PLN1 Handouts PDF

AY2009
-2010
PLN1- Site Planning

Handouts
UST College of Architecture
AY2009-2010
PLN1- Site Planning & Landscape Architecture
SITE PLANNING
Site Planning - Is the art of arranging structures on the land and shaping the spaces between, an art
linked to architecture, engineering, landscape architecture and city planning.
It is the organization of the external physical environment to accommodate human behavior. It
deals with the qualities and locations of structures, land, activities and living things. It creates a
pattern of those elements in space and time, which will be subject to continuous future management
and change. The technical output - the grading plans, utility layouts, survey locations, planting plans,
sketches, diagrams, and specifications - are simply a conventional way of specifying this complex
organization.
Preliminary Site Investigation and Analysis

The process of site planning begins with the gathering of basic data relating specifically to the
site under consideration and the surrounding areas.
The data should include such items as: master plans and studies, zoning ordinances, base and
aerial maps, surveys, topographic data, geological information, hydrographic data, soil classification,
vegetation and existing easements.
After all information has been obtained, it must be examined and analyzed.
Establish the site’s advantages and limitations
Conclusions should be established
After a thorough analysis of the site and after all conclusions have been studied, it is then
possible to determine whether the land is suitable for the proposed use. If the land is found suitable,
the data should be analyzed further to establish other specific parameters of the site. These include
items such as:
Best area to locate building due to:
o Soil condition
o Topography
o Soil erosion
o Drainage patterns
o Land contour
o Natural attractions of the site
Further studies, if needed, should be provided such as:
o Computer applications in site planning
– Computer graphics for easy pictorial and analytical studies
o Perspective and isometric depictions of topography
o Slope analysis
o Cut-and-Fill calculations
o Watershed analysis
o Simulation Studies
The Sequence in Producing a Site Plan

Client wants to develop a site
Technical Team assembled
Key issues identified Alternative Site is examined
Discussion with local planners
Site Inventory Present and Future Users Needs
Environmental Policies Site Potential Assessed
Alternative Development Concepts examined
SITE PLAN
Planning approval sought by client
Design and site management briefs developed
UST College of Architecture Page 2

SURVEY
A survey is a checklist of information or data pertaining to a site. The kind of data that would be
required in some rather normal example of site planning. Such a list would be drawn up after an initial
analysis of the problem. To guide the first survey, information would be gathered continuously as the
problem develops.
Steps that could be followed in conducting a survey:
1) Initial personal reconnaissance notes, sketches, photos - apparent character, problems and
possibilities.
2) Collation of existing data: base and contour maps, aerial photos, geological soil and water surveys,
climate records, ecological studies, engineering reports, borings, census materials, histories, social
studies market reports, traffic studies, legal and public control documents, official proposals, record
of current controversies.
3) Summary description of the off-site context and its changes: geographic location, surrounding
populations, social and political structure, general economy, ecological and hydrographic system,
land use patterns, access system, principal off-site destinations and facilities.
4) Data on the site and its immediate context:
A. Physical data
1. Geology and soil:
a. Underlying geology, rock character and depth

b. Soil type and depth, value as an engineering material and plant medium
c. Fill, ledge, slides, subsidence
2. Water:
a. Existing water bodies - variation and purity

a. Natural and man-made drainage channels - flow capacity purity
b. Surface drainage pattern, amount, blockages, undrained depressions
c. Water table – elevation and fluctuation, springs
d. Water supply – quantity and quality
3. Topography:
a. Pattern of landforms
b. Contours
c. Slope analysis
d. Visibility analysis
e. Circulation analysis
f. Unique features
4. Climate
a. Regional data on variation of temperature, precipitation, humidity, solar angle,

cloudiness, wind direction and force
b. Local microclimates: warm and cool slopes, air drainage, wind deflection and local
breeze, shade, heat deflection and storage, plant indicators
c. Sound levels, smell, atmospheric quality
5. Ecology
a. Dominant plant/animal communities – location and relative stability

b. Their dependence on existing factors, self-regulation, and sensitivity to change
c. Mapping of general plant cover, including wood areas
d. Specimen trees to be retained: their location, spread, species and elevation at base
6. Man-made structures:
a. Existing buildings outline, location, floor, elevations, type condition use

b. Circulation facilities (roads, paths, rails, transit, etc.) location, capacity and condition
c. Utilities (storm and sanitary sewers, water, gas, electricity, telephone, steam, etc.)
d. Location, elevation and capacity
7. Sensuous qualities:
a. Character and relation of visual spaces

b. View points, vistas, visual focal points
c. Character and rhythm of visual sequences
d. Quality and variation of light, sound, smell, feel
B. Cultural data
1. Resident and using population
a. Number and composition

b. Social structure and institutions
c. Economic structure
d. Political structure
e. Current changes and problems
2. On-site and adjacent behavior settings: nature, location rhythm, stability, participants,
conflicts
3. Site values, rights, and restraints
a. Ownerships, easements and other rights

b. Legal controls: zoning and other regulations
c. Economic values
d. Accepted territories
e. Political jurisdictions
4. Past and future:
a. Site history and its traces

b. Public and private intentions for future use of site conflicts
5. Images
a. Group and individual identification and organizations of the site
b. Meanings attached to site, symbolic expression
c. Hopes, fears, wishes, preferences
i. Classification of site by areas of similar structures, quality and problems
ii. Identification of key points, lines and areas
iii. Analysis of current and likely future changes – the dynamic aspect of the site
iv. Identification of significant problems and possibilities
5) Data Correlation:
a. Classification of site by areas of similar structures, quality and problems
b. Identification of significant key-points, lines and areas
c. Analysis of current and likely future changes in the dynamic aspect of the site
d. Identification of significant problems and possibilities
When selecting a site, it should be noted that future considerations and expansion should be met.
Never select a site for its immediate application.
Contours are sets of imaginary lines that connect all points of some arbitrary equal elevation on the
ground.


Slope Analysis
Useful for making decision about the distribution of land use

Different angles of slope have different implications for development
1. Bldg. cost (structural)
2. Land development cost (earth shifting)
Slope and Land Use:
 <1% - do not drain well

 <4% - usable for all kinds of activities
 4% - 10% - suitable for movement and informal activity
 >10% - can be actively used only for hill sports or free play
 17% - approaches the limit that an ordinary loaded vehicle can climb, for any sustained period
 20% -25% - normal limit of climb for pedestrians without resorting to stairs
 > 50% - may require terracing or cribbing

Topography - The art or practice of graphic or exact delineation in minute detail, usually on maps or
charts of the physical features of any place or region specially in relation to their exact position and
elevation. Topographic elevations are indicated along given contour lines. A graphic and numerical
scale is displayed along at the base of the drawing.
Topographic Maps are printed in 5 colors:

1. Black – cultural features such as roads, railroads, and civil boundaries
2. Blue – water bodies
3. Green – woodlands
4. Red – developed urban areas
5. Brown – contour lines
SOIL
Legend:
O – A thin organic-rich layer at the surface
that consists of devaluing plant material and
humus
A – Also known as the topsoil layer, it

consists of organic material mixed completely
with the mineral soil particles.
B – Also know as the subsoil, it is the next

layer where materials leached from the
overlying soil layers have been deposited.
C – Represents the unconsolidated

material that has not been affected by the soil
formation process.
Bedrock or ledge – if it exists near the

surface, it is found below the C horizon, and
bedrock is found directly below the B horizon.

