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HVAC:
Handbook of Heating,
Ventilation and
Air Conditioning for
Design and Implementation
BY
ALI VEDAVARZ, PH.D., PE
Deputy Director of Engineering, New York City Capital Projects,
New York City Housing Authority and
Industry Professor, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY
2007
INDUSTRIAL PRESS INC.
NEW YORK
Vedavarz, Ali.
HVAC: handbook of heating ventilation and air conditioning / Ali Vedavarz, Sunil Kumar, Muhammed
Hussain.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-8311-3163-2
ISBN13 978-0-8311-3163-0
I. Heating--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Ventilation--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Air conditioning--
Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Buildings--Environmental engineering--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kumar, Sunil.
II. Hussain, Muhammed Iqbal. III. Title.
TH7011.V46 2006
697--dc22
2006041837
Cover Photo: Image published with kind permission of CVRD and Bluhm Engineering.
1st Edition
First Printing
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed and bound in the United States of America
All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form without permission of the publishers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iii
Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com
HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
14. AIR HANDLING AND VENTILATION 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN
(Continued) (Continued)
14–75 Determining Required Air Volume 15–53 Sizing the Expansion Tank
14–75 Estimating Weight of Metal 15–54 Compressed Air to Reduce Tank Size
14–77 Apparatus Casing Construction 15–54 Piping Details
14–77 Condensate Drains for Air Conditioning Units 15–55 Design of Piping Systems
14–78 Air Filters and Dust Collectors 15–58 Design of Two Pipe Reversed Return System
14–78 Air Filters 15–58 Final Check of Pipe Sizes
14–79 Dust Collectors 15–58 Design of Two Pipe Direct Return System
14–82 Dry Centrifugal Collectors 15–59 Piping for One-Pipe Diversion System
14–82 Wet Collectors 15–59 Sizing Piping for Main
14–82 Fabric Collectors 15–59 Sizing Piping for Branches
14–83 Electrostatic Precipitators 15–59 Pipe Size Check
14–83 Breeching Design and Construction 15–60 Piping for One-pipe Series System
14–83 Expansion 15–60 Combination of Piping Systems
14–84 Aerodynamics 15–60 Sizing Hot Water Expansion Tanks
14–85 Access 15–60 Conditions Affecting Design
14–85 Round Breeching Construction 15–61 Sizing Hot Water Expansion Tanks
14–85 Rectangular Breeching Construction 15–61 High Temperature Water Systems
14–90 Chimney Draft and Velocities 15–63 High Temperature Drop
14–92 Forced Draft and Draft Control 15–63 Heat Storage
14–94 Sizing of Large Chimneys 15–63 Limitation of Corrosion
14–95 Chimney Design and Construction 15–63 Pressurization of HTW System
14–96 Balancing Small Air Conditioning Systems 15–63 Steam Pressurization
14–97 Balancing Medium and Large Systems 15–64 Gas Pressurization
14–98 Balancing Duct Distribution 15–64 Air Pressurization
14–98 Balancing Systems Using Booster Fans 15–64 Nitrogen Pressurization
14–99 Air Balancing by Balancing and Testing Engineers 15–65 Expansion Tanks
15–65 Expansion Conditions
15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN 15–65 Determining Expansion Tank Size
15–65 Location of Steam Pressurizing Tank
15–66 Nitrogen Pressurizing Tanks
15–1 Large Systems 15–66 Application of HTW for Process Steam
15–1 Equivalent Direct Radiation 15–66 Circulating Pumps
15–1 Piping Connections to Boilers 15–67 Pumps for HTW Systems
15–3 Direct Return Connection 15–67 Manufacturer’s Information
15–3 Common Return Header 15–67 Pump Specifications
15–3 Two Boilers with Common Return Header and Hartford 15–68 Net Positive Suction Head
Connection 15–68 Effect of Cavitation Within Pump
15–4 Two Boilers with Separate Direct Return Connections from 15–68 Pump Construction for HTW Systems
Below 15–68 Circulating Pump Seals
15–4 Separate Direct Return Connections 15–69 Boiler Recirculating Pump
15–4 Connections to Steam Using Equipment 15–69 Boilers for HTW Systems
15–26 Piping Application 15–69 Boiler Emergency Protection
15–30 Industrial and Commercial Steam Requirements 15–69 Pipe, Valves, and Fittings for HTW Systems
15–39 Flash Steam Calculations 15–69 Valve Installation
15–40 Sizing of Vertical Flash Tanks 15–70 Welded Joints
15–40 To Size Flash Tank 15–70 Venting of Piping
15–41 To Size Float Trap 15–70 Effect of Load Variation on Operation
15–41 Airbinding 15–71 Pipe Sizing for HTW Systems
15–46 Estimating Friction in Hot Water Piping 15–73 Ratings of Steel Boilers
15–49 Hot Water Heating Systems 15–73 Ratings
15–49 Service Water Heating 15–74 Ratings for Steel Boilers
15–49 Operating Water Temperature 15–76 Stack Dimensions
15–49 Air Removal from System 15–81 Heating and Cooling Media
15–49 Water Flow Velocity 15–81 Brine
15–49 Prevention of Freezing 15–81 Glycerine
15–49 Water Circulation below Mains 15–81 Glycol
15–49 Limitation of Pressure 15–81 Other Media
15–50 System Adaptability 15–82 Warm Air Heating
15–50 Use of Waste Steam Heat 15–82 Early Types
15–50 Heat from District Steam System 15–83 Current Types
15–50 Summer Cooling 15–85 Furnace Performance
15–50 Types of Water Heating Systems 15–85 Testing and Rating of Furnaces
15–52 Design Recommendations for Hot Water Systems 15–86 Acceptable Limits
15–52 Water Velocity 15–87 Selection of Furnace
15–52 Pump Location 15–87 Rule for Selection
15–52 Air Venting 15–87 Blower Characteristics
15–53 Balancing Circuits 15–88 Blower Sizes
15–53 Filling Pressure 15–88 Duct System Characteristics
15–53 Preventing Backflow 15–88 Trends
15–53 Connecting Returns to Boiler 15–89 Warm Air Registers
15–53 Locating the Circulating Pump 15–90 Return Air Intakes
15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEM DESIGN 16. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL
(Continued) (Continued)
18–1 Design Procedure 20–4 U.S. System And Metric System Conversion
18–1 Contract and Mechanical Drawings 20–4 Length and Area
18–1 HVAC Drawings 20–4 Mass and Density
18–1 Floor Plans 20–5 Volume and Flow
18–5 Valve Symbols 20–6 Force, Energy, Work, Torque and Power Conversion
18–6 Piping Symbols 20–7 Velocity and Acceleration
18–7 Pipe Fittings Symbols 20–8 Metric Systems Of Measurement
18–8 Abbreviations for Scientific and Engineering Terms 20–8 Measures of Length
18–9 Lists of Abbreviations and Symbols 20–8 Square Measure
20–8 Surveyors Square Measure
19. CLIMATIC DESIGN INFORMATION 20–8 Cubic Measure
20–8 Dry and Liquid Measure
20–8 Measures of Weight
19–1 Climatic Design Conditions 20–10 Binary Multiples
19–1 Applicability and Characteristics of the Design Conditions 20–10 Terminology of Sheet Metal
19–27 Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperature for US Locations
21. INDEX
20. UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
PREFACE ix
This Handbook provides comprehensive technical information in a modular form to heating, venti-
lating, and air conditioning (HVAC) designers and practitioners, namely engineers, architects, con-
tractors, and plant engineers. It is also a handy reference for students mastering the intricacies of the
HVAC rudiments. Each chapter is self-contained to the extent possible and emphasis is placed on
graphical and tabular presentations of data that are useful for easy understanding of fundamentals
and solving problems of design, installation, and operation.
