examine the role of different parameters on
cracking (see Table I for the typical composition of different
AZS products). A total of 1233 castings were surveyed in the
study, ranging in size from 203 to 355 mm (8 to 14 in.) in thick-
ness, from 355 to 610 mm (14 to 24 in.) in width, and from
762 to 1828 mm (30 to 72 in.) in height. The experimental
procedure for the basic survey was straightforward and
0.012 , I
"i
8% a *
8
8 8.8 +
0.006
0.006 8
0.004 i 8 *+
Fig. 3. Thermal linear expansion/contraction behavior of AZS-CS3."
June 1994 Thermal Stress Analysis of Fused-Cast AZS Refractories during Production: Part I , lndustriul Study
involved visually inspecting each block to record the total num-
ber of defects, as well as the orientation and location of each
crack.
11. Examination of Crack Surfaces
In addition to a visual inspection, a series of drill core sam-
ples were taken of several of the cracks found in the study to
conduct a more detailed examination of the fracture surface.
A total of five drill cores 110 mm (4.5 in.) in diameter and
254 mm (10 in.) in length (the block thickness) containing
defects were removed. The cores then were thermally shocked
to expose the fracture surface for viewing and sectioned into
samples 25.4 mm (1 in.) in length suitable for analysis with the
SEM. Thermal shock separation was achieved by heating the
entire sample to 300°C and then water-quenching it. In all
cases, the original defect served as the fracture initiation site.
This procedure was also repeated for a drill core that did not
contain any defects, to provide a cold fracture standard.
111. Instrumented Mold
To complete the industrial study, a detailed examination of a
1220 mm X 254 mm X 457 mm (48 in. X 10 in. X 18 in.)
“voidless” casting sequence was completed. This examination
entailed instrumenting the mold with thermocouples, which
were placed at key locations with the objective of obtaining a
representative sample of the temperature distribution within the
mold. To simplify the installation of the thermocouples, the
mold was kept free of graphite chills, which are often used for
the reasons indicated above. A total of 60 thermocouples, 12
type-B (platinum4% rhodium vs platinum-30% rhodium) and
48 type-K (nickel-chromium vs nickel-aluminum) were used.
The assembly method essentially involved placing groups of
either four or six thermocouples at varying heights between
additions of annealing sand.
The voltage data from the casting sequence were collected on
a data logger, which was programmed to sample and record the
data periodically throughout the first pour, repour, and subse-
quent cooling over a period of approximately 9 days. In order to
reduce the volume of data collected, the scan rate was periodi-
cally decreased. To permit a comparison between the model
predictions and the plant data, the initial pour temperature and
ambient air temperature were measured and recorded for later
input to the model. The pour temperature was measured with a
hand-held, single-color, optical pyrometer which was aimed at
the pour stream as it issued from the furnace.
Once the casting was fully cooled, the refractory was then
carefully removed from the mold, checked for external cracks,
and sectioned to reveal the extent of the cracking internally.
V. Results and Discussion
(1) Type and Frequency of Cracks
The major impetus for the first part of the industrial study
was to understand the stress distribution qualitatively from the
disposition of the actual defects; this information then could
serve as a guide to the mathematical stress analysis. On the
Table I. Typical Product Composition*
Typical chemical analysis (9%) AZS-CS3 AZS-CS4 AZS-CSS
ZrOz 33.0 36.4 38.0
47.8 45.8
A1,0, 49.7
SiOz 15.3 14.0 12.9
BD, 0.2 0.2 0.2
NazO 1.1 1.1 1.1
FeA 0.1 0.1 0.1
TiOz 0.1 0.1 0 762(30)-1016(40)
Other 0.5 0.3 0.4
*Courtesy of The Carborundum Company, Monofrax-S Planl. Falconer, NY.
I507
basis of location and orientation, three basic crack types were
identified. Referring to Fig. 4, they are the type-A transverse
crack, which occurs exclusively on the broad or major face; the
type-B longitudinal crack, which is found in the middle of the
major face; and the type-E transverse crack (“edge-tear”),
which forms on the edge at the intersection of the vertical faces.
The vertical distribution of the type-A defects was recorded and
is presented in Table 11. From these data it is apparent that 72%
of the cracks were found to lie in a zone which encompasses
about the middle third of the casting. The probability of crack
formation then decreases in the lower portion of the block until,
within 254 mm ( 10 in.) of the base, it appears to increase. rising
from 4% up to 18%. As well as observing an increase in proba-
bility, it was also noted that the crack shape changed from pre-
dominantly transverse in profile at midheight to curved or
“smile-shaped” near the base. From these observations, it is
likely that there may be two type-A cracks with different mech-
anisms for formation-type-A1 found in the middle third of the
block and type-A2 found near the base.
