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Aggregates For Use in Filter Media
Aggregates For Use in Filter Media
Principal function
Category of works Filter application
Drainage Pressure Filtration
" relief
Land drainage Surface blanket drainage
Ditch/trench fill
Drain/soakaway fill
Pipe filters
Pipe envelopes
Structure drainage Foundation drainage
Roadbed drainage
Runway drainage
Retaining structure drainage
Embankment dam drains
Slope drainage
Remedial and Uplift pressure relief
stabilization Seepage force prevention
works Saturation control
Piping prevention
Water supply Well filters
Well envelopes
Filtration and Fine & coarse filter beds
purification works Gravel underdrain envelope
Marine works Bedding layers
Transition layers
Pressure relief
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13.2. Key properties of filter aggregates gravels, and particularly the finer gravels, are com-
posed mainly of the hard and stable mineral quartz.
However, aggregate particles coarser than fine
13.2.1. General
gravel are not usually monomineralic but are com-
Particle size, grading, strength and durability are the posed of rock fragments in which the strength is
key properties, as these determine permeability, ease derived from the interlocking or cementation of indi-
of construction, stability and longevity. vidual mineral grains. Serious consideration must
Particle sizes in filter aggregates can range from fine then be given to the assessment of the strength and
sands to boulder-sized material. The aggregates are abrasion resistance of these aggregates.
usually placed and compacted in an unbound condition.
The completed filter layer or bed will usually need 13.2.4. Particle durability
to have the following properties: structural stability
(especially if placed in an unconfined situation); dur- Durability can be defined as the resistance of the
ability; high permeability combined with resistance aggregate under its working conditions to cyclic varia-
to internal erosion of fines; low frost susceptibility; tions in temperature, load, moisture content, freezing
low susceptibility to salt aggression, chemical attack and thawing, and chemical environment. It is essential
and solution loss. Physical and chemical breakdown that filter aggregates are durable in the long term and
in service may seriously impair the design grading of this is particularly important where high strength is
a filter, adversely affecting its performance. not a characteristic of the aggregate. Any breakdown
The strength, shape, surface texture and composi- of the constituent particles would increase the fines
tion of the individual particles will have an important content of the filter and alter its design grading and
influence on the above properties as will the abrasion efficiency.
resistance and crushing strength of the aggregate
since, if these are deficient, it may degrade during 13.2.5. Particle shape
placing and compaction.
This property is, after grading, as important as
strength in a filter aggregate and can be discussed
13.2.2. Grading under two main headings. The first relates to
whether a particular particle is basically equidimen-
This is fundamental to the design of a filter, detailed sional in shape or whether it is flaky or elongated.
consideration of which is beyond the scope of this In general, it is desirable for filter aggregates to be
report. Filters in contact with natural soils or con- essentially equidimensional as this aids the flow distri-
trolled fill material may be designed in accordance bution through the medium and also facilitates packing
with criteria originally given by Terzaghi & Peck of the coarser and fine constituents and improves the
(1964), but current practice favours the design criteria effectiveness of the filter. The second important shape
developed by Sherard & Dunnigan (1985, 1989) and characteristic is roundness and again it is better for
issued as guidelines by the U.S. Department of the filter aggregate to have rounded, as opposed to
Agriculture (1986). angular, edges to most particles.
Multi-layered construction will tend to be used for However, rather different considerations apply to
the thicker filter layers. A very wide range of particle biological percolating filters, where the aggregate
sizes, from fine sand up to boulders, might, therefore, acts mainly as a supporting medium to a microbial
be used in different parts of a filter zone. An important film and its specific surface is, therefore, important.
requirement is freedom from silt and clay and it is This is discussed in w
commonly specified that any material passing the
425 ~tm BS sieve shall be non-plastic when tested in 13.2.6. Particle texture
accordance with BS 1377. It would also normally
have a fines content below 10%. Surface texture affects to a lesser extent both the flow
of liquid through the filter and the filtration character-
13.2.3. Aggregate strength istics of the material. A smooth glassy surface is useful
from a drainage aspect but not so efficient from a
Since in the absence of a cementitious binder, the sta- filtration or fines ingress viewpoint, where a rougher
bility and load-bearing properties of a filter depend on surface texture is considered more advantageous.