This Handbook draws upon the material presented in the Handbook of Air Conditioning, Heating,
and Ventilating, Third Edition, Industrial Press, which forms the basis of the presentation. New top-
ics and chapters have been introduced and previous information updated or rewritten. Examples
using software solution tools have been added alongside traditional solutions using formulae from
the handbook. The organization, however, remains, in the literal sense, a handbook.
We gratefully acknowledge the contributors and editors of the aforementioned Handbook of Air
Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating, whose knowledge is embedded throughout the present
book. We did not have the opportunity to meet any of them, but their written legacy has left an indel-
ible imprint on the present work.
An important source of information is the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers) repertoire of publications. ASHRAE serves as the authoritative,
and occasionally the sole, source of up-to-date HVAC related data and analysis. We acknowledge
their permission to use material from various publications, especially the latest ASHRAE Handbook
series.
ASHRAE Publications
1791 Tullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
Web Site: www.ashrae.org
We also acknowledge three corporations for supplying us with material for inclusion in the Hand-
book. We profusely thank Mr. Michael White of Bell & Gossett (an ITT Division), Mr. Kent Silveria
and Mr. Thomas Gorman of Trane Corporation, and Mr. Steven Boediarto of Preferred Utilities, for
facilitating the acquisition of these materials.
The Bell & Gossett corporation has graciously provided the ESP-PLUS software package to
accompany the Handbook. This software, a $100 value, permits users to select components based on
design or operating conditions.
Bell & Gossett (ITT Fluid Handling)
8200 N. Austin Ave
Morton Grove, IL 60053
Web Site: www.bellgossett.com
The Trane corporation has generously allowed us to include their Trace Load 700 load calculation
limited capability demonstration version software with the Handbook.
Trane C.D.S. Department
3600 Pammel Creek Road
La Crosse, WI 54601
Web Site: www.trane.com
x PREFACE
We are also grateful to the Preferred Utilities corporation for making available their publication on
the topic of combustion analysis, and consenting to let us base our combustion chapter on it.
Preferred Utilities Mfg. Corp
31-35 South Street
Danbury, CT 06810
Web Site: www.preferred-mfg.com
We acknowledge the input of our good friend, colleague, and HVAC critic, Mr. Naji Raad, whose
experience in the profession provided a critical review of the manuscript. We thank our editors at
Industrial Press, Mr. Christopher McCauley and Mr. Riccardo Heald, for their editorial input and
suggestions, for reading the manuscript as it developed, and keeping the project on track; and Janet
Romano for her cover design and production assistance. We acknowledge the effort of the many stu-
dents at Polytechnic University who helped in researching for material, proofreading the manu-
script, checking examples, and drawing figures. Those who deserve special recognition are Mr.
Saurabh Shah and Mr. Christopher Bodenmiller for the graphics, Mr. Nayan Patel, Mr. Pranav Patel,
and Mr. Prabodh Panindre for research, calculations, and proofing. Finally, we thank Kathleen
McKenzie, freelance book editor, for her considerable contribution to this Handbook’s style, format
and readability.
Every effort has been made to prevent errors, but in a work of this scope it is inevitable that some
may creep in. We request your forgiveness and will be grateful if you call any such errors to our
attention by emailing them to info@industrialpress.com.
Ali Vedavarz received his master of science degree in mechanical engineering from the University
of Bridgeport in Connecticut and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Polytechnic University in
Brooklyn, New York. Dr. Vedavarz is a member of ASME and ASHRAE and has published techni-
cal papers in ASME journals. Dr. Vedavarz is a licensed Professional Engineer in the State of New
York and is currently the Deputy Director of Engineering (for Design) in the Office of Capital
Projects at New York City Housing Authority. He is also an adjunct Industry Professor at Polytech-
nic University, Brooklyn, New York, where he teaches courses in HVAC design and energy sys-
tems.
Sunil Kumar received his bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, India, master’s degrees in mechanical engineering and mathematics from
the State University of New York at Buffalo, and a doctoral degree in mechanical engineering from
the University of California at Berkeley. He is presently a Professor of Mechanical Engineering and
the Dean of Graduate School and Associate Provost at Polytechnic University in Brooklyn, New
York. Dr. Kumar has authored over 100 journal and conference papers in the area of thermal-fluid
sciences and has extensive consulting and research experience in this subject area.
Muhammed Hussain received his bachelor’s degree from Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, and master’s degree in mechanical engineering from Poly-
technic University in Brooklyn, New York. He is a licensed Professional Engineer in the State of
New York. Mr. Hussain is presently working as a mechanical design engineer in the Department of
Citywide Administrative Services in New York City. Mr. Hussain is also a contributor to, and asso-
ciate editor of, Machinery’s Handbook.
PSYCHROMETRY
PSYCHROMETRY P = P1 + P2 + P3 (1)
Psychrometrics.—Psychrometrics is the study of the For atmospheric or moist air
measurement of the moisture content of atmospheric air P = P N + P O + P CO + P Ar + P v (2)
(moist air). Atmospheric air, or moist air is a mixture of 2 2 2
many gases and pollutants plus water vapor. The water Equation (2) can be written as
vapor (moisture) in atmospheric air exists in a super-
heated state at a very low pressure, usually less than 1 P = Pa + Pv (3)
psia. One can also define atmospheric air as a mixture of where Pa =partial pressure of dry air (mixture of N2, O2,
dry air and water vapor (moisture). In 1949, a standard
CO2, Ar); and
composition of dry air was defined by the International
Joint Committee on Psychrometric Data as shown in Pv =partial pressure of water vapor
Table 2-1.
Equation of State.—The ideal gas for dry air and
Table 2-1. Composition of Dry Air water vapor is as follows:
Constituent Molecular Mass Volume Fraction 1. For dry air:
Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
P a V = n a RT = m a R a T
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809
Argon 39.944 0.0093 or Pa = ρa Ra T (4)
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003
or Pa νa = Ra T
In HVAC study, psychrometry is commonly taken to
mean the study of atmospheric moisture and its effect on 2. For water vapor:
buildings and building systems. P v V = n v RT = m v R v T
Ideal Gas Approximation.—Atmospheric air pres- or Pv = ρv Rv T (5)
sure of 14.7 psi obeys the ideal gas law with sufficient
accuracy for most engineering applications. Errors in cal- or Pv νv = Rv T
culating the fundamental psychrometric parameters, such
as enthalpy, specific volume, and humidity ratio of satu- where Pa =partial pressure of dry air;
rated air at 14.7 psi are less than 0.7% for a temperature Pv =partial pressure of water vapor;
range of 60°F to 120°F when ideal gas relationships are V =total volume of mixture;
used. Accordingly, we will assume that atmospheric air
behaves as ideal gases with constant specific heat. Table v =specific volume;
2-2 gives the properties of some ideal gases. na =number of moles of dry air;
nv =number of moles of water vapor;
Table 2-2. Properties of Gases
Cp Cv
R =universal gas constant;
R K
Molecular Mass
1 5 4 5 . 3 2 f t - l b f / l b -m o l -° R , o r 8 3 1 4 . 4 1
ft -lbf /lbm -R
Relative
Symbol
Btu/lbm- R
Btu/lbm -R
J/kg-mol-°K;
kJ/kg-°K
kJ/kg-K
T =absolute temperature
Gas The mixture also obeys the perfect gas equations:
Air … 28.97 53.34 0.240 1.00 0.171 0.716 1.400
Argon Ar 39.94 38.66 0.125 0.523 0.075 0.316 1.667 PV = nRT or
Carbon (6)
dioxide
CO2 44.01 35.10 0.203 0.85 0.158 0.661 1.285 ( P a + P v )V = ( n a + n v )RT
Carbon
CO 28.01 55.16 0.249 1.04 0.178 0.715 1.399
monoxide where P =Pa + Pv is the total pressure of mixture; and
Helium He 4.003 386.0 1.250 5.23 0.753 3.153 1.667
Hydrogen H2 2.016 766.4 3.430 14.36 2.44 10.22 1.404 n =na + nv is the total number of moles in the mix-
Methane CH4 16.04 96.35 0.532 2.23 0.403 1.690 1.320 ture.
