ABSTRACT

The main objective of this project is to design and audio amplifier. Low voltage audio
power amplifier LM386 is used for this purpose .An audio amplifier is designed to amplify
frequencies between 15 HZ and 20 KHZ. When in an amplifier circuit only one transistor is
used for amplifying a weak signal, the circuit is known as single stage amplifier. Signal is
applied to the base of the transistor, a small base current starts flowing in the input circuit.
Due to transistor action, a much larger then A.C

1
 INTRODUCTION

Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased
version of its input signal. However, not all amplifier circuits are the same as they are
classified according to their circuit configurations and modes of operation. In “Electronics”,
small signal amplifiers are commonly used devices as they have the ability to amplify a
relatively small input signal, for example from a Sensor such as a photo-device, into a much
larger output signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for example. There are many forms
of electronic circuits classed as amplifiers, from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal
Amplifiers up to Large Signal and Power Amplifiers.

The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the signal, large or small,
its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal, that is the relationship
between input signal and current flowing in the load.

Amplifier is a basic component of all the music systems available in market. The need
of this intermediate circuitry exists so that we can hear crystal clear music from the music
systems. Mini Audio Amplifier project is a mini version of such amplifier systems. This is
easy to implement and test with the help of audio jack. The signals given by an audio
transmitter device such as cell phone through a 3.5mm audio jack cable is very low in
amplitude. Such a signal if given to the speaker, the sound output given by the speaker will
be very less and might not be audible even to a nearby person. So instead we given the audio
input to the amplifier circuitry.

The amplifier circuitry amplifies this audio signal. The amplified version of the audio
input is fed to the input of the speaker which then converts it into sound output. Audio
frequency range lies in the frequency range of 20Hz – 20KHz. The purpose of audio
amplifier lies in to increase the amplitude of signals lying in this frequency range and
suppress the rest. So the audio amplifier circuitry is configures in such way that it will
multiply the audible range signals with a positive gain factor. With the help of two
potentiometers we can vary the gain factor or the volume of the audio amplifier.

2
BLOCK DIAGRAM

3
BLOCK DIAGRAM DISCRIPTION

Block diagrams are used to understand (and design) complete circuits by breaking
them down into smaller sections or blocks. Each block performs a particular function and the
block diagram shows how they are connected together. No attempt is made to show the
components used within a block, only the inputs and outputs are shown. This way of looking
at circuits is called the systems approach.

The Microphone -a transducer which converts sound to voltage. Pre-Amplifier -

amplifies the small audio signal (voltage) from the microphone. Tone and Volume
Controls - adjust the nature of the audio signal. The tone control adjusts the balance of
high and low frequencies. The volume control adjusts the strength of the signal. Power
Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal. Loudspeaker - a transducer
which converts the audio signal to sound.

COMPONENT REQUIREMENT

 Audio input
 Potentiometer
 Capacitor
 Power source
 Output speaker

AUDIO AMPLIFIER

An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that amplifies
low-power electronic audio signals such as the signal from radio receiver or electric
guitar pickup to a level that is high enough for driving loudspeakers or headphones. Audio
power amplifiers are found in all manner of sound systems including sound
reinforcement, public address and home audio systems and musical instrument
amplifiers like guitar amplifiers.

It is the final electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain before the signal is
sent to the loud speakers. The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio
amplifiers which perform tasks like pre-amplification of the signal (this is particularly
associated with record turntable signals, microphone signals and electric instrument signals
4
from pickups, such as the electric guitar and electric bass), equalization (e.g., adjusting the
bass and treble), tone controls, mixing different input signals or adding electronic effects such
as reverb.

The inputs can also be any number of audio sources like record players, CD
players, digital audio players and cassette players. Most audio power amplifiers require these
low-level inputs, which are line level. While the input signal to an audio power amplifier,
such as the signal from an electric guitar, may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its
output may be a few watts for small consumer electronics devices, such as clock radios, tens
or hundreds of watts for a home stereo system, several thousand watts for a nightclub's sound
system .

AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

CONSTCTION AND WORKING

5
 Audio signal input given to the non inverting pin 8 of TBA 810 IC through volume
control variable resistor VR1 and output is taken out from pin 12 and other pins are filled up
with Resistor and capacitor components.