Soil can be identified by such characteristics as the kind and numbers of horizons or layers that
have developed in them. The texture (relative amount of stones, gravel, sand, silt, and clay), the
kinds of minerals present and their amounts, and the presence of salts and alkali.
Soil can be classified either through a laboratory test or a field test
Soil is made up of a mixture of stone and earth.
Stone - 3.00‖ and above
Gravel - 0.08‖ – 3‖
Sand - 0.08‖-.0002‖
Silt - .0002‖-.00008‖
Clay - .00008‖ and lower
SOIL AND ITS ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

Soil stability
- Shear strength determines the stability of a soil and its ability to resist failure under loading. Shear
strength is the result of internal friction and cohesion. Internal friction is the resistance to sliding
between soil particles, and cohesion the mutual attraction between particles due to moisture
content and molecular forces.
- Under typical conditions, sand and gravel are cohesionless. Clay soils have higher cohesion but
little internal friction.
- As a general rule, the slopes constructed on cohesive soils require flatter angles as the height of
the slope increases. Because of their internal friction, the shear strength of sand and gravel
increases in relation to increased normal pressure; therefore, the angle of slope need not decrease
with increased height.
- Care must be taken when construction takes place at the top or bottom of a relatively large slope,
and particular attention must be given to the handling of the storm runoff.

Slope failure occurs when shear stress exceeds
shear strength. The reason for failure is either
increased stress or decreased strength brought
about by natural or human-induced activity,
i.e., when load at the top of aslope is increased
or lateral support at the base of a slope is
removed through excavation or erosion; when
moisture of the soil is increased, etc.
Soil drainage or permeability

Soil bearing capacity – the ability of the surface and subsurface material to carry the weight
of the structures. The weight of the building can cause settlement of the soil which in time can
damage the building.
SOIL BEARING CAPACITY
Wet clay 1 ton/sq.ft.
Wet sand 2 tons/sq.ft.
Firm clay 2 tons/sq.ft.
Sand and clay 2 tons/sq.ft.
Fine and dry sand 3 tons/sq.ft.
Hard and dry clay 4 tons/sq.ft.
Coarse sand 4 tons/sq.ft.
Gravel 6 tons/sq.ft.
Soft rock 8 tons/sq.ft.
Hard pan 10 tons/sq.ft.
Medium rock 15 tons/sq.ft.
Hard rock 40 tons/sq.ft.
Types of Soil and its Engineering Characteristics –in terms of soil stability, drainage, and bearing
capacity
Soil for Landscaping

Topsoil – critical medium for plants
Features – Drainage, content of humus, relative acidity (pH), and presence of available
nutrients, particularly potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen

Geophysical Investigations
Are made to determine the geologic conditions that affect the design, safety, effectiveness and
cost of a proposed project
Geophysical exploration methods – seismic, electrical resistivity, sonic, electrical logging,
magnetic and gravity methods
Subsurface borings – probings, wash borings, core drilling, calyx drilling, borehole
photography, churn drilling, jack and hammer drilling
Test pits, trenches, tunnels
Geological faults – are lines of weakness caused by previous movements of the earth’s crust and
always have a potential for further movement. If a building is to be built in areas susceptible to
earthquakes, special precautions have to be taken to enable the buildings and structures to withstand
the movement. This will add substantially to site development costs.
FAULT TYPES:
1. Quiescent Fault
2. Normal fault
3. Thrust and reverse
4. Lateral slip, strike slip or transform fault
5. Normal and slip fault combination
6. Graben
7. Horst
Aquifers – are underground ―reservoir‖ of water. The water is not usually held in ponds of water but in
the pores between individual particles which make up the rock, or in the fissures of the rock. It is the
water tapped when drilling artesian wells.
Careful use of the site is important to protect the aquifers. Contamination of the soil can cause
damage to the underground water. Aquifers can be contaminated by apparently normal events such
as oils from automobiles, fertilizers, waste disposals, etc.

Water Table – It is vital to know the information regarding the locations and levels of the water table in
the site. Fluctuating water tables can cause problems for development. In soil that is classified as
clay, fluctuating water table shrinks the clay when wet which damages the foundation of buildings.
High water table can also indicate that the site is liable to flood.
High water table is easily identified by digging a hole 2 meters deep and observe if it gradually fills up
with water.
Low water table – problem for water supply and for vegetation
High water table – difficulties in excavation, cause flooding in basements, flood utilities and
unstable foundations
Fluctuating water table – will cause heavy clay soil alternatively to shrink and swell
Underground water course – critical and no structure should be sited over them
Rock Outcrops – Outcrops of rock on the site can be both problems and assets depending on the
purpose for which the site is to be developed.
For leisure areas, these rock outcrops can be used as part of the landscape, i.e., used for rock
climbing, fossil finding, as habitats for relatively rare wildlife.
If used for other purposes aside from recreation, rock outcroppings can be costly to remove, obliterate,
or hide.
Mineral Reserve – The site planner needs to establish if the rocks, gravel deposits or sands underlying
the project area are of any economic value.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FACTORS
Geomorphology is the study of the processes that have shaped the earth.
The geomorphological processes which interest the site planner are those which have an impact on the
land over a relatively short time scale and, in particular, those which might left eh surface unstable and
difficult to develop.
Erosion and deposition along rivers which results in rivers changing their course and making it
ill-advised to develop near them, or in the slow eating away of the land along parts of the river,
while along others the silt is slowly deposited. Erosion is any process by which sediment is
entrained (eroded) and moved away from its original location by gradational agents, which
include gravity, water, wind, ice, and humans. Sedimentation is the deposition and
accumulation of transported sediment, or precipitation of deposits from water.

Erosion of cliffs by the sea
Rocks breaking away from mountain sides because of frost action on the joints
Landslips occurring where surface materials are not yet at a stable angle in relation to the local
geological structure.
Floodplain

Tsunamis/Hurricanes
Two (2) main ways in which geology influences site planning decision-making process:
1. The soil bearing capacity limiting what can be built on the site
2. The presence of geological features which restrict the options of development because of
varying degrees of hazard to life
CRITICAL SUBSURFACE PROBLEMS:

1. Geologic fault lines
2. High or fluctuating water table
3. Presence of peat or other organic soils, or of soft plastic clay, loose silt, or a fine water-bearing
sand
4. Rock close to the surface
5. New, unconsolidated fill or land previously used as dump, esp. if any toxic material may be
present
6. Evidence of slides, floods, or subsidence
7. Soil liquefaction – generally associated with the reduction in strength and stiffness of a soil as a
result of increased pore water pressure caused by earthquake shaking or rapid loading
8. Presence of underground caverns
9. Landslips occurring where surface materials are not yet at a stable angle in relation to the local
geological structure
Microclimatology
Microclimatology is the study of climatic conditions within a limited area. It is sometimes referred to as
the ―science of small—scale weather‖ It may be inferred that the purpose of the scientific study is to
discover facts and principles which may be applied to improve the human condition. This is precisely
the case.
Microclimatic Principles
o Whatever the climate or weather, when it comes to planning an agreeable living environment
there are many microclimatic principles that can be applied to advantage. Among them are
these:
o Eliminate the extremes of heat, cold, humidity, air movement, and expo sure. This can be
achieved by intelligent site selection, plan layout, building orientation, and the creation of
climate— responsive spaces.
o Provide direct structural protection against the discomfort of solar radiation, precipitation, wind,
storm, and cold.
o Respond to the seasons. Each presents its problems; each provides its opportunities for
adaptation and enjoyment.

