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Chapter9 PDF
Chapter9 PDF
Chapter9 PDF
Introduction
A woman collapses on the sidewalk. The packages she is carrying fall in a
jumble around her. “Does anyone know CPR?” a bystander yells. A police-
man rushes over. Kneeling beside her, he asks the woman if she is all right
and receives no response. Through his years of training, he knows that in
a medical emergency, getting oxygen to the brain is the highest priority.
Without breathing, brain cells lacking oxygen begin to be damaged
within 4 minutes. After 8 minutes, damage to the brain occurs that can-
not be corrected. After 12 minutes without oxygen to the brain, death
may occur. The policeman carefully assesses the stricken woman’s condi-
tion and determines that she is not breathing. After attempting unsuc-
cessfully to restore her breathing, he fills her lungs with his own air by
184
Chapter 9 / Matter on the Move: Gas Exchange and Transport 185
Cell membrane
O2 O2
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
◆ The respiratory surface has to remain moist at all times. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide must be dissolved in water in order to diffuse across a
cell membrane. A dry earthworm is a dead earthworm because its skin
is its respiratory surface. When its skin dries, the earthworm suffocates.
◆ The respiratory surface must be very thin so that gases are able to pass
through it. Not surprisingly, the cells that make up the respiratory sur-
face in many animals are of the same type as skin cells—very thin and
flat in shape.
◆ There must be a source of oxygen. The source may be dissolved oxy-
gen in the water, or it may be oxygen mixed with other gases in the
air. In either case, the respiratory surface must be near the water or air
that is supplying the oxygen.
◆ The respiratory surface must be closely connected to the transport sys-
tem that delivers gases to and from cells. For example, next to the res-
piratory surfaces in our lungs are the blood vessels that speedily move
the oxygen to all parts of the body.
Air tubes
transport occur in these animals? Look closely along the side of a cock-
roach or a grasshopper. YouLIVING ENVIRONMENT
will notice a row BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 9-4 s/s
of tiny openings in the
insect’s hard covering, which lead inside the animal to a series of branch-
ing tubes. These tubes, called tracheae, provide pathways that travel close
to all the cells of the insect’s body. Air is delivered directly to these cells
through the tracheae. (See Figure 9-4.)
In their 300-million-year history on Earth, the success of insects has
been in their numbers, not in their size. There will never be a cockroach
the size of an elephant. One reason for this is that having tracheal tubes
deliver air directly to all cells in the body works only for small animals.
Large animals need a different way to exchange gases. In these animals,
gases are delivered to blood vessels that transport the gases throughout
their body. All terrestrial vertebrates—animals with backbones that live on
land, such as frogs, snakes, birds, and humans—have two lungs (although
some snake species have a single lung). In shape, lungs look somewhat
like balloons. Located inside an animal, lungs are directly connected by
tubes to the air outside. Blood vessels next to the lungs transport gases to
and from body cells. (See Figure 9-5.)
Lung
Trachea
Anterior
air sacs
■■ A TYPICAL MAMMAL:
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human respiratory system is similar to the respiratory system of other
mammals. (See Figure 9-6.) Air moves through the nostrils into the nasal
cavity, where dirt and other particles in the air are trapped by hairs and
mucus. The air is also warmed, humidified, and tested for odors. The nasal
cavity leads to the pharynx, where it meets air and food arriving from the
mouth. Air continues flowing down, passing by the larynx. The vocal
cords are in the larynx. When air moves out of the body, it passes over the
vocal cords. The air causes the vocal cords to vibrate, producing the sounds
of our voice. The hollow voice box formed by the flexible cartilage that sur-
rounds the larynx helps amplify the sounds. In males, hormones increase
the size of the voice box. This enlarged voice box is called the Adam’s
apple. Continuing down the tube, the trachea is surrounded by rings of
stiff cartilage that act like the rings on a vacuum-cleaner hose. The rings
help maintain the tubelike shape of the trachea, thus keeping it open.
Figure 9-6
Lung Human
Lung (cutaway view) respiratory
Diaphragm system.
The trachea branches into two bronchi. Each bronchus leads to a lung.
In the lungs, the bronchi continue branching into smaller and smaller
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 9-6 s/s
tubes called bronchioles. Most of these tubes are covered on the inside
by mucus and by tiny hairlike extensions called cilia. The cilia move back
and forth in a wavelike motion. As dust and other particles in the air get
trapped in the mucus, the beating cilia help move them up the trachea.