Tabs both side in IC are grounded and IC can be covered with heat sink, After
completing the construction of circuit choose power supply depends on required output
power. Thus this circuit gives 1 watt output for 4 to 6V and 7 watt output for 16V bias, and it
produce better output from 40Hz to 20KHz (-3dB) frequency input.

PHOTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that

forms an adjustable voltage divider[1]. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper,
it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used

for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same
principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices
such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be
used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.

Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than
a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in
the controlled load.

6
Construction

Drawing of potentiometer with case cut away, showing parts: (A) shaft, (B) stationary
carbon composition resistance element, (C) phosphor bronze wiper, (D) shaft attached to
wiper, (E, G) terminals connected to ends of resistance element, (F) terminal connected to
wiper. A mechanical stop (H) prevents rotation past end points.

Single-turn potentiometer with metal casing removed to expose wiper contacts and resistive
track Potentiometers consist of a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along
the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each
end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a
housing containing the element and wiper. See drawing. Many inexpensive potentiometers
are constructed with a resistive element (B) formed into an arc of a circle usually a little less
than a full turn and a wiper (C) sliding on this element when rotated, making electrical
contact. The resistive element can be flat or angled.

7
 Each end of the resistive element is connected to a terminal (E, G) on the case. The
wiper is connected to a third terminal (F), usually between the other two. On panel
potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn
potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. The
only point of ingress for contamination is the narrow space between the shaft and the housing
it rotates in.

Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a
linear element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the
slot the slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term
reliability. An advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual
indication of its setting. While the setting of a rotary potentiometer can be seen by the
position of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give a visual impression of, for
example, the effect of a multi-band equalizer (hence the term "graphic equalizer").

The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite. Other

materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal
mixture called cermet. Conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor
pastes that contain hard-wearing resins and polymers, solvents, and lubricant, in addition to
the carbon that provides the conductive properterise

Electronic symbol for pre-set potentiometer

Multi turn potentiometers are also operated by rotating a shaft, but by several turns
rather than less than a full turn. Some multi turn potentiometers have a linear resistive
element with a sliding contact moved by a lead screw; others have a helical resistive element
and a wiper that turns through 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, moving along the helix
as it rotates. Multi turn potentiometers, both user-accessible and preset, allow finer
adjustments; rotation through the same angle changes the setting by typically a tenth as much
as for a simple rotary potentiometer.

8
 A string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of
wire turning against a spring, enabling it to convert linear position to a variable resistance.

User-accessible rotary potentiometers can be fitted with a switch which operates usually at
the anti-clockwise extreme of rotation. Before digital electronics became the norm such a
component was used to allow radio and television receivers and other equipment to be
switched on at minimum volume with an audible click, then the volume increased, by turning
a knob. Multiple resistance elements can be ganged together with their sliding contacts on the
same shaft, for example, in stereo audio amplifiers for volume control. In other applications,
such as domestic light dimmers, the normal usage pattern is best satisfied if the potentiometer
remains set at its current position, so the switch is operated by a push action, alternately on
and off, by axial presses of the knob.

Others are enclosed within the equipment and are intended to be adjusted to calibrate
equipment during manufacture or repair, and not otherwise touched. They are usually
physically much smaller than user-accessible potentiometers, and may need to be operated by
a screwdriver rather than having a knob. They are usually called "preset potentiometers" or
"trim[ming] pots". Some presets are accessible by a small screwdriver poked through a hole
in the case to allow servicing without dismantlin

Size scaled 10k and 100k pots that combine traditional mountings and knob shafts
with newer and smaller electrical assemblies. Note the "B" designating a linear taper.

The relationship between slider position and resistance, known as the "taper" or "law", is
controlled by the manufacturer. In principle any relationship is possible, but for most
purposes linear or logarithmic (aka "audio taper") potentiometers are sufficient.