Nitrogen N2 28.016 55.15 0.248 1.04 0.177 0.741 1.400 To compare values for moist air assuming ideal gas
Oxygen O2 32.000 48.28 0.219 0.917 0.157 0.657 1.395
behavior with actual table values, consider a saturated
Steam H2O 18.016 85.76 0.445 1.863 0.335 1.402 1.329
mixture of air and water vapor at 75°F. Table 2-3 gives the
saturation pressure Ps of water as 0.43 lbf/ft2. For satu-
Fundamental Parameters.—Atmospheric pressure or
moist air pressure: Dalton’s law for a mixture of ideal rated air this is the partial pressure (Pv) of the vapor. The
gases states that the mixture pressure is equal to the sum mass density is 1/v = 1/739.42 or 0.001352 lbm/ft3. By
of the partial pressures of the constituents: Equation (5) we get
2–1
Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com
HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
2–2 PSYCHROMETRY
Pv 0.43 × 144 - Pv V Pa V
--1- = ρ = --------
- = --------------------------------------------- m v = ---------
- and m a = ---------
- (11)
ν Rv T 85.78 × ( 460 + 75 ) Rv T Ra T
3
= 0.001349 lb m /ft
Pv Ra
W = -----------
- (12)
Pa Rv
This result is accurate within about 0.2 percent. For non-
saturated conditions water vapor is superheated and the
agreement is generally better. For the air-water vapor mixture, Equation (12) reduces to
PSYCHROMETRY 2–3
2–4 PSYCHROMETRY
Dew Point Temperature (Td).—During the various At a given total pressure, the dew-point of a mixture is
seasons of the year, especially during the summer fixed by the humidity ratio W or by the partial pressure of
months, in localities where the water supply is cool, it is the water vapor. Thus Td, W, and Pv are not independent
common to see the outside surface of bare cold water properties.
pipes covered with moisture. Another common sight is
that of a glass of ice water with its outside surface covered Saturation.—The term "saturation" denotes the maxi-
with a film of moisture. The term often used to describe mum amount of water vapor that can exist in one cubic
the appearance of moisture on cold surfaces is sweating, foot of space at a given temperature and is essentially
as though the moisture came through the walls of the pipe independent of the mass and pressure of the air that may
or the glass. simultaneously exist in the same space. Frequently, we
speak of "saturated air". However, it must be remembered
What is actually happening is that the outside of the that the air is not saturated; it is the contained water vapor
pipe or the glass is at or below the saturation temperature that may be saturated at the air temperature.
corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the surrounding air. This saturation temperature is known Enthalpy.—The enthalpy of a mixture of ideal gases is
as the dew-point (Td) temperature, the temperature at equal to the sum of the enthalpies of each component:
which condensation first starts to appear on the cold sur- h = h a + Wh s (17)
face as the moist air is cooled at constant pressure.
Atmospheric air and water vapor mixture is usually ref-
Example 1, we calculated the partial pressure of the erenced to the mass of dry air. This is because the amount
water vapor in the air to be 0.3107 psia. Referring to Table of water vapor may vary during some processes but the
2-3, we find that the saturation temperature correspond- amount of dry air typically remains constant. Each term in
ing to a pressure of 0.3107 psia is 65.5°F by interpolation. Equation (17) has units of energy per unit mass of dry air.
Therefore, 65.5°F is the dew-point temperature of the air With the assumption of ideal gas behavior, the enthalpy is
sample. If any surface located in this air sample were at a function of temperature only. If zero Fahrenheit or Cel-
that temperature, moisture would start to condense on the sius is selected as the reference state where the enthalpy of
surface. dry air is zero, and if the specific heats Cpa and Cpv are
Air itself does not condense nor does it have anything assumed to be constant, simple relations result:
to do with the cooling and condensation of the water
vapor. Actually, the same cooling and condensation of the h a = C pa T
(18)
water vapor would take place if no air were present and h s = h g + C pv T
the entire process were carried out in a closed vessel under
vacuum. Since this definition of the dew point tempera- where hg =enthalpy of saturated vapor at that tempera-
ture is in common use, however, we will use it in our dis- ture, at 0°F is 1061.5 Btu/lb m and 2501.2
cussion. kJ/kg at 0°C
At the dew-point temperature and below, the air is said Cpa, Cpv = specific heat of air and vapor, respectively.
to be saturated because the air is mixed with the maximum Using Equation (17) and (18) with Cpa and Cpv taken as
possible weight of water vapor. If the mixture of air and 0.240 and 0.444 Btu/lbm-°F, respectively, we have
water vapor is cooled at constant pressure, but remains
above the dew-point temperature, there will be no con- h = ( 0.24T + W ( 1061.2 + 0.444T ) ) Btu/lb ma (19)
densation. However, as the mixture of air and water vapor
is cooled, the volume of each component will contract in h = ( 1.0T + W ( 2501.3 + 1.86T ) ) kJ/kg (20)
the same proportion because both are cooled through the where Cpa,Cpv = 1.0 and 1.86 kJ/(kg°C), respectively.
same temperature range. In other words, if a mixture con-
Example 2:What is the enthalpy of saturated air at 70°F
sisting of 1 pound of dry air and 0.15 pound of water vapor
at standard atmospheric pressure?
is cooled, the resulting smaller volume will still contain 1
pound of dry air and 0.15 pound of water vapor as both Solution: As per Equation (13)
gases will contract in the same proportion. Changes in the Ps Ps
temperature of an air-water vapor mixture do not affect W = 0.6219 ------ = 0.6219 ---------------
the amount of water vapor mixed with each pound of air Pa P – Ps
as long as the mixture is not cooled down to the dew-point
= 0.6219 ⎛ ---------------------------------------⎞
temperature. Under these conditions, the mass of water 0.3633
vapor per pound of dry air will remain the same regardless ⎝ 14.696 – 0.3633⎠
of the temperature changes. An air-water vapor mixture at 0.3633
a dry-bulb temperature higher than its dew-point temper- = 0.6219 × -------------------
14.3327
ature is said to be unsaturated and the water vapor in the
mixture is superheated. = 0.015764
PSYCHROMETRY 2–5
As per Equation (19) this air is brought into contact with the water at a lower
h = 0.24T + W ( 1061.2 + 0.444T ) temperature, the air is both cooled and humidified. If the
system is fully insulated so that no heat is transferred into
= ( 0.24 × 70 + 0.015764 ( 1061.2 + 0.444 × 70 ) ) or out of the system, the process is adiabatic and if the
= 34.01 Btu/lb ma water is at a constant temperature, the latent heat of evap-
oration can come only from the sensible heat given up by
Thermodynamic Wet-bulb Temperature (T*).— the air in cooling. The quantity of water present is
Fig. 2-3 represents an idealized, fully insulated flow assumed to be large (large surface area and quantity) com-
device where unsaturated moist air enters at dry-bulb pared to the amount evaporated into the air. We assume
temperature T1 enthalpy h1, and humidity ratio W1. When that there is no temperature gradient in the body of water.