190 Energy, Matter, and Organization
The mucus then gets swallowed down the esophagus or expelled by the
body. The cilia help keep clean the delicate tissues that line the lungs.
One of the many harmful effects of cigarette smoking is that the cilia are
paralyzed by inhaled smoke. When cilia are paralyzed, the lungs lose
much of their ability to keep themselves clean.
Bronchiole
Air
Deoxygenated
blood
Blood vessel Oxygenated
blood
Red blood Blood vessel
cell
Water
vapor Carbon dioxide
Air sac
Capillaries
These muscles move your ribs. When the muscles move the ribs upward
and outward, the rib cage expands. At the same time, the diaphragm, a
large flat muscle that lies across the bottom of the chest cavity, contracts
and moves down. This movement also increases the size of the chest cav-
ity. The air pressure lowers in the lungs because the same amount of air
suddenly has more space to fill. Inhalation occurs when air rushes into
the lungs through the respiratory tubes. The lungs fill with air. In other
words, air gets sucked into the lungs.
It takes work to move air into our bodies. To move air out, the
diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs relax. When they return to
their original positions, the volume of the chest cavity decreases. With
less space to fill, the pressure of the air in the lungs increases and air
moves out. Exhalation occurs. You have taken one breath. Breathing is
the physical process of inhalation—an active process that occurs when
the muscles contract—and exhalation—a passive process that occurs
when the muscles relax. About 12 times a minute, 720 times an hour, 24
hours a day, when we are asleep and when we are awake, we inhale and
exhale. Each breath is the breath of life. (See Figure 9-8.)
Diaphragm
A. Inhaling B. Exhaling
In time, the lungs are unable to inflate. A person with emphysema suf-
fers from shortness of breath. Eventually, even the smallest physical
effort becomes difficult.
◆ Pneumonia. This disease is caused by a bacterial or viral infection that
causes the alveoli to fill with fluid. Breathing becomes difficult. There is
a vaccine available that prevents certain types of bacterial pneumonia.
It has become very clear that for an aerobic organism to live and grow,
matter in the form of food molecules must be delivered to every cell. To
release the energy stored in those molecules, oxygen must make that same
trip to all cells. Finally, to prevent harmful buildups, carbon dioxide gas
and other wastes produced by cells must be taken away.
Imagine that your house is a cell. Think of everything that exists to
bring things to your house—water pipes, fuel trucks, mail and grocery
deliveries, and so on. Then there are things that have to be taken away
from your house. There are sewer pipes, garbage collectors, and recycling
bins. All of these efforts to deliver needed materials and remove wastes
from your house depend on transport systems. In the same way, an organ-
ism needs a transport system to service its cells.
Transport involves two processes. We have already met the first
process, absorption. To be transported to cells, materials must cross cell
membranes from the outside environment into the body. Absorption of
food molecules occurs through the lining of the small intestine. Absorp-
tion of gas molecules occurs through the lining of the lungs’ alveoli. Then
materials must be circulated throughout the body to where they are
needed. Transport involves absorption and circulation.
All organisms transport materials inside of them within a liquid, and
the transport fluid must reach every cell in the body. There have to be
pathways, vessels that are able to deliver materials around the body. These
vessels are similar to the water pipes in a house. Finally, there must be
something that forces the fluid through the transport vessels; the trans-
port system must have a pump.
194 Energy, Matter, and Organization
Why does a single-celled organism such as the ameba not need a trans-
port system? The moment materials are absorbed by the ameba across its
cell membrane from the aquatic environment, they are right where they
need to be, inside the cell.
However, all multicelled organisms, including animals and plants,
must transport materials around their bodies. One of the largest plants
on Earth is the redwood tree. Materials have to travel over 100 meters,
the height of a 30-story building, between the redwood’s roots in the soil
and the leaves at the top of the plant. The redwood tree absorbs water
through the cells of its roots. The plant’s root cells have extensions, root
hairs, which increase their surface area, similar to the villi that increase
Chapter 9 / Matter on the Move: Gas Exchange and Transport 195
the surface area of the small intestine. The water and minerals dissolved
in the water travel upward along pathways formed from xylem cells,
which are lined up one after another to form long, hollow tubes. Water
leaves a plant by evaporation from the stomates in its leaves, a process
called transpiration. At the same time, food produced in leaves high
above the ground is moved downward through tubes made of phloem
cells. Plants have two sets of transport vessels: xylem for water and min-
erals, phloem for food. However, they do not have pumps. Instead, fluids
are moved by the interactions of molecules. In xylem tubes, the interac-
tions involve water molecules; in phloem tubes, the interactions involve
sugar molecules. (See Figures 9-10a and 9-10b.)