A letter code may be used to identify which taper is used, but the letter code
definitions are not standardized. Potentiometers made in Asia and the USA are usually
marked with an "A" for logarithmic taper or a "B" for linear taper; "C" for the rarely seen
reverse logarithmic taper. Others, particularly those from Europe, may be marked with an
"A" for linear taper, a "C" or "B" for logarithmic taper, or an "F" for reverse logarithmic
taper.[2] The code used also varies between different manufacturers. When a percentage is
referenced with a non-linear taper, it relates to the resistance value at the midpoint of the
shaft rotation. A 10% log taper would therefore measure 10% of the total resistance at the

9
midpoint of the rotation; i.e. 10% log taper on a 10 kOhm potentiometer would yield 1 kOhm
at the midpoint. The higher the percentage, the steeper the log curve.[3]

Linear taper potentiometer

A linear taper potentiometer (linear describes the electrical characteristic of the

device, not the geometry of the resistive element) has a resistive element of constant cross-
section, resulting in a device where the resistance between the contact (wiper) and one end
terminal is proportional to the distance between them. Linear taper potentiometers[4] are used
when the division ratio of the potentiometer must be proportional to the angle of shaft
rotation (or slider position), for example, controls used for adjusting the centering of the
display on an analog cathode-ray oscilloscope. Precision potentiometers have an accurate
relationship between resistance and slider position.

Logarithmic potentiometer
A logarithmic taper potentiometer is a potentiometer that has a bias built into the
resistive element. Basically this means the center position of the potentiometer is not one half
of the total value of the potentiometer. The resistive element is designed to follow a
logarithmic taper, aka a mathematical exponent or "squared" profile. A logarithmic taper
potentiometer is constructed with a resistive element that either "tapers" in from one end to
the other, or is made from a material whose resistivity varies from one end to the other. This
results in a device where output voltage is a logarithmic function of the slider position.

Most (cheaper) "log" potentiometers are not accurately logarithmic, but use two
regions of different resistance (but constant resistivity) to approximate a logarithmic law. The
two resistive tracks overlap at approximately 50% of the potentiometer rotation; this gives a
stepwise logarithmic taper.[5] A logarithmic potentiometer can also be simulated (not very
accurately) with a linear one and an external resistor. True logarithmic potentiometers are
significantly more expensive.

10
CAPACITOR

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electronic component that stores electrical

energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some
capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor
is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit.

The capacitor was originally known as a condenser or condensate or. The original
name is still widely used in many languages, but not commonly in English. The physical
form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor types are in
common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of
metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin
film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The non conducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers.

Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. When two conductors
experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is attached across a battery,
an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to collect on one
plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through

11
the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition
is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-varying
voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current
due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of
Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of
typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pico farad (pF) (10−12 F)
to about 1 millifarad (mF) (10−3 F).

The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates

(conductors) and inversely related to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. It has an electric field strength
limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.

POWER SUPPLY

A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is one
where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to your requirements. Varying the
output of the power supply is the recommended way to test a project after having double
checked parts placement against circuit drawings and the parts placement guide. This type of
regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power supply. Actually this is quite
important because one of the first projects a hobbyist should undertake is the construction of
a variable regulated power supply. While a dedicated supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V,
it's much handier to have a variable supply on hand, especially for testing. Most digital logic
circuits and processors need a 5 volt power supply. To use these parts we need to build a
regulated 5 volt source. Usually you start with an unregulated power supply ranging from 9
volts to 24 volts DC (A 12 volt power supply is included with the Beginner Kit and the
Microcontroller Beginner Kit.). To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a LM7805 voltage
regulator IC.

12
Circuit Features

Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability
of 100 mA

 Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build

 Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation

Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only very common basic components

 Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply

 Power supply voltage: Unregulated DC 8-18V power supply
 Power supply current: Needed output current + 5 mA

BLOCKDIAGRAM

13
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

BASICPOWERSUPPLYCIRCUIT

Above is the circuit of a basic unregulated dc power supply. A bridge rectifier

D1 to D4 rectifies the ac from the transformer secondary, which may also be a block rectifier
such as WO4 or even four individual diodes such as 1N4004 types. (See later re rectifier
ratings).

The principal advantage of a bridge rectifier is you do not need a centre tap on
the secondary of the transformer. A further but significant advantage is that the ripple
frequency at the output is twice the line frequency (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz) and makes filtering
somewhat easier.

As a design example consider we wanted a small unregulated bench supply for our
projects. Here we will go for a voltage of about 12 - 13V at a maximum output current (IL) of
500ma (0.5A). Maximum ripple will be 2.5% and load regulation is 5%.

Now the RMS secondary voltage (primary is whatever is consistent with your area)
for our power transformer T1 must be our desired output Vo PLUS the voltage drops across
D2 and D4 ( 2 * 0.7V) divided by 1.414.