h 1 + ( W 2∗ – W 1 )h f2∗ = h 2∗ (21) Pv Pv
W 2 = 0.6219 ------ = 0.6219 ---------------
The asterisk is used to denote properties at the thermo- Pa P – Pv
dynamic wet-bulb temperature. The temperature corre-
= 0.6219 ⎛ ---------------------------------------⎞
sponding to h2 for the given values of h1 and W1 is the 0.2563
defined thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. ⎝ 14.696 – 0.2563⎠
Equation (21) is exact since it defines the thermody- = 0.01104 lb v /lb a
namic wet-bulb temperature T*. Substituting the approxi-
mate ideal gas relationship for h from Equation (19), the W1 can be calculated by Equation (22)
corresponding expression for h* and the approximate
relationship hf2 at T2* into Equation (21) and then solv-
( 1093 – 0.556T∗ )W 2∗ – 0.240 ( T 1 – T∗ )
ing for the humidity ratio W1 gives W 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
1093 + 0.444T 1 – T∗
( 1093 – 0.556T∗ )W 2∗ – 0.240 ( T 1 – T∗ )
- (22)
W 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ( 1093 – 0.556 × 60 )0.01104 – 0.24 ( 70 – 60 )
1093 + 0.444T 1 – T∗ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1093 + 0.444 × 70 – 60
where T1 and T* are in °F. 11.698 – 2.4
= ------------------------------
The corresponding equation in SI units is 1064.08
( 2501 – 2.381T∗ )W 2∗ – ( T 1 – T∗ ) = 0.008738
W 1 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (23)
2501 + 1.805T 1 – 4.186T∗ By applying Equation (13)
2–6 PSYCHROMETRY
PSYCHROMETRY 2–7
Pv Pv
Φ = ------ × 100 W = 0.6219 ---------------
Ps P – Pv
= 0.6219 ⎛ ---------------------------------------⎞
0.4205 0.52193
= ------------------- × 100 ⎝ 29.92 – 0.52193⎠
0.73966
= 56.11 = 0.011 lb v /lb da
Example 5:Moist air exists at 70°F dry-bulb and 60°F From Table 2-4 at T= 70°F, find Ws = 0.0158320
dew-point when the barometric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg.
What is the relative humidity of the moist air? lbv/lbda, find Ws. By Equation (15),
2–8 PSYCHROMETRY
section describes how each variable’s curves appear so The location and positioning of the scales of the vari-
the user will see to which curves the examples refer. ous properties as well as the constant value lines for these
properties are shown in these simple charts which are not
Fig. 2-5 is the psychrometric chart for use at and above drawn to the actual scale. When you read the values or
sea level. Fig. 2-6 is the psychrometric chart for use at and draw lines, always use a sharp drafting-type pencil and
above 5000 ft. Dry bulb temperature is plotted along the straight edge.
horizontal axis. The dry bulb temperature lines are
straight but not exactly parallel and incline slightly to the
left. Humidity ratio is plotted along the vertical axis on the
right hand side of the chart. The scale is uniform with hor-
izontal lines parallel. The saturation curve slopes upward
from left to right.
Humidity ratio
Dew point temperatures is also horizontal. Dry-bulb,
W
wet-bulb, and dew point temperatures all coincide on the W = 0.010
saturation curve.Relative humidity lines with shapes sim-
ilar to the saturation curve appear at regular intervals.
The enthalpy scale is drawn obliquely on the left of the
chart. Enthalpy lines inclined downward left to right.
Although the wet bulb temperature lines appear to coin- Td
cide with the enthalpy lines, they gradually diverge with
respect to one another (i.e. they are not parallel). The Fig 2-4b. Lines of constant humidity ratio (W)
spacing of the wet bulb lines is not uniform. Finally we
note that specific volume lines also appear inclined from
the upper left to the lower right, similar to enthalpy and
wet bulb temperature lines they are not parallel.The
enthalpy, specific volume, and humidity ratio scales are
all based on unit mass of dry air, not unit mass of moist air.
W
A protractor with two scales appears at the upper left of
v = 13.5 ft 3/lb
Charts 1 and 2 of Figs. 2-5, and 2-6 respectively. One
scale gives the sensible heat ratio and the other the ratio of
enthalpy difference to humidity ratio difference.
Construction of the Psychrometric Chart: The charts of
Figs. 2-5, and 2-6 are slightly different organizations. Td
The ones here should be studied before any other psychro-
metric chart is used. To help the reader understand these Fig 2-4c. Lines of constant specific volume v on the
charts, examples follow. But first, simplified versions of psychrometric chart
the chart is shown in Figs. 2-4a to 2-4g.
w
T
T = 70 F
W
w
Td = 80
Td 80 T
d
Dry bulb temperature
Fig 2-4a. Lines of constant dry bulb temperature td on the Fig 2-4d. Lines of constant wet bulb temperature Tw on the
psychrometric chart psychrometric chart
PSYCHROMETRY 2–9
W
O = 80% Humidity Ratio W: Move horizontally to the right and
read W = 0.008778 lbmv/ lbma on the vertical scale.
Relative Humidity φ: Interpolate between the 50 and
60% percent relative humidity lines and read 56.11%.
Td Enthalpy h: Follow a line of constant enthalpy upward
to the left and read h = 26.38 Btu/lbma on the oblique scale.
Fig 2-4e. Lines of constant relative humidity φ on the Specific Volume v: Interpolate between the 13.5 and
psychrometric chart 14.0 specific volume lines and read v = 13.65 ft3/lbma.
Dew Point Tdp: Move horizontally to the left from the
reference point and read Tdp = 53.7 F on the saturation
curve.
h
h =35 Btu/lbda
O = 56.11
W
h = 26.38 Btu/lb
W = 0.008778
Tdp = 53.7
Td
Tw = 60
Tdp = 70
D = −0.1 Btu/lbma, and h = 26.5− 0.1 = 26.4 Btu/lbma.
Although psychrometric charts are useful in several
aspects of HVAC design, the availability of computer
programs to determine moist air properties has made
some of these steps easier to carry out. These programs
may be easily constructed from the basic equations of this
Td chapter. Computer programs give the additional conve-
Fig 2-4g. Lines of constant dew point temperature Tdp on the nience of choice of units and arbitrary (atmospheric) pres-
psychrometric chart sures.
2–22 PSYCHROMETRY
AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES and a simple cooling process, respectively. The simple
psychrometric diagrams of these processes are shown
Introduction.—The conservation of mass and energy Figs. 3-3 and 3-5 respectively.
is used in the study of air conditioning processes. Analy- Neglecting the fan work that may be present, the con-
sis of air conditioning processes is required for maintain- servation of mass and energy equations are as follows.
ing proper temperature and humidity in living space such
as residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. The Conservation of mass:
basic processes are as follows: m· = m·
a1 = m·
a2 a (1)
1) simple heating and cooling processes; m· v1 = m· v2 = m· v (2)
2) cooling with dehumidification;
W 1 = W 2 = constant (3)
3) heating with humidification;
4) adiabatic mixing of two air streams; and Conservation of energy:
5) evaporative cooling. m· a h 1 + q· = m· a h 2 (4)
These air conditioning processes are represented in q· = m· a ( h 2 – h 1 ) (5)
Fig. 3-1. Simple diagrams of the psychrometric chart are
shown in Figs. 2-5 and 2-6. h 1 = h a1 + Wh v1 (6)
h 2 = h a2 + Wh v2 (7)
By substituting Equations (6) and (7) in Equation (5)
with assuming ideal gas law and approximating a proper
acceptable value of W, for HVAC practice Equation (5)
H A B can be written in the following convenient form:
F D
where q· h = heating load, Btu/hr
E
cfm = air flow rate of dry air, ft3/min
T 1 = entering temperature, °F
T 2 = leaving temperature, °F
Similarly, in the case of cooling the following conve-
Fig 3-1. Fundamental air-conditioning processes nient approximate form is used for HVAC practice:
Process Direction q· c = 1.10 × cfm × ( T 1 – T 2 ) (9)
Simple heating O to C
where q· c = cooling load, Btu/hr
Simple cooling O to G
cfm = air flow rate of dry air, ft3/min
Humidification O to A
Dehumidification O to E T 1 = entering temperature, °F
Evaporative cooling O to H T 2 = leaving temperature, °F
Evaporative heating O to D IN
1 2
Heating and humidification O to B
Cooling and dehumidification O to F
ma
h1 ma
Simple Heating and Cooling (W = constant).—I n W1 h2
some heating applications, air is heated without moisture q W2 =W1
being added. An example of this process is a heat pump
with heating coil and no humidifier system. In the case of
a simple cooling process, in some chilled water cooling
applications air can be cooled without condensation. Figs. OUT
3-2 and 3-4 shows schematics of simple heating process Fig 3-2. Schematic of simple cooling process (sensible cooling)
3–1
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HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
air will be condensed on the cooling coil and then the con-
densate will be drained out. Because of this condition, the
specific humidity of the leaving moist air will be lowered.
