ATOMIC STRUCTURE

SEARCH FOR PATTERN TECHNIQUE

WHAT IS MATTER MADE OF?

Democritus: Matter is made up of very small,

BC 500 indivisible particles called ATOMS.
(Atomism)

Different samples of the same

Joseph Proust
compound always contain its
AD 1799 (Law of Definite
constituent elements in the same
Proportions)
proportion by mass.
 John Dalton 1. Elements are composed of extremely
(Atomic Theory) small particles called atoms. All atoms
of a given element are identical in size,
mass, and chemical properties. Atoms
of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.
2. Compounds are composed of atoms of
more than one element. In any
1808 compound the ratio of the numbers of
(Law of Multiple Proportions)
atoms is either an integer or a simple
fraction.
3. A chemical reaction involves only the
separation, combination or
(Law of Conservation of rearrangement of atoms and does not
Mass) result in their creation or destruction.
 Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of
J.J. Thomson cathode rays to be –1.76 x 108 C/g and
1890
(Discovery of Electron) was considered the discoverer of the
electron.

Wilhelm Röntgen Observed the emission of X-rays from

1895
(Xrays) glass and metals exposed to cathode rays.

Henri Becquerel Accidentally observed exposure of thickly

1896 (Radioactivity: -, -, and - wrapped photographic plates exposed to
rays) a certain uranium compound.

Conceived the atoms as a sphere of

J.J. Thomson
positive electricity in which are
1898 (Plum-pudding model of the
embedded the negatively charged
atom)
electrons.
 Performed the oil-drop experiment which
led to the determination of the charge of
R.A. Millikan
1908 the electron to be –1.6022 x 10-19 C and
(Mass of the electron)
consequently the mass of the electron as
9.10 x 10-28 g.

Alpha particle scattering experiment on

thin gold foils led to the nuclear atom and
Ernest Rutherford the discovery of the proton to have a
1910
(Nuclear Atom, Proton) charge of +1.6022 x 10-19 C and mass of
1.67262 x 10-24 g, 1840 times heavier than
the electron.

James Chadwick Alpha particle scattering on thin beryllium

1932
(Discovery of the Neutron) led to the discovery of the neutron.
 Charge
Particle Mass (g)
Coulomb Charge Unit
Electron 9.10939 x 10-28 -1.6022 x 10-19 -1
Proton 1.67262 x 10-24 +1.6022 x 10-19 +1
Neutron 1.67493 x 10-24 0 0
An atom is represented by the Lewis formula, ZXA where X is the symbol of the name
of the atom, Z is the atomic number and A is the mass number. How to determine the
particles in the atoms is shown in the table below. Do the following activity:

Activity
Examine the table below and deduce how the particles of the atoms are incorporated
into this formula.
Number of Number of Number of Lewis formula for
Name of Atom
protons neutrons electrons the atom
Hydrogen 1 0 1 1
1H
Deuterium 1 1 1 2
1H
Tritium 1 2 1 3
1H
Carbon-12 6 6 6 12
6C
Carbon-13 6 7 6 13
6C
Sodium 11 12 11 23
11Na
Oxygen 8 8 8 16
8O
Magnesium 12 12 12 24
12Mg
Iron 26 30 26 56
26Fe
Questions:
1. What is the origin of Z? What is the origin of A?
2. How do we know the number of electrons in the atom?
3. What is similar among hydrogen, deuterium and tritium? Among carbon-12
and carbon-13? When two or more atoms have this similarity, what do we
call these atoms?
Exercise

Fill up the table below. You may need the periodic table to answer the name of the
element.

Number Number Number

Symbol of
Lewis formula of of of Name of the atom
the atom
protons neutrons electrons
X13
7
37
17X
35
17X
108
47X
137
56X
X83
36
DETERMINING ATOMIC PARTICLES
Number Number Number
Symbol of
Lewis formula of of of Name of the atom
the atom
protons neutrons electrons

13
7X 7 6 7 Nitrogen N
37
17X 17 20 17 Chlorine Cl
X35 17 18 17 Chlorine Cl
17
108
47X 47 61 47 Silver Ag
X137 56 81 56 Barium Ba
56
83
36X 36 47 36 Krypton Kr
Study the table below for ions.

Number of Number of Number of

Ion Lewis formula
protons neutrons electrons
H1+ 1 0 0 1H
1

Ca2+ 20 20 18 20Ca
40

F1- 9 10 10 9F
19

K1+ 19 20 18 19K 39

N3- 7 7 10 7 N 14

O2- 8 8 10 8O
16

Fe3+ 26 29 23 26Fe
55

Questions:
1. How do we get the number of electrons in the ion?
2. Is the Lewis formula suitable for representing ions? Why or why not?
Problem Set 14

1. Surf the internet to answer the following:

2. What are the meanings of
a. Isobars
b. Isotopes
c. Isotones
3. Give specific examples of isobars, isotopes and isotones.
WHERE DO ELECTRONS RESIDE?

The atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of the
atoms. The location of the electrons however was a subject
of many researches.
 An electromagnetic wave has an electric
field component and a magnetic field
component travelling in the same
James Clerk Maxwell
1873 wavelength and frequency. Thus
(Electromagnetic Theory)
electromagnetic radiation is the emission
and transmission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb

energy only in discrete quantities or
Max Planck
1900 quanta (singular: quantum): E=h, where h
(Quantum Theory)
= Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J s, and 
is the frequency of radiation.
 Albert Einstein A beam of light is a stream of particles,
1905 (Photon Theory of Light and called photons, which could explain the
Photoelectric Effect) photoelectric effect.

Emission spectra of atoms are

Neils Bohr discontinuous. This was explain by Bohr’s
1913 (Bohr Theory and Emission theory of the atom, which showed the
Spectra of Atoms) energy of the hydrogen electron to be
quantized.

Waves can behave like particles and

particles can behave like waves (dual
Louis de Broglie nature of light), as related by the
1924
(de Broglie wavelength) expression, h
λ
mu
 Werner Heisenberg It is impossible to know simultaneously
1925 (Heisenberg’s Uncertainty both the momentum and the position of
Principle) the particle with certainty.

Erwin Schrödinger The energy and position of the electron

(Quantum Mechanical are specified by a set of three quantum
1926 Description of the Hydrogen numbers. These quantum numbers define
Atom) an orbital, a region of space where the
electron is most probably found.



QUANTUM NUMBERS
1. Principal quantum number, n. This number determines the energy of the electron as
well as the distance of the electron from the nucleus. Values for n = 1, 2, 3,…

2. Azimuthal quantum number, l. This gives the shape of the orbitals and has values
ranging from 0 to n-1. The value of l is designated as
l 0 1 2 3 4 5
Name of orbital s p d f g h

3. Magnetic quantum number, ml. This number describes the orientation of the orbital
in space. The values of ml range from -l to l

4. Spin quantum number, ms. This describes the spin of the electron as clockwise or
.
counterclockwise. The value of ms is ±1/2.
 QUANTUM NO.
NO. OF
ACTIVITY n ml ms
ORBITAL NO. OF ELECTRONS PER ORBITAL
ELECTRONS
PER ENERGY
LEVEL

Study the table 1 0 0

+½
1s 2 2
-½
showing the +½
0 0 2s 2
quantum numbers, -½
+½
the orbitals corres-

-1
-½
2py 2
2 8
ponding to the set of 1 0
+½
2pz 2
-½
four quantum num- +½
+1 2px 2
bers, and the number -½
+½
0 0 3s 2
of electrons per -½
+½
orbital and per -1
-½
3py 2
energy level and 1 0
+½
3pz 2
-½
answer the questions +½
+1 3px 2
that follow. -½
+½
3 -2 3dxy 2 18
-½
+½
-1 3dxz 2
-½
+½
2 0 3dz2 2
-½
+½
+1 3dyz 2
-½
+½
+2 3dx2-y2 2
-½
 QUANTUM NO.
NO. OF
ELECTRONS
ORBITAL NO. OF ELECTRONS PER ORBITAL
n ml ms PER ENERGY
LEVEL
+½
0 0 4s 2
-½
+½
Study the table -1
-½
4py 2
showing the 1 0
+½
4pz 2
-½
quantum numbers, +½
+1 4px 2
the orbitals corres- -½
+½
-2 4dxy 2
ponding to the set of -½
+½
four quantum num- -1
-½
4dxz 2

bers, and the number 2 0

+½
4dz2 2
-½
of electrons per +1
+½
4dyz 2
-½
orbital and per 4
+½
32
+2 4dx2-y2 2
energy level and -½
+½
answer the questions -3 4f1 2
-½
+½
that follow. -2
-½
4f2 2
+½
-1 4f3 2
-½
+½
3 0 4f4 2
-½
+½
+1 4f5 2
-½
+½
+2 4f6 2
-½
+½
+3 4f7 2
-½
• What quantum number determines the main energy level as 1, 2, 3 or 4 in 1s, 2s, 3px etc?
• What quantum number determines the shape of the orbital as s, p, d or f?
• What quantum number determines the orientation of the orbital as px, py, pz, dxy, dxz, etc?
• What quantum number determines the spin of the electron as +½ or -½?
• Why can one orbital accommodate only 2 electrons? What quantum number determines
this?
• What orbitals are degenerate (i.e. have the same energy?)
• How do you get the total number of electrons in an energy level? What is the relationship
between the value of n and the total number of electrons in an energy level?
• If an electron has the quantum numbers 4, +3, -2, and +½, in which orbital is it found?
• Is it possible for an electron to have the following quantum numbers: 3, 3, -2, and +½?
Problem Set 15.
1. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by an atom when the values of
n are:
a. n = 2
b. n = 3
c. n = 5
1. At what orbital does the electron occupy when the four quantum numbers are:
a. 3, 2, 1, +½
b. 3, 1, 1, +½
c. 3, 0, 0, -½
d. 4, 2, 0, -½
1. What quantum numbers are possible for an electron occupying the following orbitals?
a. 1s
b. 2p
c. 3d
d. 4f
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The electrons in an atom are distributed in the orbitals of