This means that Vsec = [13V + 1.4V] / 1.414 which equals about 10.2V. Depending on the
VA rating of your transformer, the secondary voltage will vary considerably in accordance
with the applied load. The secondary voltage on a transformer advertised as say 20VA will be
much greater if the secondary is only lightly loaded.

If we accept the 2.5% ripple as adequate for our purposes then at 13V this
becomes 13 * 0.025 = 0.325 Vrms. The peak to peak value is 2.828 times this value. Vrip =
0.325V X 2.828 = 0.92 V and this value is required to calculate the value of C1. Also

14
required for this calculation is the time interval for charging pulses. If you are on a 60Hz
system it it 1/ (2 * 60 ) = 0.008333 which is 8.33 milliseconds. For a 50Hz system it is 0.01
sec or 10 milliseconds.

Remember the tolerance of the type of capacitor used here is very loose. The
important thing to be aware of is the voltage rating should be at least 13V X 1.414 or 18.33.
Here you would use at least the standard 25V or higher (absolutely not 16V).With our
rectifier diodes or bridge they should have a PIV rating of 2.828 times the Vsec or at least
29V. Don't search for this rating because it doesn't exist. Use the next highest standard even
higher. The current rating should be at least twice the load current maximum i.e. 2 X 0.5A or
1A. A good type to use would be 1N4004, 1N4006 or 1N4008 types. These are
ratedAmat400PIV, 600PIV and 1000PIV respectively. Always be on the lookout for the
higher voltage ones when they are on special.

TRANSFORMER RATING

In our example above we were taking 0.5A out of the Vsec of 10V. The VA required is
10 X 0.5A = 5VA. This is a small PCB mount transformer available in Australia and
probably else where This would be an absolute minimum and if you anticipated drawing the
maximum current all the time then go to a higher VA rating.

The two capacitors in the primary side are small value types and if you don't know
precisely and I mean precisely what you are doing then OMIT them. Their loss won't cause
you heartache or terrible problems.

CONSTRCTION

The whole project MUST be enclosed in a suitable box. The main switch (preferably
double pole) must be rated at 240V or 120V at the current rating. All exposed parts within the
box MUST be fully insulated, preferably with heat shrink tubing.

15
OUTPUTSPEAKER

A loudspeaker (or loud-speaker or speaker) I anelectro acoustic transducer;[1] which

converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound.[2] The most widely used type
of speaker in the 2010s is the dynamic speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg
and Chester W. Rice.

The dynamic speaker operates on the same basic principle as a dynamic microphone,
but in reverse, to produce sound from an electrical signal. When an alternating current
electrical audio signal is applied to its voice coil, a coil of wire suspended in a circular gap
between the poles of a permanent magnet, the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth
due to Faraday's law of induction, which causes a diaphragm (usually conically shaped)
attached to the coil to move back and forth, pushing on the air to create sound waves.

Besides this most common method, there are several alternative technologies that can
be used to convert an electrical signal into sound. The sound source (e.g., a sound recording
or a microphone) must be amplified or strengthened with an audio power amplifier before the
signal .

16
SCHEMATIC

Schematic for the basic audio amplifier

17
Schematic for the audio amplifier with optional tone-control circuit

18
Audio Speakers

Audio speakers convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The most common
speakers for high-quality audio are constructed as shown in Figure 1-3 . The electric signal
is passed through a coil of wire (the “voice” coil), which is suspended a strong magnetic field
provided by a permanent magnet. A time-varying current in the coil leads to a mechanical
deflection relative to the magnet. The coil is attached to a lightweight conical membrane
(usually made from a heavy-grade paper) that couples the mechanical motion of the coil to
the surrounding air molecules.

Cross section

19
 Impedance curve for a typical 8 dynamic speaker

If you look through catalogs of audio-speakers, you will find many different sizes and
price ranges. For example, check out http://www.tb-speaker.com/tbp.htm. High-quality audio
speakers can be quite expensive, and are designed for a flat, omni directional frequency
response in the specified operating range. Small inexpensive speakers, such as the ones used
in this lab, have poor low-frequency response and limited power-handling capacity.
Speakers are commonly specified by their frequency response, impedance level, and
power-handling capacity.
Typical speaker impedances . This is often a source of confusion because it suggests
the speaker is modeled by a of this value. In reality there is a significant reactive component
of impedance and hence a strong variation of impedance with frequency, as shown in the
figure above. The impedance can also depend strongly on the surroundings. For example, a
speaker measured in isolation (the “free-air” response) will have a different impedance than
one mounted in awooden enclosure.