The schematic cooling and dehumidification process is
shown in Fig. 3-6. The air conditioning system on psy-
W1 = W2 chrometric chart representation of this process is shown
in Fig. 3-7. The conservation of mass and energy equa-
tions for the cooling and dehumidification are as follows:
2 1 Conservation of mass:
Fig 3-3. Psychrometric diagram of simple cooling process m· a1 = m· a2 = m· a (10)
1 IN
2 m· v1 = m· v2 + m· w (11)
ma
m· w = m· a ( W 1 – W 2 ) where W 1 > W 2 (12)
h1 ma
h2
W1
q W2 =W1 Conservation of energy:
m· a h 1 = m· a h 2 + q· + m· w h w (13)
OUT
Fig 3-4. Schematic of simple heating process
m· a h 1 = m· a h 2 + q· + m· a ( W 1 – W 2 )h w (14)
q· = m· a ( h 1 – h 2 ) – m· a ( W 1 – W 2 )h w (15)
W1 = W2 IN
OUT 2
1 2 1
ma ma
Fig 3-5. Psychrometric diagram of simple heating process h1 h2
W1 W2
Example 1:Find the required heat to warm 2500 cfm of q
air at 60°F at 90% moisture humidity to 120°F without
addition of moisture.
mw
Solution: The mass flow rate of dry air is Condensate drain
cfm 2500 × 60 Fig 3-6. Schematic of cooling with dehumidifying process
m· a = --------- = ------------------------ = 11283 lb m /hr
ν 13.2944
The specific volume of air at 60°F at 90% is 13.2944
from the psychrometric chart Fig. 2-5.
From the psychrometric chart Fig. 2-5 h 1 = 25.1 1 W1
Btu/lbm and h2 = 39.89 Btu/lbm. By applying Equation (5)
3 x W2
q· = m· ( h – h )
a 2 1
= 11283 ( 39.89 – 25.1 )
= 166876 Btu/hr Fig 3-7. Psychrometric diagram of cooling with
dehumidifying process
By applying the ASHRAE Equation (8)
Example 2:What is the cooling capacity of a coil if 5000
q· = 1.10 × cfm × ( T 2 – T 1 ) cfm mixed air entering at 80°F and 67°F and leaving at
= 1.10 × 2500 × ( 120 – 60 ) 55°F at 90% relative humidity?
Solution: The mass flow rate of dry air is
= 165000 Btu/hr
cfm 5000 × 60
Cooling with Dehumidification.—In most of the cool- m· a = --------- = ------------------------ = 21687 lb m /hr
ing processes, the dew point temperature of the moist air ν 13.833
entering the cooling coil is higher than the cooling coil The specific volume of air at 80°F and 67°F is 13.833
surface temperature so that the water vapor in the entering from the psychrometric chart (Fig. 2-5).
The enthalpy of air at entering h1= 31.4 Btu/lbm, W1 = The schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 3-8. The
0.0112 lbv/lbda, h2 = 22.2 Btu/lbm, W2 = 0.0082 lbv/lbda, air conditioning system on psychrometric chart represen-
and the enthalpy of condensation h w = 23.0 Btu/lbv . tation of this process is shown in Fig. 3-9.
Applying the Equation (15) The conservation of the mass and energy equations are
as follows:
q· = m· a ( ( h 1 – h 2 ) – ( W 1 – W 2 )h w )
Conservation of mass:
= 21687 ( ( 31.4 – 22.2 ) – ( 0.0112 – 0.0082 ) × 23 ) m· = m· = m· (16)
a1 a2 a
= 198024 Btu
m· v1 + m· w = m· v2 (17)
= 16.5 ton
m· w = m· a ( W 2 – W 1 ) where ( W 2 < W 1 ) (18)
Heating with Humidification.—In most commercial
facilities such as large office spaces, hospitals, and mod- Conservation of energy:
ern schools where central heating and cooling HVAC sys- m· a h 1 + q· + m· w h w = m· a h 2 (19)
tems are used, it is desirable to humidify the supplied
heated air to various room and spaces in order to maintain m· a h 1 + q· + m· a ( W 2 – W 1 )h w = m· a h 2 (20)
comfortable relative humidity, especially in the locations
where the outdoor relative humidity during winter season q· = m· a ( h 2 – h 1 ) + m· a ( W 1 – W 2 )h w (21)
is very low. In the heating with humidification process,
air first is heated by the heating coil or gas furnace and Equation (21) can be written in the following useful
then is humidified by adding moisture before it is sup- form:
plied to the space. h2 – h1
- = ------
-------------------- q· - + h (22)
W2 – W1 mw· w
Heating medium
2 W1 m· a1 W 1 + m· a2 W 2 = m· a3 W 3 (25)
Conservation of energy:
m· a1 h 1 + m· a2 h 2 = m· a3 h 3 (26)
1 3 ν oa = 14.04 ν ra = 13.70
W oa = 0.009 W ra = 0.0111
ma ma
h1 h3 h oa = 31.54 h ra = 30.20
w1 w3
1500 × 60 4500 × 60
m· oa = ------------------------ m· ra = ------------------------
14.04 13.70
= 6410 = 19708
mw
h2 2 The condition of the mixed air is
w2
Fig 3-10. Adiabatic mixing of two streams process m· m = m· oa + m· ra = 6410 + 19708 = 26118
Solving Equations (23) to (27) for h3 and W3 gives: h oa × m· oa + h ra × m· ra
h m = -----------------------------------------------------
-
m· a1 m·
--------- h + h2 m
m· a2 1 31.54 × 6410 + 30.20 × 19708
h 3 = --------------------------- (28) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
m· a1 26118
1 + -------- -
m· a2 = 30.52 Btu/lb m
and
W oa × m· oa + W ra × m· ra
m· a1 W m = ---------------------------------------------------------
-
--------- W + W2 m· m
m· a2 1
W 3 = ------------------------------- (29) 0.009 × 6410 + 0.0111 × 19708-
m· a1 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 + -------- - 26118
m· a2 = 0.0105 lb v ⁄ lb v
Example 4:Find the heat transfer rate and mass flow rate
of a heating and adiabatic humidification process where
2000 cfm air enters at 40°F and 40% relative humidity and
leaves at 110°F and a relative humidity of 30%.
