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Chapter2 PDF
Chapter2 PDF
After you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain how homologous structures, fossils, comparative anatomy,
embryology, and biochemistry provide evidence for evolution.
Describe the differences between relative dating and absolute dating of
fossils.
Compare and contrast microevolution and macroevolution.
Introduction
In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin first proposed a theory to
explain the ways species change through natural selection. Since that
time, a tremendous body of evidence that supports this theory has been
developed. Now, in the 21st century, the theory of evolution by natural
selection is accepted by biologists in much the same way that other sci-
entists accept the theory of gravitation and the atomic theory as valid
explanations for events that occur in the natural world.
No single idea explains the enormous diversity and complexity of life
on Earth more powerfully than the theory of evolution proposed by Dar-
win. Evidence that supports this theory includes fossils (see Figure 2-1),
the shapes and structures of living organisms, the chemicals all living
things are made of, and the distribution of species on Earth today.
24
Figure 2-1
Fossilized
trilobites.
ships. (See Figure 2-2.) Suppose that A, B, C, and D represent four living
species. The letters E, F, and G represent ancestral forms of these species
that are most likely extinct. In this case, organisms B and C are more
closely related because they evolved from
their common ancestor, E, most recently. B Present
A B C D
and C are both equally related to A, with a
more distant common ancestor, F. Organism
D is the least closely related to the others
E
because it evolved from their common ances-
Time
Fossils are traces or remains of dead organisms that have been preserved
by natural processes. There are many ways fossils can be formed. Although
it is usually only the hard parts of organisms—such as bones, shells, or
teeth—that become fossils, occasionally the complete remains of an
organism are found. In ancient times, organisms were sometimes trapped
in the sticky plant sap that oozed from certain kinds of trees. Later, the sap
turned into clear yellow-orange amber, a substance that looks like rock.
Amber samples collected from around the world contain mosquitoes, spi-
ders, leaves, and even small vertebrates such as lizards that are many mil-
lions of years old. Ice has preserved the remains of woolly mammoths,
elephantlike animals that have been extinct for thousands of years. (See
Figure 2-5 on page 28.)
A common way fossils are formed is through the gradual replacement
of the organism’s remains by other substances. In this method of fossil for-
mation, the organism is usually buried in sediments, its tissues slowly
28 Evolution
Fossils can be used as evidence for evolution only if the age of the fos-
sils can be determined. For many years, scientists could determine only
whether one fossil was older or younger than another—that is, their age
relative to one another. Relative age is determined by observing the lay-
ers of the rock in which the fossils are found. Remains of plants and ani-
mals are normally found in sedimentary rock. This type of rock forms,
often at the bottom of lakes or seas, when layers of sediments such as
sand, mud, or clay are deposited. Eventually the lower layers are com-
pressed by the layers settling down above them. The compressed lower
layers become cemented into rock. (See Figure 2-7.) In a series of undis-
turbed layers, the oldest are found at the bottom and the most recent at
the top. Therefore, the ages of fossils found in the layers can be related
to the ages of the layers. Because this method determines only if one
fossil is younger or older than another, it is called relative dating. (See
Figure 2-8 on page 30.)
Sedimentary
rocks
Backbone
Rib
Figure 2-10 illustrates five animals at very early stages in their develop-
ment. Although all of these embryos resemble one another, you might be
Yolk Yolk
sac sac
Figure 2-10 The early embryos of these five animals show some similarities.
? ?
Flamingo
Duck
Stork
Figure 2-12 DNA hybridization shows that flamingos are closely related to storks.
that of the red panda, also a member of the same family and not a bear,
as was commonlyLIVING ENVIRONMENT
thought? BIOLOGY,
From 1869, 2e/fig.
when the2-12 s/s panda first became
giant
known to the Western world, until recently, this question remained unan-
swered. DNA hybridization has now shown that the giant panda is indeed
a bear. The two pandas have developed by convergent evolution to resem-
ble one another in some ways. This makes sense, because they are both
native to the same mountainous environment in China, and both eat sim-
ilar plants.
Evolution occurs all the time within a species—on a small scale—as inher-
itable traits in a population change through natural selection from one
generation to another. This kind of change is known as microevolution.
When it occurs over a short period of time, this process does not produce
significant enough change to result in a new species. However, by study-
ing examples of microevolution, biologists can learn about the process of
evolution that does lead to significant changes, new species, and eventu-
ally entirely new groups of organisms. Change on a large scale over a long
enough period of time is known as macroevolution.