20
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The AC impedance often displays at least one resonance, relating to the size and
stiffness(“compliance”) of the cone. Electrically this mechanical resonance can be modeled
by a parallel RLC circuit. The operating frequency range or the speaker begins at or above
this resonance, and in this range the speaker impedance is well modeled by a resistance in
series with an inductance. The inductance comes from the voice coil itself.
The resistance term is largely the DC resistance of the voice coil, with a small
additional contribution which represents energy conversion to mechanical motion. The
combination of the two resistances is usually close to the specified impedance of the speaker
(e.g. 8 ) in the middle of the operating range. A pretty good equivalent circuit model for any
speaker is shown in Figure 1-4 and can be created by measuring or finding the following
parameters:

21
Speaker Equivalent Circuit

We’ll start by measuring the characteristics of the audio speaker in your kit. This is a small,
general-purpose speaker used for intercoms and other inexpensive audio systems.

For these measurements, it is important to keep the speaker face-up.

Using the R-L-C meter in the lab, measure the coil resistance and coil inductance (the
meter uses a frequency that is well above the speaker’s mechanical resonance).
Now we’ll use the function-generator at your workstation to drive the speaker. Since the
speaker has a small impedance, we must be careful to keep the amplitude of the function
generator low so that it doesn’t have to source a lot of current. Adjust your function
generator to produce a sinusoidal wave with an AC amplitude of Vg= 200 mV and zero
DC offset.□ Electrically connect your speaker to the function generator as shown in Figure 1-
6, using a small resistor R in series with
the speaker (somethingaround 50 , or two 100 resistors in parallel, seems
to work well). This creates a voltage divider, so that the voltage across the speaker is
proportional to the magnitude of its impedance. Thus by measuring g V and L V we can map
out the variation of impedance with frequency using the formula in Figure 1-6.□ Find the
resonant frequency (somewhere in the range of 100-200 Hz), and record the impedance at
resonance and the bandwidth. Then compute the equivalent circuit parameters as discussed in
the background information.

. Assemble Amplifier on Breadboard

22
 The schematic for an LM386-based amplifier is shown in Figure 1-7. We will first
construct this amplifier using your plastic solder less breadboard and bench power supply.
Once you debug the circuit and demonstrate that it works properly, you will “hard-wire” it
onto a vector board and power it from a 9V battery.

The idea of bread boarding the circuit first is not to create more work! It is good
practice in general, since it allows you to debug your design more easily, allows you to
experiment with component values, and most importantly will help preserve your battery in
the event of a wiring error! The battery is in fact one of the most expensive components in
this lab.

Schematic of LM386 Amplifier

First study the schematic carefully, and locate all the necessary parts in your kit. Find
the LM386 chip and compare it with Figure 1-5 and the schematic in Figure 1-7 to
correlate pin numbers with the circuit connections.

□ Configure your breadboard with connections to the power supply and appropriate wiring
to the power busses, then add the LM386 IC and make the power (pin 6) and ground (pin
4) connections as shown in the schematic. Add the 100μF and 10μF bias/bypass
capacitors.

□ With reference to the schematic, add in the resistor and capacitor elements as shown.
Note the role of each component:

23
1. 1F capacitor: DC blocking, AC couples the input signal
2. 10k trimpot: voltage-divider for volume control
3. 10F capacitor: Internal AC bypass (see data sheet).
4. 10k resistor and 33nF capacitor between pins 1-5: bass-boost feedback
circuit (see data sheet), helps compensate for the poor low-frequency
response of our speaker
5. 470F capacitor: DC blocking (why is this so large compared with other
blocking/bypass capacitors?)
6. 10 resistor and 0.1 F capacitor: a “snubber” circuit for high-frequency
stabilization, prevents potential oscillation due to inductive loading. Add in the back-to-back
diodes at the input terminal of the device. These diodes clamp the input voltage on pin 3 at
+/- 0.7 V, to insure that excessive voltage is never applied to this pin, which could damage
the circuit. Add the speaker. You will need to first solder wire jumper leads to the speaker
terminals.are now ready to test the circuit as shown in Figure 1-8.First connect your bench
function generator to the oscilloscope and adjust for a 1kHzsinewave with a 0.2 V
amplitude, and verify on the oscilloscope. Then apply this signal to your
amplifier along with the +9V bias. If all goes well, you should hear a tone.
Adjust the volume control as necessary.