o Adjust community, site, and building plans to the movement of the sun. The design of living
areas, indoors and out, should ensure that the favored type and amount of light are received at
the favored time.
o Use the sun’s radiation and solar panels to provide supplementary heat and energy for cooling.
o Consider the wind also as a time tested source of energy.
o Utilize the evaporation of moisture as a primary method of cooling. Air moving across any moist
surface, be it masonry, fabric, or foliage, is thereby made cooler.
o Maximize the beneficial effects of adjacent water bodies. These temper the atmosphere of the
warmer or cooler adjacent lands.
o Introduce water. The presence of water in any form, from film to waterfall, has a cooling effect,
both physically and psychologically.
o Preserve the existing vegetative cover. It ameliorates climatic problems in many ways:
– It shades the ground surface.
– It retains the cooling moisture of precipitation.
– It protects the soils and environs from the freezing winds.
– It cools and refreshes heated air by evapotranspiration.
– It provides sunscreen, shade, and shadow.
– It helps to prevent rapid runoff and recharge the water-bearing soil strata.
– It checks the wind.
o Install new plantings where needed. They may be utilized for various types of climate control.
Windscreens, shade trees, and heat—absorptive ground covers are examples.
o Consider the effects of altitude. The higher the altitude and latitude (in the northern
hemisphere), the cooler or colder the climate.
o Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decrease in the humidity effects an increase in
bodily comfort. Dry cold is less chilling than wet cold. Dry heat is less enervating than wet heat.
Humidity can be decreased by induced air circulation and the drying effects of the sun.
o Avoid undrained air catchments areas and frost pockets.
o Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling storms. All can be charted.
o Explore and apply all natural forms of healing and cooling before turning to mechanical (energy
consuming) devices.
Some Notes on Microclimatology


Ideal Climate for Human comfort – clean air, temperature in the 50-80 degrees Fahrenheit (10-27
deg. Celsius), humidity bet. 40-75%, air which is neither stagnant nor subject to severe prevailing
winds, and protection from precipitation. (Body temperature 37deg C.)
The sun’s orbit and angle of incidence vary with the seasons. By orientation, screening, and
overhang, the amount of sunlight admitted to the interior can be precisely controlled.
Temperature and air flow inside and outside a building – can be modified by orientation and siting,
construction techniques, and tree planting, i.e., huts on stilts, narrow streets in North African
towns, windowless thick-walled houses with courtyards and arcades in ancient Rome.
Effect of soil – dry soil (sand, gravel, and the like) result in higher temperatures and lower
humidity; wet soils , loams, and predominantly clay soils in poorly drained marshy areas tend to
lower temperatures and higher humidities.
Effect of water – land is warmer on the lee side of a lake or ocean (winter) and cooler on the
summer; large bodies have an effect on humidity and microclimate
Climate – interacting variables including temperature, water vapor, wind, solar radiation,
precipitation.
Plants and natural vegetation are good indicators of microclimate – plants that thrive best in moist,
cool situations will be found in areas of higher precipitation or north-facing slopes.
Shade patterns of trees and buildings create microclimate

Effect of topography – valleys and ridges

Effect of water – land is warmer on the lee side of a lake or ocean (winter) and cooler on the
summer; large bodies have an effect on humidity and microclimate
Effect of sun – difference between concrete and grass was 10 degrees even in the shade;
i. under the full sun- concrete 110 degrees, asphalt 124 degrees Fahrenheit, grass 95 deg.
Fahrenheit;
ii. shade patterns important in the use of outdoor spaces
Effect of wind – windbreaks by solid screens create turbulence on the lee side; whereas
permeability of plants permit certain amounts to move through less turbulence and greater shelter;
wind tunnel devices are used to predict the flow of air around and over buildings
Factors Affecting Building Location and Orientation
The location of buildings on a site or its relationship to other buildings is extremely important. If
properly situated, the building achieves harmony with the topography, liveability is enhanced, drainage
problems are minimized, and the building’s functional efficiencies is increased. If the building is not
properly situated, many problems that cannot easily be corrected can and will ensue.
Orientation of the building to sun, wind and vista is a basic consideration.
Siting a building to conform with its topography will result in a minimum of necessary grading,
reduce initial construction cost, and eliminate continuous drainage problems.
Noise pollution has now become a serious problem in both urban and suburban areas. This can
be controlled or minimized by the judicious placements of the structure on the site.
Plant materials, both trees and shrubs, are an integral part of site design. They serve not only
as aesthetic elements but buffer strips, screens, and dividers.
Sun Orientation
Orientation for sun and prevailing summer breezes always merits consideration. Latitude determines
the orientation of the sun whereas local conditions determine the summer breeze. Orientation for
sunlight is most successful when sunshine is made available in kitchens and some sun reaches each
room at some time of the day.
Wind Orientation
Basically, plants control wind by obstruction, guidance, by deflection and filtration. The differentiation
is based not only on the degree of effectiveness of plants but on the techniques of placing them.
It must be remembered that plants as natural elements are not absolutely predictable in size, shape
and growth rate and consequently in their absolute effectiveness. Obstruction with trees as with all
other barriers reduces the wind speed by increasing the resistance to wind flow. Coniferous and
deciduous trees and shrubs used individually or in combination affect air movement.
WINDBREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS
Four (4) of the ways in which windbreaks reduce wind speed horizontally:
1. By absorbing some of the energy of the wind
2. By frictional drag as the air passes through and around the plants
3. By deflecting some of the wind to higher levels
4. By making the wind move in random patterns so that it becomes turbulent

Extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. is hardly affected by its width
The extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. increases in proportion to its length
Extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. increases in proportion to its height

The roof pitch of a bldg. affects the extent of shelter from wind
EFFECTS OF WIND
Wind speed Effect Beaufort wind force

(meters/sec)
2 Wind felt on face 1
3.3 Slight breeze, leaves rustle 2
4 Papers blow about, dust lifts, hair messed 2
6 Noticeable effect when walking 3
10 Umbrella difficult to use 5
12 Walking unsteady, noise in ears 5

15.2 Storm, small trees bend, twigs torn off 7
22 Cannot stand 9
25.1 Gale, buildings damage, trees uprooted 11
>29 Severe 15
Effect of vegetation on wind:



Noise Control
Site exposure to Roadway noise
o To evaluate the site’s exposure to roadway noise, we need to consider all major roads within
1000 feet (304 meters) from the site
o An evaluation of the problem is undertaken by coming out with a list.
o Obtain available information especially of proposed plans and developments such as road
widening and roadway changes in traffic in the next 10 to 15 years.
Noise control could be achieved using the following:
o Adjustment for stop-and-go traffic

o Adjustment to Mean Traffic Speed
o Barrier Adjustment: formed by the road profile, by a solid wall or embankment, by a continuous
row of buildings, or by the terrain itself. To be an effective shield, the barrier must block all
residential levels of all buildings from line-of-sight exposure to the road, and it must not have
any gaps that would allow noise to leak through.
o Truck traffic
o Adjustment of Road Gradient
Site exposed to Railway Noise
o Consider all above ground rapid-transit lines and railroads within 3000 feet (915 meters) from
the site
Noise control could be achieved by the following:
o An effective barrier block

o Customer relations: by reducing travel operations during nighttimes
Site exposed to Aircraft Noise
o Consider all airport, both commercial and military, within 15 miles (24km)
o Are noise exposure forecast or composite noise rating contours available?
o Any available information regarding approved plans for runway changes?
o Know the number of daytime and more importantly nighttime jet operations. Are there any
super-sonic jet operations?
o What are the flights paths of the major runways?
LANDSCAPE FOR NOISE CONTROL
When external noise cannot be muffled at the source, landscape barriers can provide some control
within the site. Barriers generally involve shielding or absorption, or both.
o Combination of trees, low foliage, and ground cover provides noise attenuation when significant
masses of such absorbing vegetation are involved.
o Foliage should be 500-1000 feet (152-305 meters) deep to diminish properly the intensity of
normal traffic noise.