2 W2 Solution: First we will find out the outside air and return
3 W3
air properties. Given
1 W1
cfm = 2000
T 1 = 40 T 2 = 110
Fig 3-11. Psychrometric diagram of adiabatic mixing process
Φ 1 = 40% Φ 2 = 30%
Example 3:Find the condition of mixed air in which
1500 cfm of outside air 90°F at 30% relative humidity is Mass flow rate of dry air
mixed with 4500 cfm return air of 75°F at 60% relative
humidity. cfm × 60 2000 × 60
m 1 = --------------------- = ------------------------ = 9508 lb m /hr
Solution: First we will find out the outside air and return ν 12.62
air properties. We are given these data: The specific volume of air at 40°F and 40% is 12.62
from the psychrometry chart Fig. 2-5.
cfm oa = 1500 cfm ra = 4500 By applying the psychrometry chart (Fig. 2-5)
T oa = 90 T ra = 75 W 1 = 0.002 W 2 = 0.016
Φ oa = 30 Φ ra = 60 h 1 = 11.83 h 2 = 44.93
Make-up
water
B
Fig 3-12. Evaporative cooling system
A C
2 W2
Psychrometric diagram of Example 4
1
Evaporative Cooling.—Conventional cooling sys- 0 W0
tems such as rooftop and system air conditioning systems
and heat pump systems operate on a refrigeration cycle
that has high initial and operating and maintenance cost. Fig 3-13. Psychrometric diagram for evaporative cooling system
The high operating cost is associated with the high elec-
Heating and Air Conditioning System Cycles.—Fig.
tricity consumption of the compressor. The conventional
3-14 shows a schematic flow diagram of a simple air con-
refrigerant system can be used in any part of the world.
ditioning cycle. The psychrometric chart representation
However, in hot and dry climates, we can avoid the high
of a typical cooling and heating systems based on Fig. 3-
cost of cooling by using the evaporative coolers. The
14 are shown in Figs. 3-15 and 3-16.
evaporative cooler is based on a simple principle that as
water evaporates, the latent heat of vaporization is
absorbed from the water and the surrounding air. As a
result, both water and the air are cooled during this pro-
cess. The schematic process of evaporative cooling is
shown in Fig. 3-12. The psychrometric representation of
this process is shown in Fig. 3-13. During the humidifica-
tion process the enthalpy of moist air and the wet-bulb
temperature of the air remain approximately constant.
Conservation of mass:
m· a0 = m· = m·
a1 a (30) Fig 3-14. Air conditioning system
q· s + q· l = q· t
Humidity Ratio
r room s
q· l = q· t – q· s
g
in m heating
m
ix = 110000 – 88000
o = 22000 Btu/hr
Dry-bulb temperature
Fig 3-15. Psychrometric diagram of heating/humidifying process
Example 6:A room is to be maintained at 75°F and 50%
relative humidity. The outside air condition is 95°F and
60% relative humidity. The outdoor air requirements for
the occupants is 500 cfm. The total heat gain to the space
Humidity Ratio
o
is 60,000 Btu/hr with a 0.80 SHF. Determine the quantity
m and the state of the air supplied to the space and the
required capacity of cooling and dehumidifying equip-
r ment.
s
Solution: Assume that the conditions of air after the
Dry-Bulb Temperature cooling coil is 55°F and 90% relative humidity. Now
make a schematic diagram to locate the points on the psy-
Fig 3-16. Air conditioning cooling system
chrometric chart.
The following examples will provide good practice and
an approach to the analysis of HVAC cycles. T 0 = 95 Φ 0 = 60
q· s q·
m· 2 = ----------------------
SHF = ---------------
- ( h3 – h2 )
q· + q· s l
60000
q· s = -------------------------------
( 28.1 – 22.2 )
SHF = ----
-
q· t = 10170 lb/hr
q· s = q· t × SHF
= 110000 × 0.80
= 88000 Btu/hr
where q· t =total heat loss, Btu/hr
q· s =sensible heat loss, Btu/hr
q· l =latent heat loss, Btu/hr
m· h = q· + m· h 150000
= -------------------------------
1 1 c 2 2
( 46.2 – 28.2 )
q· c = m· 2 ( h 1 – h 2 )
= 8333 lb/hr
= 10170 ( 31.84 – 22.2 ) The flow rate of dry air is
= 98038 Btu/hr 8333 × 13.66
cfm ra = m· 2 ν 3 = ------------------------------- = 1898 cfm
= 8.17 ton 60
The flow rate of outside air is Fan: 4 inch of water pressure drop with 80% efficiency
cfm oa 500 × 60 EA RA
m· 4 = -------------
- = --------------------- = 2427 lb/hr
ν 12.36
The return air quantity will be (8333−2427) or 5906
lbm/hr. Assume return air condition and room air condi-
RA
tion are the same. Neglecting the return fan effect. SPACE
Mass of air: m· oa × W oa + m· ra × W ra
W m = ---------------------------------------------------------
-
cfm × 60 m· oa + m· ra
m· a = ---------------------
ν 16830 × 0.0133 + 43064 × 0.0103-
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13636 × 60 59894
= ---------------------------
13.66 = 0.0111
= 59894 lb/h Fan power:
Mass of water: cfm × ∆p
P = -----------------------t
q· l 6350 × η f
m· l = -----------
-
1100 13636 × 4
= ----------------------------
75000 6350 × 0.80
= ---------------
1100 = 10.737 hp
= 68.18 lb/h = 8 kw
Cooling coil capacity:
Humidity ratio of room air:
q· coil = m· a ( h m – h s – ( W m – W s )h c )
m· l
W ra = W sa + ------ = 59894 ( 31.61 – 23.30 – ( 0.0111 – 0.0092 )32.0 )
m· a
= 494078 Btu/hr
68.18-
= 0.0092 + -------------- = 41.2Ton
59894
= 0.010338 Winter load:
q· s = 1.10 × cfm × ( T ra – T sa )
At humidity ratio 0.10338 and 75°F, h ra = 29.31
Btu/hr. q· s
cfm = -------------------------------------------
-
Outside air requirement as per ASHRAE Code is 20 1.10 × ( T ra – T sa )
cfm/person. So the total outside air requirement = 200 × 600000
20 = 4000 cfm. = ------------------------------------------
1.10 × ( 135 – 72 )
Mass of air = 8568
Cooling coil capacity (condensate water at 64°F hc = Secondary heating coil for room-A:
32.0 Btu/h)
q· h1 = 48000 + 1.10 ⎛ ------------⎞ ( 75 – 55 )
2728
q = m· ( h – h – ( W – W )h )
coil a f s f s c ⎝ 2 ⎠
21566
= --------------- ( 32.78 – 23.30 – ( 0.011 – 0.0092 )32.0 ) = 78008 Btu/hr
2
= 101602 Btu/hr Secondary cooling coil for room-B:
= 8.46 ton 9584
q· c2 = ------------ ( 26.42 – 23.30 )
Secondary cooling coil for room-A: 2
11982 = 14952 Btu/hr
q· c1 = --------------- ( 26.42 – 23.30 )
2
Secondary heating coil for room-B:
= 18692 Btu/hr
Fig 10-1. Heating system for multiple dwelling building with direct return piping system
10–1
Copyright 2007, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com
HVAC: Handbook of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Fig 10-2. Heating system for multiple dwelling building with reverse return system
Fig 10-3. Primary system with constant speed heating system pump for multiple buildings
Fig 10-4. Closed chilled water system with constant speed chilled water supply pump and mixing valve
Fig 10-5. Closed chilled water system with variable speed chilled water supply pump
where x =solubility of air in water (% by volume) the return side of the terminal units (baseboard loop, con-
vectors, etc.). Air can get into the hydronic system as fol-
p = absolute pressure low:
H = Henry’s constant 1) During the initial fill of the system with city
water, which contains dissolved air. In order to
minimize the dissolved air during the initial fill,
an inline separator is recommended to be installed
in the piping system, as shown in Fig. 10-8.