Transpiration
Phloem Conducting
Xylem tissue
Storage 2e/fig.
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, tissue 9-10a s/s
Root hairs
Covering tissue
Growing tissue
Figure 9-10b Root hairs increase
the surface area of the roots.
196 Energy, Matter, and Organization
Stomach Heart
Compound Brain Artery Intestine
eye
Figure 9-11
Crayfish have
Esophagus
an open Anus
circulatory
Mouth
system. Ventral nerve cord
Digestive
Gills organs
Liver Hepatic
Afferent
branchial Heart Hepatic portal
arteries Sinus veins veins
Atrium
venosus
Ventral aorta
Ventricle
Where does the blood go when it leaves the heart? First it travels to the
fish’s gills to receive a fresh supply of oxygen and to give up the waste
gas carbon dioxide. Blood then travels through more arteries to all parts
of the body before returning to the heart. The blood travels in a circular
path around the body of the fish. Upon returning to the heart, the blood
enters the atrium, the first part of the heart. The blood is then pushed to
the ventricle, a thick-walled, muscular pumping chamber, before being
pushed out into the arteries. The heart of the fish has only two chambers:
a single atrium and a single ventricle.
Fish first evolved about 500 million years ago. It took another 125 mil-
lion years for the first amphibians to evolve. If you examine the heart of
a frog, you can see one of the big advances amphibians achieved in this
enormously long period of evolution. Unlike a fish’s, the frog’s heart has
three chambers, not two. Blood arrives in the left atrium from the lungs,
having been given a fresh supply of oxygen in exchange for carbon diox-
ide exhaled. The blood passes into the ventricle and gets sent throughout
the body. Returning to the heart after delivering its oxygen, the blood
enters the right atrium and again goes into the ventricle. While the frog
is underwater, the blood that enters the right atrium may also have got-
ten some oxygen that diffused from the water directly into blood vessels
in the skin. Now the blood gets sent to the lungs, getting a fresh supply
of oxygen—if the frog has been out in the air, not underwater—and then
it returns once again to the left atrium. You will notice that in the frog,
the blood travels twice along two different pathways. The pathway to and
from the lungs is the pulmonary circulation. The pathway to and from
the rest of the body is the systemic circulation. (See Figure 9-13 on page
198.) Amphibians were the first vertebrates to evolve this more efficient
system of transporting materials around the body. The blood really gets
pumped twice as it circulates—once after coming back from the lungs
and once after coming back from the body. Blood pressure is kept higher.
In addition, oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood are, for the most part,
kept separated by structures inside the ventricle.
Heart
Leg muscles
Figure 9-13
The circulatory system
of frogs has two
pathways: pulmonary
circulation and
systemic circulation.
begins its journey throughout the body through the aorta (the body’s
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 9-13 s/s
largest artery) to the other arteries.
Arteries have thick, muscular walls. They are very elastic, expanding
and contracting as blood from the heart is pumped through them in
pulses—one pulse for every heartbeat. The elasticity of the arteries’ walls
exerts pressure against the blood inside. This pressure is measured as your
blood pressure. Every time the heart contracts, a pulse of high blood pres-
sure occurs. This is called the systolic pressure and it is 120, on average,
in a healthy young adult. This number represents the height in milli-
meters to which the pressure of blood in an artery forces a column of the
heavy liquid element mercury. The pressure drops in the moments
between contractions. This is the diastolic pressure, normally about 80
millimeters of mercury. A person’s blood pressure is given using the two
values, for example, 120/80. If a person’s systolic and diastolic values are
above 140/90, the person is usually said to have high blood pressure.
Chapter 9 / Matter on the Move: Gas Exchange and Transport 199
The arteries become smaller and smaller as the blood moves away from
the heart. Eventually the blood enters capillaries, the smallest vessels.
Capillaries are close to every body cell. And it is in the capillaries that the
exchange of nutrients and gases to and from the blood takes place. After
moving through capillaries, blood returns through the thin-walled veins,
which get larger and larger closer to the heart. Unlike the walls of arter-
ies, the walls of veins have little elasticity; blood is under low pressure in
them. In fact, it would be very easy for blood to flow backward. For exam-
ple, in the veins of the leg, as the blood returns to the heart it flows
upward, against the pull of gravity. To prevent the blood in veins from
moving backward, one-way valves work to trap the blood. The blood
remains stationary in the veins until the beating of the heart and other
muscular activities, such as the contracting of leg muscles, force the blood
back up toward the heart. (See Figure 9-14.)