Landscape Design
General Classification of Landscape Design:
Architectural Landscape
Generally the result of the extension of the space and concept of the building. The architectural
principles applied in the structures are generally imposed upon their natural surroundings. Nature plays
a minor role and supporting role to architecture. This concept was developed and nurtured by the
western European countries. It is chiefly characterized by its formalism, symmetry, regularity and other
architectural features.
Similar to the western European concept is the Islamic landscape design which adopted the axial
geometric pattern but characterized by its simplicity and discipline and restraint not visible in western
European gardens.
Natural Landscape
Closer to nature itself. The application of architectural principles are subordinated or completely
ignored. Compared to other western European countries, England has adopted this concept to a large
degree. Though Chinese and Japanese landscape designs fall under this classification, their space
concepts are different from the English Naturalism as the other oriental countries are more preoccupied
with pictorial gardens and employed symbolism extensively.
Principles of Landscape Design:

Like architecture, landscape design will be guided by the principles of balance, unity, harmony, rhythm,
proportion, scale, character and others. Though its application in the natural landscape is less vigorous
as in architecture and other sister arts. Landscape design has no criteria to achieve an accepted
standard of beauty. The quality and taste of landscape design through the ages had been largely
directed by the whims of the rulers, current vogue, architectural period, environment, and others. Like
the architect and artist, the landscape designer must think in terms of art elements: line, shape, mass,
color and texture, in his concern for a good design.
Garden Elements
Since some gardens are extensions of architectural concepts of structures, some building materials are
common to both, such as stone, bricks, concrete, wood, etc., which are judiciously handled to conform
with shapes for outdoor applications such as stairs, walls, statues, vases, fountains, pools, etc.
The natural garden elements cover a long list consisting of pebbles, rocks, moss, grass, trees, plants,
variety of lines, shapes, masses, color and texture. There is an unlimited field of originality and
creativeness.
Topography
Is the art or practice of graphic or exact delineation in minute detail, usually on maps or charts of the
physical features of any place or region especially in relation to their position and elevation.
To avoid costly construction and to make maximum use of grade variations, plans should always be
studied in relation to accurately drawn topographical maps or sketches if possible directly over them.
Level Site:
Though not completely without problems, the level site offers the planner the best and easiest solution
to site development
Advantages of a Level Site:

Economical in site development
It is adaptable to a great variety of planning forms (groupings of buildings) - it is adequate to
all types of street patterns.
Disadvantages of a Level Site:
Grouping of buildings should be carefully studied to create satisfactory system of drainage
Surfaces or recreation areas and yards require some pitch for discharging water to surface
inlets.
TYPES OF BUILDING LAYOUTS SUITABLE FOR LEVEL SITES
Types of bldg. layouts suitable for level sites: (Elevations)
Formal Layout Informal Layout
Types of bldg. layouts suitable for level sites: (Plans)
Formal Symmetrical Plan Informal Symmetrical Plan
Formal Asymmetrical Sprawl Type

SLOPING TERRAIN: Next to a level site; a slopping site provides the planner with a variety of
building types and groupings. Different street patterns could be employed.
Advantages of a Sloping site:

Variety of building types and building groupings
Drainage problems are simpler. Water flows to lowest level
Adaptable to a great variety of street patterns
ROLLING TERRAIN: More difficult to manage but creates a far more interesting land development.
Advantages of a Rolling terrain:
More interesting land development could attract high end buyers
Economies of first cost in sewer and drainage lines
The practice of building parallel to contours will reduce costly construction, grading and
filling
On very steep sites, the building itself could serve as the retaining wall
Disadvantages of a Rolling terrain:
Less variety of street pattern
Less variety of building type

A better way is to build with nature which provides the human scale and the charm we find so
appealing in the older cultures where economy of materials and space dictates a closer relationship of
structures and landscape form.

PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS
Physical arrangement of buildings according to mass and space.

ISOLATED BUILDING: enclosed within space
BUILDING ENCLOSING SPACE AND SPACE ENCLOSING BUILDING: interior space becomes cohesive
therefore no elements to alienate buildings.
ENCLOSED SPACE: isolated but cut-up with traffic lines
SPACE COHESIVE: less isolated
UNDER/OVER PASS: unified isolated buildings
BUILT-UP CORNERS: corners are built-up making the design of buildings restricted since a similar
shape must be adopted to hold the design together

MONUMENT/STATUE/FOUNTAIN: introducing a monument/statue/fountain creates a visual identity for

the space
TERMINAL POINTS: use of terminal points is essential in siting a building such as the Piazza San Marco
in Venice
SLOPE ANALYSIS
Useful for making decisions about the distribution of land use to have a plan showing the location of
the vertical and near-vertical banks, the very steep land, the steep land, the moderately sloping land,
the gently sloping land and the flat land.
Different angles of slope have different implications for development. Examples, if the project area is
to be used for a building, the angle of slope can have severe repercussions on building cost. It cost
money to flatten sites or to terrace them for development. Earth shifting can do considerable damage,
often to areas much larger than that covered by the building, so a slope analysis that is produced to
ensure the minimal area of disturbance is, therefore, a vital piece of information for the site planning
process.
Type of land use Permitted angle of slope

Maximum Minimum
Streets and Drives 8% 1:12 1% 1:100
Parking Areas 5% 1:20 1% 1:100
Main footpaths – bitumen 8% 1:12 5% 1:20
Main ramp on footpath- short 14% 1:7
Entrance area 4% 1:25 1% 1:100
Minor footpaths 14% 1:7 5% 1:20
Terraces-paved 2% 1:50 1% 1:100
Lawns 5% 1:20 1% 1:100
Mown grass banks 33% 1:3
Planted slopes 50% 1:2
Desirable Service Drives and Parking Area

Minimum Maximum
Ramps for vehicles 5% 8%
Pedestrian ramps
Playgrounds 4% 15%
Sitting areas 1% 4%
Paved playlots 0.5% 2%
Entrance ramps
Pedestrian 1% 4%
Grassed playlots 0.5% 4%
Lawn 1% 25%

Irregular Shape and Sites with Adverse Conditions

It is sometimes unavoidable that sites with irregular shapes and adverse conditions come up. These
can be best analyzed upon knowing its potentials and constraints.
Planning problems inherent in the site:

Unsuitable for low rent housing
Difficult street pattern: a mixture of meandering and curvilinear could be used
Complex building arrangement
Abnormal grading arrangement
Limited natural platforms and space for buildings and tenants yards
Inefficient utility layout
Expensive and extensive drainage layout
Unusable fragmented areas
Force high site improvement cost and recurring maintenance problems
STREET PATTERNS
There are different types of street patterns suitable for various types of topography, each with its own
practicality, functionality, and charm. The problem is choosing the type of street pattern for a
particular site. One that would give utmost performance.
GEOMETRIC: Linear or Street Ribbon. A straight road used to connect one community to another.
Crossings are few and far between.
GRIDIRON: Site is divided into square or rectangular blocks.

Advantages: Blocks and services are easy to lay out
Disadvantages: Causes traffic congestion due to the frequent crossings created.