Henry’s constant is a function temperature as shown in 3) Through the fittings in the part of the piping sys-
Figure 6. Taking into account the temperature depen- tem where the system pressure is below atmo-
dency of Henry’s constant and combining withEquation spheric pressure. Design must ensure that at no
(4), the percentage of the solubility of air in water can be point in the system the system pressure is lower
determined as shown in Fig. 10-7. Fig. 10-7 clearly shows than atmospheric pressure.
what percent of air volume would exist in the different
parts of the hydronic system when the pressure and tem-
perature are known. For example at 10 psia and 120°F, the 4) Other considerations are to ensure that (1) pres-
percent air volume if 2.5% from Fig. 10-7. Basically the sure at no point in the system will ever becomes
dissolved air in the water at the higher pressure point of lower than saturation temperature of the operating
the system can be separated at other parts of the system temperature and (2) the calculated (theoretical)
where the pressure is lower. That is the reason air vents net positive head (NPSHA) at the pump inlet is
are installed (1) at the top of the supply and return risers always exceeds the required net positive head
(highest point) where the pressure is the lowest and (2) at given by the pump manufacturer.
Pressure Increase Due to Change in Tempera- expansion which is why the size of expansion tank must
ture.— One should know of how much pressure will be based on temperature changes during initial system
increase due to temperature increase; this is especially fill. For example, in low temperature hydronic heating
important for the sizing of the expansion tank. The rela- system when boiler and piping system need to be initially
tionship between pressure change due to temperature filled during winter time, the city water temperature could
change in a piping system is given by the following equa- be as low as 40°F, which must be heated to 200°F. In this
tions: case, the piping system will experience a large tempera-
( β – 3α ) ∆t ture difference and the system expansion tank must be
∆P = --------------------------------- (5) sized to handle this large temperature increase. Another
⎛ 5---⎞ ⎛ ---------
D ⎞
- +γ option is that to heat the city water initially by means of
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ E ∆r⎠ electric heat to reduce the size of the system expansion
tank, but same procedure must be followed for the future
where P = pressure increase, psi;
system fill to avoid drastic damage to the piping system
β =volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion due to excessive expansion. It should be noted that the
of water, 1/°F; expansion tanks besides serving a thermal function serves
α =linear coefficient of thermal expansion for a hydraulic function as well. As a hydraulic device, the
piping material, 1/°F; expansion tank provides a reference system pressure
∆t =water temperature increase, °F; point analogous to the ground point in an electrical cir-
cuit.
D =pipe diameter, in.;
Expansion tanks are of three basic configurations: (1) a
E =modulus of elasticity of piping material, psi; closed tank, which contains a captured volume of com-
γ =volumetric compressibility of water, in2/lb; pressed air and water, with an air water interface (some-
and times called a plain steel tank) as shown in Fig. 10-12; (2)
∆r =thickness of pipe wall, in. an open tank (i.e., a tank open to the atmosphere) as
shown in Fig. 10-10; and (3) a diaphragm tank, in which a
flexible membrane is inserted between the air and the
water (another configuration of a diaphragm tank is the
bladder tank) as shown in Fig. 10-11.
Equations for sizing the three common configurations
of expansion tanks are as follow:
Open tanks with air/water interface:
For closed tanks with air/water interface: sphere must be located above the highest point in the sys-
tem. A tank with an air/water interface is generally used
with an air control system that continually revents the air
into the tank. For this reason, it should be connected at a
point where air can best be released.
Example 1:Size an expansion tank for dual temperature
system that will be operated at a design temperature range
of 40°F to 200°F. The minimum pressure at the tank is
62.3 psig (47.6 psia) and the maximum pressure is 117.3
psig (102.6 psia). (Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.)
The volume of water is 2500 gal. The piping is steel.
Fig 10-12. Closed tank air water interact
1. Calculate the required size for a closed tank with an
Expansion Tank Sizing .—Equations for sizing the air/water interface.
three common configurations of expansion tanks follow: Solution: From Table 2-3:
For closed tanks with air/water interface, V 1 ( at 40°F ) = 0.01602
V V 2 ( at 200 °F ) = 0.01663
⎛ ⎛ -----2-⎞ – 1 – 3α ∆T⎞
⎝ ⎝ V 1⎠ ⎠
V t = V s ----------------------------------------------------
P a P a⎞
(6) ⎛ V -----2- – 1 – 3α ∆T⎞
⎛ ------ – ------ ⎝ V ⎠
⎝P P ⎠ 1
V t = V s -----------------------------------------------
1 2 P a P a⎞
⎛ -----
- – ------
For open tanks with air/water interface, ⎝P P ⎠
1 1
V2
V t = 2V s ⎛ ⎛ ------⎞ – 1 – 3α ∆T⎞ (7) ⎛ 0.01663
------------------- – 1 – 3 × 6.5 × 10 × 160⎞
–6
⎝ ⎝ V 1⎠ ⎠
⎝ 0.01602 ⎠
For diaphragm tanks, = 2500 × -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
⎛ 14.7
---------- – -------------⎞
14.7
V
⎛ ⎛ -----2-⎞ – 1 – 3α ∆T⎞ ⎝ 62.3 117.3⎠
⎝ ⎝ V 1⎠ ⎠
V t = V s ---------------------------------------------------- (8) = 787 gal
⎛ 1 – ----- P 1⎞ 2. If a diaphragm tank were to be used in lieu of the
-
⎝ P ⎠ plain steel tank, what tank size would be required?
2
where Vt =volume of expansion tank, gal Solution: Using Equation (8),
Vs = volume of water in system, gal ⎛ V -----2- – 1 – 3α ∆T⎞
T1 = lower temperature, °F ⎝ V ⎠
1
T2 = higher temperature, °F V t = V s -----------------------------------------------
⎛ 1 – -----P 1⎞
Pa = atmospheric pressure, psia -
⎝ P 2⎠
P1 =pressure at lower temperature, psia
P2 =pressure at higher temperature, psia ⎛ ⎛ 0.01663
------------------- – 1⎞ – 3 × 6.5 × 10 × 160⎞
–6
V1 = specific volume of water at lower tempera- ⎝ ⎝ 0.01602 ⎠ ⎠
= 2500 × -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ture, ft3/lb ⎛ 1 – ------------
62.3-⎞
V2 = specific volume of water at higher tempera- ⎝ 117.3⎠
ture, ft3/lb
= 186 gal
α = linear coefficient of thermal expansion, in/in-
°F
= 6.5 ×10 −6 in/in-°F for steel
= 9.5 ×10 −6 in/in-°F for copper
∆T = (T2−T1),°F
The higher pressure is normally set by the maximum
pressure allowable at the location of the safety relief
valve(s) without opening them. A tank open to the atmo-
Expansion Tank Location: It should be noted that the impeller axially to the shaft and it has energy imparted to
location of the tank has no effect on the system pressure it by rotating vanes of the impeller. The fluid leaves the
before and after the pump as shown in Figs. 10-13 to 10- periphery of the impeller at a relatively high velocity and
16. Notice that, when the pump is on, the pressure at the is collected in the casing or shell. This casing is so
pump inlet decreases equal to the amount of pump head designed that the velocity of the liquid is gradually
and it increases at the pump discharge equal to the pump reduced before it is discharged. Here the velocity of the
head. In good design practice, in order to reduce the size liquid is converted into pressure by reduction of velocity
of the expansion tank, it is preferred to install the tank according to Bernoulli's theorem.
before the system pump. The size of the tank can also be The quantity of liquid discharged by the pump is
reduced when the tank is installed at the highest point of almost always measured in gpm, although sometimes the
the piping system where the pressure is the lowest. measure is cubic feet per second. In this discussion gal-
lons per minute is used as the unit.
Pressure developed by a centrifugal pump is specified
as head in feet of liquid.