The frequency of occurrence of each crack type as well as
type-A/B and type-A/E combinations is presented in Table 111.
The type-E cracks were found to be the most common,
occurring in 55% of the blocks examined, followed by type-A
in 23% and type-B in 20% of the blocks. Of these, the type-A
-
defects tended to be the most severe both in terms of length and
depth and often occurred more than once within the same block.
Combinations of different crack types also were observed. For
-
483(19) 279(11)
102(4)
L
I
1219(48)
F
b-+ b-4
457(18) 254(10)
Fig.4. Schematic illustration of cracks found in 1220 mm X 254
mm X 457 m m (48 in. X 10 in. X 18 in.) “voidless” casting. The
dimensions are millimeters(inches).
Table 11. Vertical Distribution of Type-A Defects
(Sample Population of 1233 Blocks)*
Frequency
Distance from block base (mm (in.)) distribution.
no. foundhotal no. (% )
0-254( 10) 18
254( 10)-504(20) 4
504(20)-762(30) 7
25
1016(40)-1270(50) 47
*Courtesy of The Carborundum Company, Monofrax-S Plant, Falconer. NY.
I508 Journal of the American CeramicSociety-Cockcrofr et al. Vol. 77.No. 6

Table 111. Frequency of Crack Occurrence solidification process. In Fig. 5, area A is likely the inside of a
(Sample Population of 1233 Blocks)* trapped gas bubble and not an actual fracture feature.
Frequency of occurrence. Focusing on the more troubling type-A and B cracks, the
Defect no. found/\ample no. ('74 1 SEM photographs of the type-A crack surfaces in general show
a smooth, less angular fracture morphology near the block sur-
~~

TYpe-A 23
TYpe-B 20
Type-E 55
Types-A and B 4 interior of the block. In contrast, for the type-B crack, the domi-
Types-A and E 14
*Courte\y of The Carborunduin Company, Monofmx-S Plant. Falconer, NY.
example, type-A and B cracks were found to be coincident in
4 9 of blocks examined, and type-A and E in 14%.
(2) Influence of Process Parameters on Crack Formation
Having characterized the scope of the cracking problem, a
preliminary examination then was made of the influence of
several process parameters, including block dimensions, pour-
stream composition. and pour rate, on cracking frequency
(unfortunately, pour tempcrature could not be included in the
list of parameters examined at the time of the study). The main
thrust was to provide a means of assessing links among the
various crack types and process parameters.
The results of this aspect of the study yielded some intercst-
ing results. the most notable of which is the sensitivity of the
type-A defect frequency to zirconia content. These results, pre-
sented in Table IV, suggest a decrease in the type-A crack fre-
quency from 26% to 239h as the zirconia content of the
refractory is increased from 33 to 38 wt% ZrO,. At a glance,
these results appear to downplay the role of the tetragonal-to-
monoclinic phase transformation in the generation of stress.
However, it is important to note in Table I that the ZrO, content
does not change independently and that there may also be sig-
nificant change in thc Na,O-to-SiO, ratio, which is known to
influence the mechanical properties of glass.' Thus. the
mechanical characteristics of the glassy phase may be changing
with ZrO, content, altering the capacity of the refractory to tol-
erate thermal stresses. Unfortunately. this has not been con-
firmed quantitatively.
(3) Morphology of Crack Surface
The third part of the industrial study focused on the charac-
terization of crack surface morphology. A series of SEM photo-
micrographs were taken of the fracture surfaces obtained from
the drill core samples. Virtually all of the fracture surfaccs
examined in the study exhibited both smooth regions and
regions of sharply defincd angular morphology. The former are
believed to be associated with the presence of molten and/or
viscous material at the time of crack formation, whereas the lat-
ter are more typical of brittle failure. This was the case even in
the photomicrograph of the low-temperature standard (refer to
areas A and B, Fig. 5). Clearly some of the brittle fracture sur-
faces may be attributed to the fact that the core samples con-
laining the actual cracks had to be thermally shocked open (as
described earlier, this procedure was carried out below 400°C.
the onset of viscous deformation in the glassy phase'"). In addi-
tion. the presence of the smooth surfaces may be linked to inter-
section of the fracture with casting porosity. formed early in the
face, typical of that shown in Fig. 6, which changes to a struc-
ture indicative of the surface of shrinkage cavities toward the
nant mode of failure appears to be brittle, and only small
regions exhibiting a smooth morphology are evident (see Fig.
7). These results suggest that the type-B defect is formed later
in the solidification process at a temperature below that at
which the type-A cracks are generated. Additional support for
this hypothesis is that, at points where type-A and B cracks
intersect, the type-B cracks are routinely observed to be discon-
tinuous across the type-A crack, indicating that the former were
the last to occur.