RADIAL: Use of circumferential and radial roads to connect the center of the city to the outskirts a
ripple manner.
MEANDERING: Used in highly mountainous sites. Following the contours of the topography.
COMBINATION: Using both the geometric and meandering street patterns. Geometric street pattern is
used where the terrain is flat and meandering where the terrain is rolling.
MODIFIED GRIDS
The advantage of a grid system is its ability to lay out streets in an easy and direct manner as well as
the easy installation of services following the grids of the streets. One disadvantage of the grid is its
relative monotony. To avoid monotonous street layouts a modified grid could be used.
Typical Grid:
Modified Grid: Central Loop

Modified Grid: Outside Loop
CUL-DE-SAC
The grouping of houses presents a far less difficult problem than that of the straight street. A cul-de-
sac is shaped so that the fronting houses automatically create an enclosed space.
For effectivity, the length of a cul-de-sac should not be longer than 500 ft. (152.4 meters)
More compact if cul-de-sac is retained short
A long version is considered a straight street with a turnaround
Utilizes an odd parcel of land to full advantage
LOOPS
Good opportunities exist for varied and interesting house groups on lots flanking looped streets
One disadvantage of loops is the eventual narrowness of certain lot frontages especially along
the curvature of the loop
STREET CLASSIFICATION
The overall street system for a housing development must conform to the circulation requirements of
the master plan for the community.
To provide maximum accessibility to all parts of the community and ensure proper coordination
with proposed circulation changes
Direct access to a major arterial highway is essential
Intersections must be adequately controlled with lights or other means
The practical minimum distance between intersections on the major arterial highway should be
800 to 1000 ft. (243 – 204 meters)
No through street should be provided
All circulation should be directed around the periphery of the development to the major arterial
highway
Each lane or traffic should carry from 600 to 800 cars per hour
Sidewalks, when used, should be a minimum of 4 ft. wide (1.2 meters)
When trees are planted between the curb and the sidewalk, the sidewalk should be set back
approximately 8 ft. (2.4 meters)
If no tree is used the set back should be 4 ft. (1.2 meters)
Horizontal alignment of all collector streets, minor, loop, and access streets should provide a
minimum of 200 ft. (60 meters) in clear sight distance

TYPES OF STREETS
Major roads (major arterials: highways, bi-ways, expressways, super-highways, freeways, motorways,
autobahns, etc.)
Provide unity throughout contiguous urban areas
Usually form boundaries for neighborhoods
Minor access control; channelized intersection; parking generally prohibited
Secondary roads (minor arterial: avenue, boulevard, etc.)

Main feeder streets
Signals where needed
Stop signs on side streets
Occasionally form boundaries for neighborhoods
Collector streets
Main interior streets
Stop signs on side streets
Local streets
Local service streets
Non-conducive to through traffic
Cul-de-Sac (dead ends, turn around, T junction, Y junction, hammer, loop)

Street open only to one end with provision for a practical turnaround at the other

CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES IN SITE PLANNING
ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS:
1. Physiological needs – need for water, food, air, warmth

2. Safety and security needs – both psychological and physiological
3. Belonging needs – need for affiliation and be a member of a group
4. Esteem needs – need to be held in esteem by oneself and by others
5. Actualization needs – need to fulfill one’s capacities/potential
6. Cognitive needs – need to learn
7. Aesthetic needs – need for sense of beauty
BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT
The interaction between human behavior and the nonhuman environment is a two-way process.
Behavior is the result of interaction between:
The environment / physical factors

The individuals’ physiological/ biological mechanism and psychological factors.
In design, we consider 3 human factors: physical, physiological, and psychological factors
1. PHYSICAL FACTORS:
Relates to the physical shape and size of person and the detailed form of the environment.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS:
People need air, water, exercise, and protection from the excesses of heat and cold.
Also, a semi-physiological need is the need for self-preservation and avoidance of pain.
Establishment of City regulations and design specifications for safety and security, i.e., fire
code
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS:

Human psychological and social needs, behavioral patterns, and tendencies is the most difficult
to define and relate to the form of the environment.
Psychological needs and perception of the environment differ according to a multitude of
variables including age, social class, cultural background, past experience, motives, and daily
routine of the individual.
Five (5) Generalized Groupings of Motivational Forces and Psychological Needs:
1. Social Need - Need for social interaction (sociopetal form of design- designed to draw people
together, to engender social relationships), need for group affiliation, need for companionship, and
for love
2. Stabilizing Need - Need to be free from fear, anxiety, and danger; need for clear orientation,
organize the environment. To form and shape environment according to a symbolic and
metaphysical urge.
3. Individual Need – Need to experience and develop self-awareness; need for privacy; need for
identity and sense of personal uniqueness in the environment – spiritual connection
4. Self-expression - Need for self-assertion and exhibition, for dominance and power; need for status;
need for territory and play
5. Enrichment Need - Need for self-realization and personal creativity; need for beauty and aesthetic
experience (design for complexity)
BEHAVIOR SETTING/ ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING - Standing patterns of behavior that repeats itself at
regular intervals in some bounded locality and in which space and behavior can be considered as a
whole.
Behavior circuits - looks at the track of activity followed by an individual over a cycle of time.
Site Planning and Human Environmental Preference:

o Complexity and Diversity

o Mystery
o Legibility
o Influence of Past Experience
o Make available in the immediate neighborhood a wide array of environmental settings which
each individual could choose to experience
o Enhance the visual qualities of the setting to emphasize the uniqueness of the place so that
people develop individual attachments and group perceptions.
CLIMATE DESIGN
If the central purpose of planning is to create for any person or group of persons an
environment suited to their needs, then climate must be a first consideration.
Once a site has been chosen, two new considerations suggest themselves.
How do we best respond to the climatic givens in terms of site and structural design, and by what
means can we modify the effects of climate to improve the situation?
Physical Characteristics:
o Perhaps the most obvious facts of climate are the annual, seasonal, and daily ranges of
temperature. These will vary with changing conditions of latitude, longitude, altitude, exposure,
vegetation, and proximity to such weather modifiers as the Gulf Stream, water bodies, ice
masses, or desert.
o The amount of precipitation in the form of dew, rainfall, frost, or snow is to be recorded, as well
as seasonal variations in humidity.
o The duration of sunlight in hours per day is of planning and design significance, as are the
angles of incidence at prescribed times of day and year and the intensity of solar radiation.
o The direction and velocity of the winds and the date and path of violent storms are to be
charted. The availability quantity and quality of potable water are to be noted, together with the
depths at which it occurs.
o The geologic structure is to be described, together with soil types and depths and the existing
vegetation and wildlife.
o Finally, the working together of all the physical elements as an ecological system is described to
complete the story of regional climate.
Social Characteristics:
o The physical well—being and attitudes of people are directly affected by climate, and these in
turn prescribe the planning needs.
o It is well, therefore, in the study of climatic regions to note behavioral reactions and patterns of
community organization that are unique and attributable to the climate or the weather.
o The special foods and dishes, the manner of dress, and the traditional customs are indicative.
And so it is with the favored types of recreation, the level of education, and cultural pursuits.
Economic factors such as agricultural yields and the production of goods are to be noted.
o In short, what one eats, drinks, believes, and is, is climate—induced and characteristic of the
region.
Climate Response
o There is little to be done about the world climate except to adjust to it.
o The most direct form of adjustment is to move to that region which has a climate best suited to
one’s needs or desires. Such migrations or attempted migrations are the basis of much of
human history.
o The alternative approach, barring admission to a climatological Shangri-La, is to make the best
of existing conditions wherever one may be.
o In broad terms, the climatic regions of the earth are four: the cold, the cool temperate, the
warm-humid, and the hot-dry.
It is proposed that within each region there is, for a given climatological condition, a logical planning-
design response.