the atom. The distribution of the electrons is called
Electronic Configuration. Three principles must be followed
when constructing the electronic configuration of the
atoms.
PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
No two electrons have the same set of 4 quantum numbers.

HUND’S RULE
Electrons occupy orbitals of similar energy singly at first before pairing.
AUFBAU RULE

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s

2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

3d 4d 5d 6d 7d

4f 5f 6f 7f
Activity on Electronic Configuration, Periodic Table and Electron-Dot Symbol
Study the table showing electronic configuration of atoms of representative elements, their location in the
Periodic Table (Group 1/IA: alkali metal, Group 2/IIA: alkaline-earth metal, and Group 17/VIIA: halogen) and
their metallic property (metal, nonmetal, and metalloid).
 Problem Set 16.
Complete the following table:
LOCATION IN PERIODIC TABLE
NO. OF NO. OF
NO. OF OUTERMOST ELECTRON-
ATOM ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION VALENCE PERIOD TYPE OF METALLIC UNPAIRED
ELECTRONS MAIN LEVEL GROUP NO. DOT SYMBOL
ELECTRONS NO. ELEMENT PROPERTY ELECTRONS

11Na 11

12Mg 12

13Al 13

14Si 14

15P 15

16S 16

17Cl 17

18Ar 18

19K 19

20Ca 20

31Ga 31

32Ge 32

33As 33

34Se 34

35Br 35

36Kr 36
PERIODICITY OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of the elements based on
atomic numbers and is the result of the independent works of Meyer
and Mendeleev. The modern periodic table is arranged based on
atomic numbers and atomic properties. The rows of elements are
called periods and the columns of elements are called groups. The
groups in the past are labelled 1A to 8A (Representative Elements)
and 1B to 8B (Transition Elements) but currently they are simply
labelled 1 to 18. The blue colored elements are the metals, the
yellow colored elements are the nonmetals and the green colored
elements are the metalloids.
Elements of the same group have similar properties that recur periodically
from one period to another.
Atomic Size

The atom is about 10-10 meters (or 10-8 centimeters) in size, while the
nucleus of an atom is about 10-15 m. A row of 100,000,000 atoms would
have a length of 1 centimeter. Atoms of different elements are different
sizes, the average value is about 10-10 m.

Atomic size is determined by the number of main energy levels, thus,

atomic size increases from top to bottom within a group in the Periodic
Table. On the other hand, atomic size is affected by the nuclear charge,
thus, atomic size decreases from left to right within a period in the
Periodic Table.
Atomic Mass

The mass of the atom is practically in the nucleus. Although it is very small,
the nucleus contains more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. The atom
with the smallest mass is the hydrogen atom; its mass is about 10-27 kg. The
masses of atoms increases with increase in atomic number.
Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove the most loosely held
electron from a gaseous atom. The farther the electron from the nucleus, the
easier it is to remove the electron and the lesser the ionization energy. The
trend in ionization energy is the reverse of that in atomic size: Ionization
energy decreases from top to bottom within a group and increases from left
to right within a period in the Periodic Table.
Electron Affinity

Electron affinity is the energy released when an electron is added to a neutral

gaseous atom. The farther the electron to be added from the nucleus, the lesser is
the energy released. Thus electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a
group and increases from left to right within a period in the Periodic Table.

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the electron-attracting capacity of an atom.

The electron-attracting capacity of an atom is vested in the nucleus because of its
positive charge. The smaller the atomic size, the nearer the electron to the
nucleus, and the stronger the attracting capacity of the atom. Thus
electronegativity decreases from top to bottom within a group and increases from
left to right within a period. The most electronegative element is Flourine.
Problem Set 17.