(4) Industrial Trial with Instrumented Mold
( A ) Initid Conditions: The pour stream temperature.
measured during mold filling, was found to range between
1870" and 1880°C. An average value of 1875°C (standard devi-
ation 7.0"C) serves as an estimate of the initial pour tempera-
ture. The accuracy of the pyrometer has not been formally
assessed. and the emissivity of AZS was assumed to be equal to
unity. The temperature of the pour stream during the repour,
carried out I h 43 min after the initial pour, was also measured
and found to be 1870°C. Only one measurement was taken.
The ambient air temperature was measured over the course of
the casting sequence and was found to range from a low of
17.8"C to a high of 26.8"C with an average value of 22.2"C
(standard deviation of 2.8"C). During the pour, an air tempera-
ture of 24.5"C was recorded and serves as the initial tempera-
ture of the mold and surrounding air.
( B ) In-Mold Temperature Responses: Once collected and
stored, the thermocouple voltage data were processed to yield
in-mold temperature responses. From a close inspection of all
of the data collected, a few key observations have been made:
( I ) In general, the temperature responses show an initial
rapid increase associated with the arrival of the heat pulse from
the hot refractory block, followed by a relatively slow decline in
temperature as the entire mold cools (refer to Fig. 8 which

Table IV. Variation in Crack Type-A Frequency with Pour

Stream ZrO, Content (Sample Population of 1233 Blocks)*
Frequency of occurrence.
Pour strcam ZrOI f ?4 ) no. found/total no.. type-A (74)

33.0 26
36.4 24
39.5 23
*Courtesy of The Carborundum Company. Monofrax-S Plant. Falconer. NY. 'Aver- Fig. 5. Photomicrograph of cold-fracture surface of AZS taken with
age 35.8 wt% ZrO.: standard deviation 159. an SEM at a magnification of 80 X .
June 1994 Thermul Stress Anulysis of Fused-Cusr AZS Refractories during Production: Purr I . Industrial Study
Fig. 6. Photomicrograph of type-A fracture at a location near the sur-
face of the block taken with an SEM at a magnification of 30 X .
Fig. 7. Photomicrograph of type-B fracture at a location near the sur-
face of the block taken with an SEM at a magnification of 80 X .
serves to illustrate the typical response observed up to 24 h). As
would be anticipated, the rate of increase in temperature and
peak temperature attained are both inversely related to distance
from the refactoryhold interface.
(2) Turning to Fig. 9, within 2 h the in-mold temperature
adjacent to the broad, or major, face is significantly hotter than
the equivalent position adjacent to the narrow, or minor, face
(the thermocouples are located 50.8 mm (2.0 in.) from each
face). The temperature difference increases to a maximum
value of 100°C at approximately 4 h. A comparison of the rela-
tive thickness of annealing sand adjacent to each of the faces
I so9
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
0.P.dThw(w
Fig. 8. In-mold temperature response from thermocouples adjacent
to the major face located 705 mm (27.8 in.) above the base of the
refractory. Note: distances are measured from the refractory/mold
interface.
'I200
0
0 4 6 12 16 20 24
o.Pud-1
Fig. 9. In-mold temperature response from thermocouples adjacent
to the major and minor faces located 705 mm (27.8 in.) above the base
of the refractory. S I mm (2.0 in.) from the refractory/mold interface\.
(305 mm (12 in.) minor face, 254 mm (10 in.) major face) sug-
gests that the opposite behavior would be expected, as there is a
lower resistance to heat flow adjacent to the major face. How-
ever, plotting the variation in temperature with distance from
the major face at various elapsed times (Fig. 10) reveals that the
heat pulse has not reached the exterior surface at the time when
the temperatures begin to differ. Thus, the difference in temper-
ature cannot be attributed to annealing sand thickness. It is con-
ceivable that a larger gap could open up between the refractory
and the mold adjacent to the minor face, thus reducing the sup-
ply of heat to the mold, which would result in a lower mold tem-
perature. Alternately, the lower mold temperature could be tied
to closer proximity of the center of the minor face to a block
edge.
(3) Comparing the in-mold temperature response of ther-
mocuples 51 mm ( 2 in.) from the major face at heights of 70
mm (2.7 in.), 705 mm (27.8 in.), and 1657 mm (65 in.) above
the base of the refractory in Fig. 1 1 suggests that the effect of
the repour on the temperature response is minor. At slightly
over 2 h elapsed time there is a perceptible increase in the slope
of the temperature response adjacent to the header. This is con-
sistent with the arrival of the heat pulse from the repour at 1 h
43 min elapsed time.