1. Warm Humid Region
Conditions
o Temperatures high and relatively constant.

o High humidity.
o Torrential rainfall.
o Storm winds of typhoon and hurricane force.
o Breeze often constant in the daylight hours.
o Vegetative covers from sparse to luxuriant and sometimes jungle like.
o The sun’s heat is enervating.
o Sky glare and sea glare can be distressing.
o Climatic conditions breed insects in profusion.
o Fungi are a persistent problem.
Community
o Spacing of habitations in the dispersed ―hunter‖ tradition.

o Adjustment of community patterns to channels or areas of air movement.
o Avoidance of floodplains and drainage ways. Disturbed areas are subject to heavy erosion.
o Location of settlements in the lee of protective land masses and forest and above the level of
storm-driven tides,
o Alignment of streets and placement of gathering places to capture all possible air currents.
o Avoidance of natural growth insofar as feasible. Disturbance of the ground-cover subjects soils
to erosion.
o Use of existing tree masses and promontories to provide a sunscreen to public ways and places.
Supplementary planting of shade trees is often desirable,
o Planned location of settlements with the arc of the sun to the rear not seaward, of the building
sites.
o Location of settlements upwind of insect breeding areas.
o Admittance of sun and breeze to building areas to reduce fungi and mildew.
Site
o Design of site spaces to provide shade, ventilation, and the cooling effects of foliage and water
o Provision for air circulation and evaporation.
o Protection against driving rains and adequate runoff capacity
o Location of critical-use areas and routes in unexposed places, above the reach of tides and
flooding.
o Maximization, by exposure, channeling, and funneling, of the favorable effects of the breeze.
o Use o lush foliage masses and specimen plants as backdrop and enframement and for the
interest of form, foliage, or floral display.
o Planning of outdoor activity areas for use in the cooler morning and evening hours. Heat-of-the-
day gathering places should be roofed or tree-shaded.
o Reduction or elimination of glare by plan location and well-placed tree plantings.
o Elevation of use areas and walkways by deck and platform construction to open them to the
breeze and reduce annoyance by insects.
o Use of stone, concrete, metals, and treated wood only in contact with the ground.
Buildings
o Induction of cooling by all feasible means, including the use of open building plans, high
ceilings, broad overhangs, louvered openings, and air conditioning of local areas.
o Provision of air circulation: periodic exposure to sunlight and artificial drying where required.
o Architectural use of the colonnade, arcade, pavilion, covered passageway, and veranda:
orientation of entranceways and windows away from the path of the storm track.
o Design of wind-resistant structures or lighter temporary and expendable shelters.
o Design of rooms, corridors, balconies, and patios as an interconnected system of breezeways.
o Utilization, indoors and out, of indigenous plant materials for the cooling effect of their foliage.
o Provision of shade, shade, shade.
o Positioning of viewing points away from the glare and provision of well-designed screening.
o Elevation of structures above the ground, facing into the breeze, and insect proofing of critical
points and areas.

o Provision of open, well-ventilated storage areas: use of fungus resistant materials and drying
devices as needed.
2. Hot-Dry (Desert Like) Regions
Conditions
o Intense heat in the daytime.

o Often intense cold at night.
o Expanses are vast.
o Sunlight and glare are penetrating.
o Drying winds are prevalent and often raise devastating dust storms.
o Annual rainfall is minimal; Vegetation is sparse to nonexistent except along watercourses.
o Spring rains come as a cloudburst with rapid runoff and heavy erosion.
o Water supply is extremely limited.
o Limited agricultural productivity necessitates the importation of food and other goods.
o Irrigation is a fact of life.
Community
o Creation of cool and refreshing islands of use within the parched surroundings.
o Provision of opportunities for group activity. Chill evenings in the desert, as on the tundra,
suggest the need.
o Adaptation of ―outpost,‖ ―fort,‖ and ―ranch‖ plan patterns.
o Within the dispersed compounds the planning of compact spaces with narrow passageways and
colonnades to provide relief from the sun.
o Location of homesteads and trade centers in areas of established ground covers: use of
shelterbelt tree plantations.
o Protection of all possible natural growth surrounding the development.
o Avoidance of flood-prone areas. Those who have experienced desert freshets will keep well out
of their way.
o Minimization of irrigation requirements by compact planning and multiple use of planted and
seeded spaces.
o Location of settlements and community centers close to transportation and distribution nodes.
o Coordination of land use and traffic pat terns with existing and projected irrigation canal routes
and reservoir locations.
Site
o Amelioration of heat and glare by orientation away from the sun, by shading, by screening, and
by the cast-shadow patterns of well-placed building components.
o Adoption of the corral-compound (herder) arrangement of homesteads and neighborhood
clusters,
o Recognition of the automobile as the crucial means of daily transport and a dominant site-
planning factor
o Screening of use areas and paths of movement from the direct blast of the sun,
o Protection of outdoor activity spaces from exposure.
o Preservation of native plant materials as self sustaining and handsome components of the
desert landscape.
o Avoidance of arroyos and floodplains as development routes and sites.
o Limitation in the size of parks, gardens, and seeded areas.
o Use of tubbed and container grown plants, drip irrigation, and hydroponic gardening.
o Incorporation of irrigation canals, ponds, and structures as attractive site features,
Buildings
o Architectural use of thick walls, high ceilings, wide roof overhangs, limited fenestration, light-
reflective colors, and a precise design response to the angles and arcs of the sun.
o Exclusion of the chill night air by insulation, reduction of heat loss, and use of localized radiant
heat. The open fireplace is a desert tradition for good reason.
o Low ranch-type spreads are a logical architectural expression of the hot—dry climate and desert
topography.

o Provision of cool, compact, and dim interior spaces in contrast to the stifling heat and brilliance
of the great outdoors.
o Sealing of all buildings against dust and wind. Airtight openings and skillful architectural
detailing are required.
o Grouping of rooms or structures around planted and irrigated courts and patios.
o Provision of spring rainfall catchment and storage. Water from roofs, courts, and paved areas
can be directed to cisterns.
o Recycling of wastewater is prescribed. The type of use will determine the degree of treatment
and purification required.
o The provision of food and fodder storage is an important consideration in desert building
design.
o Adaptation of irrigation to interior courts and garden spaces. The evaporation of moisture from
paved surfaces, fountains, spray heads, mulches, or foliage provides welcome relief from the
heat.
3. The Cold Region
Conditions
o Scrub forest cover
o Short winter days
o Long winters
o Alternating freeze and thaw
o Rapid spring melt
o Extreme winter cold
o Deep snow
o Strong winds
o High windchill factor
o Deep frost
Community
o Orientation to warming sun

o Utilization of all protective ground forms and covers as windscreens and soil stabilizers
o Preservation of all possible vegetation, with the strong wind-resistant edges left intact
o Grouping of activity areas to reduce travel time
o Avoidance of low ground, natural drainageways, and floodplains
Site
o Creation of enclosed courts and sun traps; use of textured construction materials and warm,
―primitive‖ colors
o Use of short accessways, grouped entries, raised platforms, and covered walks
o Maximum utilization of daylight, orientation of bldgs. toward sunlit spaces with views to the sky
and sunlit hills
o Use of decks, raised walkways, and flexible ground surfacings to preclude frost heave
o Use of post, beam, and platform construction to avoid the need for extensive excavation and
foundations
Buildings
o Design of massive, low-profile, well-insulated structures, with maximum exposure of walls and
roof areas to the sun and minimum exposure to the wind; heat loss to be reduced in all ways
possible, including limitation of the window area
o Use of steep roof pitches, deep overhangs, and exaggerated storm drainage gradients and
capacities to facilitate runoff
o Placement of windows away from the prevailing winds; orientation of the long bldg. axis into
the wind and utilization of all possible topographic shielding and tree screens
o Reduction of bldg. perimeter and ground contact to reduce foundation problems and heat loss
o Forest cover preserved and buildings nestled against the protective slopes and tree masses
4. The Cool-Temperate Region