2.31P
h = --------------
s
where s =specific gravity of the liquid compared to
water (water at 60/60°F = 1.00);
Fig 10-13. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to
pump pressure h =head in feet; and
P =pressure in psi.
The head developed by a centrifugal pump is a function
of the impeller diameter and the speed of rotation (rpm).
Maximum head that can be developed by a centrifugal
pump is when the discharge valve is tightly closed and the
pump is discharging zero capacity into the system. This is
Fig 10-14. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to known as the shut-off head of the pump. Since there is a
pump pressure
predetermined maximum pressure that the pump can
develop and this pressure is taken into account by the
designer, centrifugal pumps do not require relief valves or
other unloading mechanizers that are otherwise necessary
for the positive displacement type pumps. The maximum
or shut-off head h of any centrifugal pump can be very
closely calculated by the formula:
D×N 2
Fig 10-15. Effect of expansion tank location with respect to h x = ⎛ --------------⎞
pump pressure ⎝ 1840 ⎠
where D =outside diameter of the impeller in. and;
N =rpm.
fied impeller diameter and at a constant rpm is plotted that apply to the change in performance of a centrifugal
against the discharge of the pump in gallons per minute pump by a change in the speed of rotation or a change in
(gpm.) the impeller diameter of a particular pump. It should
always be remembered in using these laws of affinity that
Note that the maximum head developed by the pump is they are theoretical and do not always give exact results as
at zero capacity or shut-off as previously mentioned. compared with tests. However, they are a good guide for
predicting the hydraulic performance characteristic of a
The head-capacity curve extends from shut-off to max-
pump from a known characteristic caused by either alter-
imum or wide-open capacity. In other words, as the pump
ing the speed of rotation or the outside diameter of the
discharges more liquid, its pressure decreases. The slope impeller. The laws of affinity may be stated as follows:
of the head-capacity curve is due to (1) the curve or shape
and the number of vanes in the impeller; (2) friction or At a constant impeller diameter,
head loss within the pump. As the pump discharges more
1. capacity varies directly as the speed:
liquid, there is increased internal friction, and this friction
loss is actually a loss in pressure or head at the discharge 2. head varies directly as the square of the speed; and
of the pump hence, the slope in head capacity curve. The
pump designer can control to a certain degree the slope of 3. horsepower varies directly as the cube of the speed.
the head-capacity curve by the shape or warp of the impel- In equation form, the foregoing are expressed as
ler vanes and also by the number of vanes. The internal
friction, however, is a factor over which the pump gpm rpm
------------y- = -----------y-
designer has very little control. gpm x rpm x
The efficiency curve rises to a maximum within certain
2
capacity limits and then falls off toward the maximum head y rpm y
capacity of the pump. The brake horsepower curve is usu- --------------- = --------------
-
head x 2
ally as shown; that is, brake horsepower gradually rpm x
increases in value as capacity increases. Maximum effi- 3
ciency of a centrifugal pump lies within the design range. bhp y rpm y
------------ = --------------
-
A pump designer has a definite capacity and head upon bhp x 3
rpm x
which all calculations are based, and the calculations are
such that the maximum efficiency of the pump will be at At constant speed:
or very near design capacity.
1. capacity varies directly as the cube of the impeller
Pump Laws.—The efficiency of a centrifugal pump, as diameter;
for any machine, is horsepower output divided by the
2. head varies directly as the square of the impeller
horsepower input. When efficiency is known the horse-
diameter; and
power requirement of the pump is determined by the for-
mula: 3. horsepower varies directly as the fifth power of the
impeller diameter.
HP = gpm × DH × s-
----------------------------------
3960 × E Or, in equation form,
and control valves, that must be available in the form of extremely cold weather or in the event of a power failure,
pump pressure. water flow and temperature cannot be guaranteed. Addi-
tionally, continuous pumping can be energy-intensive
Preliminary Pump Selection: The preliminary selection and cause system wear. Designers should take following
should be based on the pump’s ability to fulfill the deter- precautions to prevent flow stoppage or damage from
mined capacity requirements. It should be selected at a freezing:
point left of center on the pump curve and should not
overload the motor. Because pressure drop in a flow sys- 1. Select all load devices (such as preheat coils) that are
tem varies as the square of the flow rate, the flow variation subjected to outdoor air temperatures for constant flow,
variable control.
between the nearest size of stock pump and an exact point
selection will be relatively minor. 2. Position the coil valves of all cooling coils with valve
controls that are dormant in winter months to the full-
Final Pipe Sizing and Pressure Drop Determina- open position at those times.
tion.—Final Piping Layout: Examine the overall piping 3. If intermittent pump operation is used as an economy
layout to determine whether pipe sizes in some areas need measure, use an automatic override to operate both
to be readjusted. Several principal circuits should have chilled water and heating water pumps in below-freezing
approximately equal pressure drops so that excessive weather.
pressures are not needed to serve a small portion of the
building. 4. Select pump starters that automatically restart after
power failure (i.e., maintain-contact control).
Consider both the initial cost of the pump and piping
5. Select non overloading pumps.
system and the pump’s operating cost when determining
final system friction loss. Generally, lower heads and 6. Instruct operating personnel never to shut down
larger piping are more economical when longer amortiza- pumps in subfreezing weather.
tion periods are considered, especially in larger systems.
7. Do not use aquastats, which can stop a pump, in
However, in small systems such as in residences, it may boiler circuits.
be most economical to select the pump first and design the
piping system to meet the available pressure. In all cases, 8. Avoid sluggish circulation, which may cause air
adjust the piping system design and pump selection until binding or dirt deposit. Properly balance and clean sys-
the optimum design is found. tems. Provide proper air control or means to eliminate air.
9. Install low temperature detection thermostats that
Final Pressure Drop.— When the final piping layout have phase change capillaries wound in a serpentine pat-
has been established determine the friction loss for each tern across the leaving face of the upstream coil.
section of the piping system from the pressure drop charts
(Chapter 9) for the mass flow rate in each portion of the When designing fan equipment that handles outdoor
piping system. After calculating the friction loss at design air, take precautions to avoid stratification of air entering
flow for all sections of the piping system and all fittings, the coil. The best methods for proper mixing of indoor
terminal units, and control valves, sum them for several of and outdoor air are the following:
the longest piping circuits to determine the pressure 1. Select dampers for pressure drops adequate to pro-
against which the pump must operate at design flow. vide stable control of mixing, preferably with dampers
installed several equivalent diameters upstream of the air-
Final Pump Selection.— After completing the final handling unit.
pressure drop calculations, select the pump by plotting a 2. Design intake and approach duct systems to promote
system curve and pump curve and selecting the pump or natural mixing.
pump assembly that operates closest to the calculated
design point. 3. Select coils with circuiting that allows parallel flow
of air and water.
Freeze Prevention.—All circulating water systems Freeze-up may still occur with any of these precau-
require precautions to prevent freezing, particularly in tions. If an antifreeze solution is not used, water should
makeup air applications in temperate climates where (1) circulate at all times. Valve controlled elements should
coils are exposed to outdoor air at below-freezing temper- have low-limit thermostats, and sensing elements should
atures, (2) undrained chilled water coils are in the winter be located to ensure accurate air temperature readings.
airstream, or (3) piping passes through unheated spaces. Primary and secondary pumping of coils with three-way
Freezing will not occur as long as flow is maintained and valve injection is advantageous. Use outdoor reset of
the water is at least warm. Unfortunately, during water temperature wherever possible.
INDEX 21–1
21–2 INDEX
INDEX 21–3
21–4 INDEX
INDEX 21–5
21–6 INDEX
INDEX 21–7
21–8 INDEX
INDEX 21–9
21–10 INDEX
INDEX 21–11
21–12 INDEX
INDEX 21–13