Smooth Covering
Smooth Covering muscle tissue Covering
muscle tissue Binding tissue tissue tissue Binding tissue tissue
The blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart. The sys-
temic circuit has been completed. After entering the right ventricle, the
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 9-14 s/s
blood then enters pulmonary arteries that take it to the lungs. After the
exchange of gases that occurs in the lungs, the blood returns by pul-
monary veins to the left atrium.
The heart of mammals has four separate chambers. (See Figure 9-15
on page 200.) Our circulatory system, which has the same layout as that
of all other mammals, works more efficiently than the circulatory system
of any other animal group.
The entire purpose of the transport system is to move materials to and
from cells. A capillary is so small that red blood cells must travel through
it in single file. Laid end-to-end, the capillaries in your body would circle
the globe at the equator. (That’s more than 40,000 kilometers!) Molecules,
including water, diffuse through the capillary walls and enter the spaces
200 Energy, Matter, and Organization
Aorta
Large vein
(from upper body) To body
Arteries to lungs
Veins
from lungs
Right Left
atrium atrium
Left
Valve ventricle
around body cells. These intercellular spaces are filled with fluid that sur-
rounds all cells. Molecules diffuse between this intercellular fluid (ICF)
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 9-15 s/s
and the body cells. The cells we evolved from billions of years ago existed
in warm, chemical-filled waters of the oceans. In just the same way, all of
our cells still exist in a warm, salty, watery environment. (See Figure 9-16.)
Of course, the heart is the star player in our circulatory system. About
the size of a clenched fist, its muscular actions pump the total quantity of
your body’s blood, about 5 liters, once around your body every minute.
Your heart will beat about 2.5 billion times during your lifetime, resting
between each beat. Each beat begins with an electrical signal that spreads
outward from a spot in the wall of the right atrium to the rest of the heart.
This spot is called the pacemaker. An electrocardiogram is a measurement
of electrical activity in the heart during each heartbeat. Abnormal activ-
ity in the heart can be detected by looking at a person’s electrocardio-
Small artery a
sm Food Small vein
Pla
Blood O2 Tissue cell ICF
ICF
CO2 Nitrogenous
wastes
Lymphatic vessel
Plasma Lymph
Capillary
Red blood cell
Figure 9-16 Molecules diffuse between capillaries, ICF, and body cells.
Salts (0.9%)
Proteins
(7% of plasma)
Other substances
(2.1% of plasma)
LIVINGgram. If a person’s
ENVIRONMENT heart
BIOLOGY, is not
2e/fig. 9-17 functioning normally,
s/s (rev10/13/03) an artificial pace-
maker that provides the correct electrical signal can be implanted in the
heart by a surgeon.
As the blood moves from the atria to the ventricles, valves between
the two chambers close. The closing of a valve creates the first part of the
“lub-dup” sounds of the heartbeat. The second sound, the “dup,” comes
as the blood leaves the ventricles and valves close behind it.
Blood itself is a tissue. But unlike any other tissue in the body, blood
is a liquid. Blood is made up of cells, cell parts, and a clear, light yellow-
colored liquid called plasma. Plasma is 90 percent water, plus many
important proteins, salts, vitamins, hormones, gases, sugars, and other
nutrients. One of the proteins, fibrinogen, helps in the clotting process
that stops bleeding caused by an injury. (See Figure 9-17.)
The cells in the blood include red blood cells, which contain the
oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, and white blood cells. There are
five types of white blood cells, all of which are involved in protecting the
body from disease-causing foreign substances. Blood also contains
platelets—fragments of cells that plug “leaks” where an injury occurs.
Platelets also begin the complex chemical process that results in produc-
tion of a blood clot. A blood clot stops the flow of blood out of a damaged
blood vessel. (See Figure 9-18 on page 202.)
By 2002, after decades of research, at least six blood substitutes were
close to being approved for use in patients. The most common of these
substitutes contains a synthetic chemical called perfluorocarbon, or PFC,
which can deliver oxygen where needed in the body just like hemoglobin
does.
202 Energy, Matter, and Organization
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
The human transport system is a cardio- (heart) vascular (vessels) system.