Conditions
o Variable temp. from warm to hot in the summer, cold in winter, and moderate in spring and fall
o Marked seasonal change
o Changing wind directions and velocities
o Soils are generally well drained and fertile
o Many streams, rivers, and freshwater lakes
o Topographically scenic, including marine, plain, plateau, and mountainous areas
Community
o Definition of land use and trafficway patterns to reflect local temp. ranges and other climatic
conditions. Extremes suggest compact plan arrangements; more moderate conditions permit
dispersal
o Alignment of streets and open spaces to block cold winter winds and admit welcome summer
breezes
o Design of streets, utility systems, and drainage channels to meet extreme conditions
o Consideration of high winds, flooding, and occasional snowstorms as important design factors
Site
o Possibility of, and necessity for, wide variety in the type and size of outdoor activity areas
o Dramatization of the seasonal variations; consideration of spaces for winters, spring, summer,
and fall activities
o Full utilization of scenic possibilities
Buildings
o Elimination by design, of extremes of demands for cooling, heating and ventilating

o Consideration of shrinkage, swelling, condensation, freezing, and snow loadings
o Expansion and extension of plan forms when desirable, since excavation and foundation
construction are not generally a problem
Planning Considerations
o Clearly, architectural or landscape planning for the well-being of a cultural group demands an
understanding not only of the physical nature of the region and site but of the people as well.
o Then, given a specific location within the region and a well-defined program of needs, the two-
dimensional plan forms can be developed to achieve a pattern of appropriate, functional, and
agreeable relationships.
o Sometimes the most important consideration in site selection or planning is a realization of the
need and benefits of protecting the natural environment.
o Native Americans well understood that to preserve the integrity of their hunting grounds their
nomadic villages must be widely dispersed and clustered. Contemporary Americans have yet to
understand the timeliness and wisdom of this lesson.
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN STRATEGIES
Site Planning
Building design should integrate very nicely with the natural environment and make the best use of the
existing site conditions.
Building Orientation
Buildings should be laid in accordance to the orientation which allow access of solar exposure in
terms of the sunpath and prevailing wind.
Linear block with least openings in deliberately shielding off all accommodation from the west-
sided solar exposure.
The Building Form

The building form is developed with respect to the topographical contours where to minimize the
area of cutting soil and in return filling back of soil to the site and to minimize the disturbance of
the construction to the existing trees and landscape where digging up of soil and cutting off of
tress were minimized.
Natural Ventilation
Openable windows allow the natural ventilation to reduce the operation period of A/C System
during the mild season
Natural Lighting
An open corridor around a central courtyard linking all functional areas allows penetration of
daylight and shades the functional areas from direct sunlight.
Natural Lighting
Balcony approach allows natural lighting for major circulations to minimize the general lightings.
Linear shape with depth of maximum 9 meters for all accommodation to enhance daylight
penetration.
Green Spaces
Incorporation of roof garden and landscaped terrace enables the building to blend in with its
surrounding natural environment. Native species are used wherever possible.
FORWARD LOOKING
The effects of climate on the type of construction couldn't be stressed enough.

Climate will affect the types of materials used, the orientation of the building, and even its
elevation.
Green architecture, also known as environmental design, employs several design elements, and
one could say they are based on climate.
It is the utilization of non-toxic, durable, and natural resource materials in construction.
The design also employs directional designs so as to maximize day lighting, thermal and electric
power, and the ability to recycle wastes.
The goal of such architecture is to construct a building today that may be able to survive in a
completely different resource climate, one that is based on renewable energy.
SITE FURNITURE
Elements placed in a landscape or streetscape for comfort, convenience, information, circulation
control, protection, and user enjoyment, i.e., bollards, benches, signage, lighting, tree grates, utility
boxes, etc.
Design Objectives
Appropriateness – is a major objective in the design and placement of site furniture elements.
It should respond to the character of a site as well as to its existing and proposed function.
Response to setting – Design should respond to the essential identity or inherent character of a
place.

Design Determinants
Cultural Factors: - Social and Political Context
Physical Factors: - Climate, Natural Physiography, Existing Built Environment

Environmental Factors
Regulatory Standards – understand the purpose and rationale for the regulation, i.e., light
intensities for pedestrian and vehicles, signage and control systems, height of mailboxes,
intersection setbacks, width of vehicular lanes, size of garbage, etc.
Design Process

Design Elements:
1. Seating
2. Shelter
3. Convenience Elements
4. Information
5. Lighting
6. Traffic Control and Protection
7. Utilities
8. Seasonal Elements
Seating
Shelter

Convenience Elements

Information

Lighting
Traffic Control and Protection

Utilities
1. Seasonal Elements

GRADING - Involves the remodeling of existing land form to facilitate the functions and circulation of
the site
Two Principal Relationships between Building and Land:

1. The land may be graded or adjusted to suit the architectural or engineering requirements, or
2. The architecture may be adapted to meet variations in ground level so that the original surface
is disturbed less.
Principal Objectives of Grading Design
1. Development of attractive, suitable and economical building sites

2. Provision of safe, convenient, and functional access to all areas for use and maintenance.
3. Disposal of surface runoff from the site area without erosion of sedimentation, or its collection as
needed for water features, debris basins, or irrigation storage.
4. Diversion of surface and subsurface flow away from buildings and pavements to prevent undue
saturation of the subgrade that could damage structures and weaken pavements.
5. Preservation of the natural character of the site by minimum disturbance of existing ground forms
and meeting of satisfactory ground levels at existing trees to be saved.
6. Optimums on-site balance of cut-and-fill; stockpiling for reuse of existing topsoil suitable for the
establishment of groundcover or planting.
7. Avoidance of filled areas that will add to the depth or instability of building foundations and
pavement subgrades.
8. Avoidance of wavy profiles in streets and walks and of steps in walks.
9. Avoidance of earth banks requiring costly erosion control measures, except where these are needed
in places of costly retaining walls.
10. Keeping finished grades as high as practicable where rock will be encountered close to the surface,
thus reducing the cost of utility trenching and other excavation and improving growing conditions
for vegetation.
11. Avoidance of runoff water over roadways to prevent hazardous driving conditions.
Functional & Visual Considerations:

Aesthetic appearance
Screen out undesirable views, i.e., parking lots and highways
Separate circulation and social uses


GRADING METHODS
1. Grading by Cut
Advantages
Greater soil stability
Erosion and settling are
minimized
Disadvantages
Disposal expense
Loss of topsoil resulting in
exposure of non-fertile soils
2. Grading by Fill
Advantages
For raising low spots when no
other method will successfully
drain surface water
Disadvantages
Possibility of settling especially
for large areas
Erosion occurs more readily
Cost of locating, acquiring, and
transporting fill soil
3. Combining Cut-and-Fill
Advantages
Most economical
Prevents the intro. Of foreign
soils
Disadvantage
Might not be possible to arrange
spaces suitable to the users’
needs