the aggregate particles alone, these must be strong
enough to prevent breakdown during construction 13.2.7. Surface coatings
and when in use. Fine-grained materials normally
used for filters are generally those which nature has Some aggregates have a coating that may, or may not,
selected as the most durable. Thus, many sands and be easily removed during initial processing. Coatings
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TABLE13.2. Suggested tests for evaluation of aggregates for general filter applications
(a)
(b)
FIG. 13.1. (a) Gravel filter media for water treatment (courtesy Thames Water plc). (b) Sand filter (courtesy Thames Water plc).
Rapid filters usually comprise from 0.6m to 0.8 m of from contaminants. It should not lose more than
coarse sand supported on several layers of fine to 2% by weight after immersion for 24 hours in 20%
coarse gravel to give a total bed thickness of 1.0 m to hydrochloric acid at 20~ Both rounded and
1.3m. angular grains may be used, but they should not be
flaky. Filter sand is normally obtained from natural
13.4.2. Filter bed sand sand deposits by sieving, although crushed fines pro-
duced from rocks composed predominantly of
The sand should be hard, abrasion resistant and free quartz are sometimes used.
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A G G R E G A T E S F O R USE IN F I L T E R M E D I A 295
13.4.3. Filter gravel liquid is exposed and it, therefore, follows that the
surface area per unit volume of the media should be
The gravel or coarse layer in a filter system has several as large as possible, consistent with adequate aeration
functions. It supports the sand, permits the filtered and permeability.
water to move freely towards the underdrain and, This is best achieved with single-sized filter media.
in the case of a rapid filter, facilitates a uniform flow Percolating filters of optimum surface area and void
distribution. The coarse material should be clean, ratio can either be manufactured, usually of plastic,
hard, durable, and free from flat, flaky or elongated or alternatively, filter beds may be constructed from
particles. natural aggregates which may not possess optimum
characteristics but have the advantage of low unit
cost.
13.5. Aggregates for biological Biological percolating filters formed with natural
percolating filters aggregates typically consist of between 1.5m and
3.0m thickness of single-sized coarse aggregate over
The term 'filter' is a misnomer as the process involved which the liquid to be treated is distributed. BS 1438
is not truly filtering but a biological contact process. recommends that the aggregate should be selected
The filter medium is primarily required to support from the range 14mm to 63mm, the actual size
colonies of organisms, including bacteria and fungi, specified depending on the operating conditions of a
which exist in microbial layers on the surface of the system. Undersized material should not exceed 2% if
media and over which sewage or other pollutant the filter is to operate efficiently. A layer of 100mm
liquids are trickled so that the colonies may feed, in size aggregate is often used to support the filter.
an aerobic environment, upon the organic matter The aggregates may be naturally occurring or
present, see Fig. 13.2. crushed and should preferably be angular and of
The degree of treatment attained is largely depen- rough surface texture so as to maximize the surface
dent upon the area of microbial film to which the area. For example, a 25mm single-size slag 2was
found to have a specific surface area of 206 m / m 3
whereas the corresponding figure for crushed gravel
was 176m2/m 3 (Bruce 1968).
The aggregates must be strong enough to sustain
their own weight and, in particular, must be durable
and resistant to cyclic wetting over periods of many
years. It is found in practice that most strong rocks
are suitable for filter media, as are certain artificial
materials such as clinker and slag. Softer or potentially
soluble aggregates, such as some types of limestone,
have to be selected with care and are frequently
found to give unacceptable results in the sodium
sulphate soundness test.
BS 1438 sets out the particular requirements for
aggregates for biological percolating media in respect
of size, shape, flakiness, cleanness and durability. Dur-
ability is tested according to this standard by 20 cycles
of the sodium (not magnesium) sulphate sotmdness
test, samples showing more than 3% loss by this
method being considered unsound.