(4) From a comparison of in-mold temperatures obtained
with thermocouples located at varying distances from the base,
it is apparent that there is little or no axial temperature gradient
1510 Journal of the American Ceramic Society-Cockcroft et al.
\ 740
0-l
0 2 4 6 8
Distance From Eroad-Fw
10
l2
exterior ol casting
Fig. 10. Variation in mold temperature with distance from major face
at 2. 4, and 8 h elapsed time. I181 mm (47 in.) above the base of the
refractory.
1000
800
G
% m
f
e!”
0 4 8 12 16 20
Elapsed Time (hn)
Fig. 11. In-mold temperature response from thermocouples located
51 m m ( 2 in.) from the major face. Note: distances are measured from
the base of the refractory.
in a zone at midheight in the mold. The extent of this zone has
been established by plotting the temperature 5 I mm (2 in.) from
the major face as a function of vertical distance from the base of
the refractory at 15 h elapsed time. The results, presented in
Fig. 12, indicate that the region extends over about the middle
two-thirds of the refractory (below about 762 mm (30 in.) and
above about 1397 mm (55 in.) axial heat flow becomes a factor.
(C) Refiucrory Autopsy: The results of the casting
autopsy are presented schematically in Fig. 13. Most obvious
were three large type-A transverse cracks observed in a zone at
roughly midheight of the cast block. Two of these cracks are
classified as “show-through” (appearing on opposite sides). The
third, revealed by sectioning the block, does not intersect the
surface and hence would have been missed by normal inspec-
tion practices. Figure 13 also shows that there was a fourth
type-A crack located near the base of the refractory. In contrast
to the other three type-A cracks, the lower crack is limited to the
surface of one face only and is significantly different in shape,
consistent with the findings of the survey. Also found on the test
casting were four transverse, type-E, edge cracks, as shown in
Fig. 13. It should be noted that type-B longitudinal cracks were
not observed in this casting.
Vol. 77, No. 6
.
I
1
t
0 50&nrn(20in)
r-1
1016mm(4Oin) 1524mrn(80in)
-2
2032mm(80in)
Vettical DislanceAbwe Retractory Base
Fig. 12. Temperature 5 I mm (2 in.) from major face at various dis-
tances from the base of the refractory at 15 h elapsed time.
24
Fig. 13. Schematic illustration of the results of the autopsy performed
on the instrumented “voidless“ block. AZS refractory. Note: units are
niillimeters(inches).
VI. Summary and Conclusions
A comprehensive industrial study of cracking in “voidless”
fused-cast AZS refractories involving a survey of 1233 cast
blocks, an examination of fracture surface morphology. the
instrumentation of a mold with 60 thermocouples, and the com-
plete autopsy of a refractory block have been completed. The
major findings may be summarized as follows:
( I ) Four basic crack types have been identified type-Al
transverse cracks, occurring in a zone centered around mid-
height on the major face of the block: type-A2 transverse
cracks, forming near the base of the block on the major face;
type-B longitudinal cracks, found in the middle of the major
face; and type-E transverse-edge cracks, appearing at the verti-
cal edge (intersection of the major and minor faces).
(2) Of the process parameters examined in the study, only
ZrO, concentration appears to have a small influence on crack-
ing. It was found that the higher ZrO, grades of AZS were less
susceptible to the formation of type-A1 and A2 defects. This
behavior may be related to the difference in the NazO-to-SiO,
ratio through its influence on the mechanical characteristics of
June 1994 Thermal Stress Analysis of Fused-Cast AZS Refractories during Production: Part I , Industrial Study
the glassy phase. However, this relationship has not been quan-
titatively established in the current study.
(3) An examination of the fracture surface morphology of
type-A and B cracks with an SEM has revealed that the type-A
defects tend to contain more high-temperature fracture features
than the type-B, suggesting that they were the first to form early
in the solidification process. Crack propagation paths at points
of intersection of type-A and B defects confirm that the type-A
defects initiate first.
(4) The results of a detailed examination of one casting
sequence using a mold instrumented with thermocouples has
revealed an interesting asymmetry in the rates of heat removal
from the major and minor faces. Unfortunately, there is no
obvious link between this observation and cracking. Neverthe-
less, the data collected were vital to validation of the heat-flow
model, to be presented in Part I1 of this study.
( 5 ) The results of the autopsy on the instrumented refrac-
tory have helped to build a picture of the internal morphology of
the type-A cracks, in particular, the presence of an internal
type-A1 defect and the limited extent to which the type-A2
defect is propagated below the surface of the refractory; this
question is also addressed in Part I1 of this paper.
In conclusion, the sum of the information collected in the
industrial study has led to a greater understanding of the state of
stress, but is inconclusive in establishing mechanisms for the
formation of the various defects found in AZS fused-cast
refractories. What is required as well is an understanding of the
generation of stress in AZS blocks during the casting process.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank The Carborundum Com-
pany for the support of research expenses, the support of SLC, and for the provi-
sion of valuable data.
References
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