Summing network

24
 The next step is to add the summing network, which is used to combine several audio
inputs into a common output signal. For example, if we want to hook our “mono” amplifier to
a“ stereo” signal, such as produced by an MP3 player or CD player, then we need to add the
left and right stereo channels together so that the amplifier can amplify both simultaneous
land deliver them to the speaker. Add the summing circuit as shown in Figure 1-9. Just put in
the AUX channel for now(C3-R3), don’t worry about the There are two important points to
understand here, both of which are related to the use of a single (battery) supply. First, in the
textbook dual-supply op-amp summing circuit, the positive (non-inverting) input is usually
grounded.
The voltage at this pin defines the “reference” voltage for the input signals, which is
the desired average or DC output level inan audio system. We usually choose this level to
maximize the possible AC voltage swing, hence it should be midway between the two supply
voltages. For a dual (bipolar) supply, this would be ground (0 V), but for our 9V battery
supply, it is half the supply voltage, or 4.5Volts. This is accomplished using the two 100k
resistors in a voltage divider (we choose100k resistors here to minimize the current draw
from the battery).
The 10F by pass capacitor helps prevent this voltage level from fluctuating during
operation, maintaining a constant potential and hence a good AC ground. , since the input and
outputs of this summing network will be capacitively, the data sheet recommends adding an
external resistive DC current path to ground atthe output of the op-amp, to increase the bias
current through the transistors in the op-amp’ soutput stage during operation. This is what R5
is for. You’ll have to wait until ECE 137A
to fully appreciate the details. Again, we’re choosing a large value resistor here to minimize
the DC current draw from the battery.Once everything is put together, test your circuit as in
the previous section, applying thesignal from the function generator to the input ports. The
capacitive coupling at the input introduces a low-frequency pole, giving thesumming network
a high-pass response. Sweep the frequency to determine the cutoff andcompare this with your
prelab calculation.

25
Optional -- Tone-Control Circuit
The LM358 is a dual op-amp so we have an extra op-amp to play with. Why not use it
This is not a required element of your project, but is a common feature in simple audio
systems toimprove/adjust the sound quality.

26
 There are many possibilities for tone-control circuits. The basic idea is to selectively
boostor “cut” (attenuate) signals depending on their frequency. This is usually done using an
op amp gain stage with frequency-selective feedback. The circuit in Figure 1-10a is a simple
example that basically starts with a unity-gain inverting amplifier configuration, and adds
series RC networks in parallel with feedback resistors.
A potentiometer controls the tappingpoint for the feedback. When the wiper is at its
midpoint, both sides of the feedback networkare identical, and the system has unity gain for
all frequencies (assuming identical componentvalues). When the wiper is at the top, there is a
low-frequency gain of around 3 (10 dB), andhigh-frequency attenuation of about 1/3 (-10dB).
When the wiper is at the bottom, the actionreverses so that the low-frequencies are cut and
the high-frequencies are boosted. Figure 1-10b shows the Bode plots for the midpoint and
two extremes of the potentiometer setting.
Hardwire the Amplifier

Now we are ready to put everything together, and add the stereo jacks and battery
supply.Before we go further, let’s consider the standard 3.5mm audio connectors.

27
In your kit you should have been provided a stereo “jack” (or “female”) similar to that
shown in Figure 1-12. There are a large variety of different jack configurations, depending
mostly on how they will be mounted (i.e. surface mount

28
ADVANTAGE

 Very low distortion (THD usually less than 0.1% at medium output power)*

 Linear behaviour

 Hi-Fi quality sound*

 Simpler design

 *if well design

29
APPLICATION

30
CONCLUSATION

The level of sound cancellation from the one-dimensional sound cancellation system is
consistent with what can be achieved with standard noise cancelling headphones, but more
importantly shows that sound cancellation is possible over slightly longer distances. The MATLAB
models also show how proper combination of phase offsets is crucial to enable the realization of
two-dimensional systems, and may even suggest the possibility of systems operating in physical 3D
space

31
FUTURE WORK

They Drastically Improve the Sound Quality. One of the main reasons why people
decide to add amplifiers to their car audio system is to improve the quality of sound. Factory
speakers will tend to crackle and distort the music as you turn up the volume, but speakers
that are fed via an amplifier .

32