You may have observed moths fluttering around a bright light out-
doors on a summer night. One species of moth, the peppered moth, has
been carefully studied in England for more than a century. This study
provides one of the best-known examples of microevolution. When the
peppered moth was first studied, most were a light color. The moths were
well camouflaged when they rested on trees and rocks covered with light-
colored lichens. (See Figure 2-14 on page 36.) In 1845, a dark-colored pep-
pered moth was observed for the first time, in the northern English city
of Manchester. At that time, soot and smoke produced by coal-burning
Chapter 2 / Evidence for Evolution 35
factories had begun to pollute the air. The trees and rocks became dark
with soot, and the lichens began to die. The light-colored moths were
easily seen against the new, darker backgrounds on which they rested.
Increasingly, the light-colored moths became the easy prey of insect-
eating birds. By 1900, most of the peppered moths in Manchester were
dark-colored. Why did this happen? The darker moths were better cam-
ouflaged against the tree trunks and rocks blackened by the soot from the
factories. The process of dark-colored moths replacing light-colored moths
is known as industrial melanism. It has been observed with many species
36 Evolution
Light-colored
peppered moth
Soot-covered
bark of tree
since then, not only in Manchester but also in similar industrial cities in
the United States, such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is important to
LIVING ENVIRONMENT
understand that the light-colored BIOLOGY,
moths did not change2e/fig.
color;2-14they
s/s were
MEXICO
AMA
AN
P
VENEZUELA
Cocos
Island
Malpelo
Island
COLOMBIA
Pacific Ocean
ECUADOR
´
Galapagos Islands
PERU
Figure 2-16 On the Galápagos Islands, the ancestral birds and reptiles evolved
independently in response to their environments.
INTRODUCTION
Much evidence to support the theory of evolution is found in Earth’s fos-
sil record. In this investigation, you will make a model that shows how a
series of imaginary fossil organisms may have evolved.
MATERIALS
“Creature Sheet” handout (from the Teacher’s Manual), scissors, glue or
tape, unlined paper
PROCEDURE
1. Cut out each imaginary creature from the Creature Sheet.
2. Select one creature that seems to represent the oldest fossil, the ances-
tor of all the others. (Hint: Its form will be simpler than the others.)
3. Determine which creature appears to have evolved next. Continue
arranging the drawings to show a pattern of evolution from one form
to the next. There are several possible ways to arrange them. You may
arrange your creatures in a straight line or in a set of branched lines
similar to the branches of a tree. The pattern can branch into two or
more directions. You should be able to support the order you place the
organisms in with some logical reasons.
4. Glue or tape the creatures to the unlined paper in the order in which
you have arranged them. Draw arrows that show the direction of evo-
lutionary change.
INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS
1. Did you choose a linear or branching diagram, or a combination of
the two types? Explain your choice.
2. What shared characteristics did you use to determine the main
sequences or branches of your pattern?
3. Imagine what kind of environment the organisms at the end of each
branch or sequence of the pattern would live in. How might they
move? What might they eat?
■■ CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.
1. Which organism has the forelimb with the most “primitive” trait?
a. bird b. human c. horse d. whale
2. Examples of homologous structures are a. a dog’s tail and a
fish’s tail b. a bee’s eye and a fish’s eye c. a porpoise’s flipper
and a hawk’s wing d. a crab’s claw and a penguin’s wing.
3. Evidence for evolution is shown by a. homologous structures
b. fossils c. biochemistry d. all of these.
4. Scientists who study birds are called a. ornithologists
b. ichthyologists c. aviaries d. biogeographers.
5. The streamlined bodies and powerful tails of sharks, dolphins, and
ichthyosaurs (ocean-dwelling relatives of the dinosaurs) illustrate
a. divergent evolution b. convergent evolution c. retention of
ancestral traits d. development of vestigial organs.
6. Which of the following is not compared in order to clarify the
evolutionary relationships among related organisms?
a. analogous structures b. embryo development c. genes
d. DNA hybridization
7. Fossils are usually found in a. radioactive isotopes
b. igneous rock c. trap rock d. sedimentary rock.
8. DNA from a giant panda hybridizes more readily with DNA from
a brown bear than with DNA from a red panda. This indicates that
a giant panda
Chapter 2 / Evidence for Evolution 43
21. State what has been learned about farming that went on in Ecuador
and Mexico approximately 10,000 years ago.
22. Explain what conclusion can be made about agriculture in South
America.
23. Explain how scientists have learned about plants that were grown
by people in Ecuador long ago.