Measuring Cuts and Fills
1. Average End Area Method – best suited for lineal construction such as roads, paths, and utility
trenching
2. Contour Area Method – appropriate for large, relatively uncomplicated grading plans and may also
be used to compute volumes of water in ponds and lakes. Mostly used by landscape architects
because it is most accurate.
3. Borrow Pit Method/Grid Method – is appropriate for complex grading projects and urban conditions,
i.e., excavation of buildings.
EARTHWORKS
Finished Grade – the final grade after all landscape development has been completed. It is the
top surface of lawns, planting beds, pavements, and so on, and is normally designated by
contours and spot elevations on a grading plan.
Subgrade – the top of the material on which the surface material such as topsoil and pavement
(including base material) is placed.
o Compacted subgrade -subgrade that must attain a specified density
o Undisturbed subgrade – soil that has not been excavated or changed in any way
Base/Subbase – imported material (normally coarse or fine aggregate) that is typically placed
under pavements
Finished Floor Elevation (FFE) – the elevation of the first floor of a structure; the term may be
used to designate the elevation of any floor
Topsoil – top layer of a soil profile, which may range in thickness from <1‖ to >12‖. Because of
its high organic content, it is subject to decomposition and therefore is not appropriate
subgrade material for structure.
General Standards/Rules
To avoid moisture and structural problems, storm water must be drained away from buildings.
This is referred to as positive drainage.
Grade changes should be avoided within the drip line of existing trees in order to protect the
health of the plants
Legally, grades cannot be changed beyond the property lines of the site
The rate of storm runoff leaving the site after construction has been completed should not
exceed the preconstruction rate.
New construction should disturb the smallest area possible to minimize erosion
The proposed grading and landform design should respond to the function and purpose of the
activities and uses to be accommodated.
For economic reasons:

Cut area be as close as possible to the fill area
Clay, silt and loam are easy to load, spread, and compact vs. sand, shale, etc.
Curved grades with gentle slopes are easier to create than are specific angular grades
Average soil has an angle of repose of about 55 deg for cut and 17 deg for fill
In general, slopes of greater than 25% are considered unsafe
Grass cutting machinery is not practical at slopes greater than 30%
Retaining walls over 3 ft. in height are expensive requiring reinforcing, gravel backfill, ―weep
holes‖ to relieve pressure
SITE UTILITIES
WATER SUPPLY
Water intended for human consumption must meet extensive physical, chemical, and biological
standards for quality and reliability. These standards include color, taste, and transparency as well as
freedom from bacteria and chemicals related to human or industrial wastes.
Sources of Water:
Low-Yield Systems – wells, cisterns and surface catchments - For small project requiring only a
limited water supply, there are several possible sources, including wells, springs, cisterns, and
surface impoundments (or catchments). The choice of system generally depends on regional
geohydrologic conditions, with well (where they are feasible) usually being the most cost-effective
alternative.
High-Yield Wells - For larger projects, such as a large institution or a new town, a larger well or
surface reservoir may be required. The design of either system will require specialized engineering
and/or hydrogeologic expertise. Development of high-yield wells should take into account:
legal/environmental requirements and the character and land use history of the tributary area.
FIRE FIGHTING REQUIREMENTS
Proper site design for fire fighting includes:
1. Direct, easily perceived, all-weather vehicular access to each building, to each hydrant (at least
2 hydrants are within 500-600 ft. or 150-180 meters of every building, with a larger number
within that distance of any major building or congested area), and, where appropriate, to each
surface water impoundment.
2. Control of the massing of any development with firebreaks or fire walls to reduce the possibility
of conflagration.
3. Site layout that allows fire hoses to be run to all sides of each building.

4. In areas prone to brushfires, site design should include control of flammable vegetation around
or near buildings, including the use of pavements, mowed lawns, irrigated plantings, and the
avoidance of flammable shrubs.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Some form of sewage disposal is necessary in most buildings or land development projects for the
disposal of domestic waterborne wastes. Such wastes are either piped off-site to a municipal sewer
system or are treated and disposed of on-site.
Types of Sewage Systems:
The type of sewage disposal system chosen for the development of any tract of land will influence the
pattern and density of that development. The sewerage for any project can include:
1. Simple, economical systems for the safe, environmentally sound disposal of wastewater
2. More complex and costly systems for overcoming the limits of poorly drained or impermeable
soils on sites that good locations or other valuable aspects
3. More complex and costly systems for increasing the density of development on site

Regarding the selection of the ultimate wastewater disposal alternatives, whether to groundwater,
surface water, or the atmosphere, the designer should consider: site conditions, costs, local
governmental regulations and policies and impacts on water quality.
In general, connection to an existing municipal system will be the least complex method. In addition,
where such connections are available, they are often mandated by local officials. Note that this may
not be the least costly or the most environmentally desirable alternative.
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Development of any site will usually reduce the permeability of the land and reduce the time in which
runoff is concentrated. Even a small amount of development on a site, with naturally permeable soils
and poorly developed drainage ways, will dramatically increase runoff and its impacts, even if the
proposed development has an efficient drainage system.
Control of the harmful effects of runoff include:
1. Minimizing the use of paved gutters or drainage pipes and maximizing the use of vegetated
drainage swales, etc.
2. Retarding stormwater runoff via various water impoundment techniques so that peak runoff for
frequent storms will be no greater after development than before
3. Providing maximum opportunity for rainwaters to infiltrate the soil
Sources:
An Introduction to Landscape Architecture by Michel Laurie, New York: American Elsevier Publishing
Co., Inc., 1975
Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design by Baruch Givoni, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1998
Construction Design for Landscape Architects by Albe Minson, New York: McGraw Hill, 1974
Environmental Planning for Site Development by Jean MacDonald Beer, England: Chapman and Hall,
1990
Landscape Architecture: A manual of site planning and design (4th Edition) by John Ormsbee Simonds,
New York: McGraw Hill, 2006
Planning and Urban Design Standards (4th Edition) by Frederick Steiner and Kent Butler, New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, 2007
Site Analysis by James Lagro, Jr., New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001
Site Design & Construction Detailing (3rd Edition) by Theodore Walker, New York: Van Norstrand
Reinhold, 1992
Site Engineering for Landscape Architects (4th Edition) by Steven Strom, Kurt Nathan, et. al, New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2004
Site Planning by Kevin Lynch, (3rd Edition) Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1984
Site Planning Standards by Joseph De Chiara and Lee E. Koppelman, L., New York: McGraw-Hill Co.,
1978
Timesaver Standards for Landscape Architecture by Charles W. Harris and Nicholas T. Dines, eds. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1995

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AY2009

PLN1- Site Planning

UST College of Architecture

Preliminary Site Investigation and Analysis

The Sequence in Producing a Site Plan

Technical Team assembled

Key issues identified Alternative Site is examined

Discussion with local planners

Site Inventory Present and Future Users Needs

Environmental Policies Site Potential Assessed

Alternative Development Concepts examined

Planning approval sought by client

Design and site management briefs developed

UST College of Architecture Page 2

Steps that could be followed in conducting a survey:

4) Data on the site and its immediate context:

1. Geology and soil:

a. Underlying geology, rock character and depth

a. Existing water bodies - variation and purity

a. Regional data on variation of temperature, precipitation, humidity, solar angle,

a. Dominant plant/animal communities – location and relative stability

a. Existing buildings outline, location, floor, elevations, type condition use

a. Character and relation of visual spaces

1. Resident and using population

a. Number and composition

3. Site values, rights, and restraints

a. Ownerships, easements and other rights

4. Past and future:

a. Site history and its traces

UST College of Architecture Page 4

UST College of Architecture Page 5

Useful for making decision about the distribution of land use

Slope and Land Use:

 <1% - do not drain well

UST College of Architecture Page 6

Topographic Maps are printed in 5 colors:

A – Also known as the topsoil layer, it

B – Also know as the subsoil, it is the next

C – Represents the unconsolidated

Bedrock or ledge – if it exists near the

UST College of Architecture Page 7

SOIL AND ITS ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

UST College of Architecture Page 8

Soil drainage or permeability

Soil for Landscaping

UST College of Architecture Page 10

UST College of Architecture Page 11

UST College of Architecture Page 12

Erosion of cliffs by the sea

UST College of Architecture Page 13

CRITICAL SUBSURFACE PROBLEMS:

UST College of Architecture Page 14

UST College of Architecture Page 15

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UST College of Architecture Page 17

Effect of topography – valleys and ridges

Factors Affecting Building Location and Orientation