Arrange the following elements

1. from smallest to biggest on atomic size: Na, Ca, F, Cl, K, Br

2. from largest to smallest ionization energy: Li, Mg, Ca, K, Al
3. from smallest to largest electron affinity: O, N, Cl, I, S
4. from largest to smallest electronegativity: Be, S, O, Cl, Br
CHEMICAL BONDING

Why do atoms form a bond? The basic reason is because

bonding lowers the potential energy between positive and
negative particles so that atoms which form a bond would be in
a state of lower energy. Just as the electron configuration and the
strength of the nucleus-electron attraction(s) determine the
properties of an atom, the type and strength of chemical bonds
determine the properties of a substance.
THREE TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS FORMED BETWEEN ATOMS:

1. Metallic Bond. This bond explains the properties of luster, malleability (ability to
form sheets), ductility (ability to form wires) and electrical conductivity of metals.
The atoms of metals are interconnected with each other by a sea of delocalized
electrons which travel all throughout the metal holding the atoms together.
2. Ionic bond. This bond involves transfer of electrons from one atom to another
resulting in the formation of cations and anion which then attract each other by
electrostatic attraction (opposite charges attract each other). This type of bond is
usually formed between Group 1A and 2A metals, which usually have low
ionization energies, and Group 6A and 7A nonmetals, which have high electron
affinities and stronger electronegativity. Examples: Na and Cl forms Na+ and Cl-
when an electron is transferred from Na atom to Cl atom; the electrostatic
attraction of Na+ and Cl- constitutes the ionic bond forming NaCl.
3. Covalent Bond. This bond involves sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of
bonding most commonly occurs between nonmetal atoms (although a pair of metal
atoms can sometimes form a covalent bond). Because nonmetal atoms have high
ionization energy, they hold onto its own electrons tightly and they tend to attract
other electrons because of their high electron affinity and electronegativity. The
attraction of each nucleus for the valence electrons of the other draws the atoms
together. The shared electron pair is localized between the atoms and is responsible
for the covalent bond between the atoms. The strength of attraction determine the
length and strength of the covalent bond. Nonpolar Covalent Bond is formed by the
same atoms or atoms with similar electronegativity.
Examples: H2, O2, F2, I2, Cl2, Br2, N2
3 TYPES OF COVALENT BOND

a. Nonpolar Covalent Bond is formed by the same atoms or atoms with

similar electronegativity. Examples: H2, O2, F2, I2, Cl2, Br2, N2

b. Polar Covalent Bond is formed by different atoms of different

electronegativities. Examples: HCl, H2O, NH3

c. Coordinate Covalent Bond is formed when only one of the atoms is the
source of the electrons used for bonding. Example: formation of NH4+
from NH3 and H+, where the bonding electrons come only from the N
in NH3.
LEWIS STRUCTURES OF BOND FORMATION

It’s easy to write the Lewis symbol for any main-group element:

1. Note its A-group number (1A to 8A), which equals the number of valence
electrons.
2. Place one dot at a time on the four sides (top, right, bottom, left) of the
element symbol.
3. Keep adding dots, pairing the dots until all are used up.
The Lewis symbol provides information about an element’s bonding
behavior:
1. For a metal, the total number of dots is the maximum number of
electrons an atom loses to form a cation.
2. For a nonmetal, the number of unpaired dots equals either the number
of electrons an atom gains in becoming an anion or the number it
shares in forming covalent bonds.
Rather than one pair of dots and two unpaired dots for C, as its electron
configuration ([He] 2s22p2) would indicate, carbon has four unpaired dots
because it forms four bonds. That is, in its compounds, carbon’s four
electrons are paired with four more electrons from its bonding partners for
a total of eight electrons around carbon.
The formation of LiF from Li and F is shown below. Notice that the outermost main
level of Flourine becomes fully filled with only 1 Lithium.
To easily convert a molecular formula into its Lewis structure, Silberberg
(2006) suggests the following procedure:
Step 1. Place the atoms relative to each other. For compounds of molecular
formula ABn, place the atom with lower group number in the
center because it needs more electrons to attain an octet; usually,
this is also the atom with the lower electronegativity.
Step 2. Determine the total number of valence electrons available. For
molecules, add up the valence electrons of all the atoms. (Recall
that the number of valence electrons equals the A-group number.)
Step 3. Draw a single bond from each surrounding atom to the central
atom, and subtract two valence electrons for each bond. There
must be at least a single bond between bonded atoms.
Step 4. Distribute the remaining electrons in pairs so that each atom ends
up with eight electrons (or two for H). First, place lone pairs on the
surrounding (more electronegative) atoms to give each an octet. If
any electrons remain, place them around the central atom. Then
check that each atom has 8e-.
Problem Set 18.
1. Using electronic configurations predict the formula of the product that would be
formed from the following pairs of atoms and write the Lewis structure of the product
formed.

a. O and Na c. O and O e. C and H

b. Mg and Cl d. N and N f. C and O

2. Draw the Lewis structures of the following compounds:

a. HCl b. HNO3 c. H2SO4 d. H3PO4 e. NH4Cl