Cardiovascular disease includes several important diseases and is the cause
of more than one-half of all deaths in the United States. A heart attack
occurs when muscle tissue in the heart dies. The heart is made of muscle
tissue that contracts and relaxes many times a minute. Like any other
muscle, heart muscle must be supplied with blood, which brings nutrients
and oxygen and removes wastes produced by the heart. When the coro-
nary arteries that bring blood to the walls of the heart get blocked, the
heart tissue beyond the clot is not supplied with blood. When this hap-
pens, a heart attack occurs. If the clot affects only a small portion of the
heart muscle, the effects are relatively minor. If the clot affects a large part
of the muscle tissue of the heart, the effects might be devastating.
Unlike a heart attack, which often occurs suddenly, some forms of car-
diovascular disease develop slowly over a long period of time. Atheroscle-
rosis is the gradual buildup of layers of fatty deposits on the insides of
arteries. Included in these deposits is the lipid cholesterol. (See Figure 9-19.)
Because of these deposits, the inside diameter of the blood vessel becomes
Chapter 9 / Matter on the Move: Gas Exchange and Transport 203
smaller and the blood cannot flow so easily. In time, the arteries become
“hardened”; the less flexible walls do not expand and contract as easily
with each beat of the heart. Blockage of the blood vessel becomes much
more likely. Cardiovascular disease also includes strokes that may block
an artery in the brain. Depending on what area of the brain is affected,
strokes damage a person’s ability to feel things or to speak and move.
Atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and strokes are more likely to occur if a
person has hypertension, or high blood pressure. Sometimes called the
“silent killer,” abnormally high blood pressure often shows no symptoms.
Dietary and hereditary factors may contribute to high blood pressure. It is
important to have your blood pressure checked regularly. How can hyper-
tension be prevented or reduced? The answers are no surprise: Do not
smoke, exercise more, and eat properly. Sometimes prescription medicines
are used to treat high blood pressure. Your physician is your best source of
information about proper methods of treating high blood pressure.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION 9
How Does Exercise Affect Our
Heart and Respiratory Rates?
INTRODUCTION
Exercise increases the demand by the cells of your body for oxygen, result-
ing in an increase in the rates of respiration and circulation. This can be
measured by comparing the output of carbon dioxide with the pulse rate
before and after exercise. In this investigation, you will participate in a
study to determine the effects of jogging on your respiratory and circula-
tory systems.
MATERIALS
Test tube rack with three test tubes, phenolphthalein solution (pink),
drinking straws, watch or clock with a second hand
Note: Caution should be used when handling chemicals such as phenolph-
thalein. Protective eyewear should be worn while performing the CO2 test.
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare a Data Table to show the heart-rate data and carbon dioxide
(CO2) test data (1) at rest, (2) after 1 minute of jogging, and (3) after 5
minutes of jogging, for four trials (one per student) and for the aver-
age of the four trials for each of the three test conditions.
2. For this laboratory investigation, you will work in groups of four. Each
member of the group will take turns being the jogger. While one per-
son is jogging, the other three group members will keep time, take the
pulse of the jogger, and record the results.
3. For Trial 1, select one member of the group as the jogger. Pour an equal
amount of pink phenolphthalein (about 2.5 centimeters) into each of
three test tubes. Be sure that the level in all three tubes is the same. The
rate of respiration is determined by the CO2 test, which measures the
amount of carbon dioxide released. Due to CO2 in your breath, blow-
ing gently through a straw into phenolphthalein in a test tube causes
the pink color to disappear and the solution to become clear. The time
required (in seconds) to change the color of a measured amount of
phenolphthalein by exhaling into it is the CO2 test result, and it can
INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS
1. Explain why carbon dioxide exhalation can be used as a measure of
respiratory rate in humans.
2. How might the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood act as a
signal for an increase in heart rate?
3. Explain the correlation between the heart rate and the respiratory rate
shown in Graph 3.
■■ CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.
11. The process by which materials are moved throughout the body is
best described as a. exhalation b. transportation
c. absorption d. circulation.
12. Valves are found in the a. capillaries b. arteries c. veins
d. bronchioles.
13. In plants, water is carried in the cells of the
a. xylem b. phloem c. bronchi d. ventricles.
14. If your blood pressure is 120/80, the number 120 refers to your
a. systolic pressure b. diastolic pressure c. cholesterol level
d. pacemaker activity.
15. The liquid part of blood is the a. platelets b. leukocytes
c. intercellular fluid d. plasma.
20. Describe the journey of an oxygen atom from the air into a muscle
cell in your leg and back into the air. Be creative!
208 Energy, Matter, and Organization