FUNGSI INTELEKTUAL DARI

SUSUNAN SARAF PUSAT

Departemen Fisiologi
FK USU
 Sub pokok bahasan & SLO

◦ Proses Belajar, Bahasa dan Ingatan

◦ Anatomi dan fungsi area-area asosiasi
◦ Proses belajar : habituasi, sensitisasi & refleks
terkondisi.
◦ Proses komunikasi : pembentukan bahasa
◦ Mekanisme penyimpanan ingatan dan jenis-
jenis ingatan
 Association Areas

◦ The motor, sensory, and language areas account for only

about half of the total cerebral cortex.

◦ The remaining areas, called association areas, which are

involved in higher functions.
◦ There are three association areas:
(1) the prefrontal association cortex,
(2) the parietal-temporal-occipital association cortex, and
(3) the limbic association cortex
◦ The prefrontal association cortex is the front portion of the
frontal lobe just anterior to the premotor cortex.

◦ The roles attributed to this region are:

(1) planning for voluntary activity
(2) decision making (weighing consequences of future
actions and choosing between different options for various
social or physical situations)
(3) creativity
(4) personality traits.

To carry out these highest of neural functions, the prefrontal

association cortex is the site of operation of working memory
where the brain temporarily stores and actively manipulates
information used in reasoning and planning.
◦ The parietal-temporal-occipital association cortex lies at
the interface of the three lobes.
◦ It pools and integrates somatic, auditory, and visual
sensations projected from these three lobes for complex
perceptual processing.
◦ It works to “get the complete picture” of the relationship of
various parts of body with the external world.

◦ For example, it integrates visual information with

proprioceptive input to let you place what you are seeing in
proper perspective, such as realizing that a bottle is in an
upright position despite the angle from which you view it
(that is, whether you are standing up, lying down, or
hanging upside down from a tree branch).
◦ The limbic association cortex is located mostly on the
bottom and adjoining inner portion of each temporal lobe.

◦ This area is concerned primarily with motivation and

emotion and is extensively involved in memory.
◦ This complex interacting network is associated with
emotions, basic survival and socio-sexual behavioural
patterns, motivation, and learning
 Learning and Memory

◦ Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills as a

consequence of experience, instruction, or both.
◦ It is widely believed that rewards and punishments are integral
parts of many types of learning.

◦ Memory is the storage of acquired knowledge for later recall.

 Mechanisms of Learning

◦ Habituation is a simple form of learning in which a neutral

stimulus is repeated many times.

◦ Process: a gradual inactivation of Ca 2+ channels

decrease in intracellular Ca 2+
decreased release of
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal

◦ It can be short term, or it can be prolonged if exposure to the

benign stimulus is repeated many times.
◦ Habituation is a classic example of non-associative learning.
◦ Sensitization is in a sense the opposite of habituation.

◦ Sensitization is the prolonged occurrence of augmented

postsynaptic responses after a stimulus to which one has
become habituated is paired once or several times with a
noxious stimulus. (Sensitisasi adalah kejadian yang
berkepanjangan dari respons postsynaptic yang diperbesar
setelah stimulus dimana seseorang menjadi terbiasa
dipasangkan satu atau beberapa kali dengan stimulus
berbahaya).
◦ The process of the short-term prolongation of sensitization is
due to: a Ca2+ -mediated change in adenylyl cyclase that
leads to a greater production of cAMP.
◦ Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a rapid enhancement of the
postsynaptic potential in response to presynaptic
stimulation, after a brief period of rapidly repeated
stimulation of the presynaptic neuron. (Potensiasi jangka
panjang (LTP) adalah peningkatan potensial postsynaptic
yang cepat sebagai respons terhadap stimulasi presinaptik,
setelah periode singkat stimulasi berulang dari neuron
presinaptik).

◦ It occurs in many parts of the nervous system, especially in

the hippocampus.

◦ There are two forms of LTP in the hippocampus:

◦ mossy fibre LTP, which is presynaptic and independent of N-
methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors
◦ Schaffer collateral LTP, which is postsynaptic and NMDA
receptor-dependent.
◦ Production of LTP in Schaffer collaterals in
the hippocampus.
◦ Glutamate (Glu) released from the
presynaptic neuron binds to AMPA and
NMDA receptors in the membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron.
◦ Activation of the AMPA receptors (Amino
Methyl Proprionic Acid)
AP
relieves the
Mg 2+ block in the NMDA receptor channel

Ca 2+enters the neuron with Na+.
◦ The increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ activates
calmodulin (CaM)
activates
Ca2+/calmodulin kinaseII (CaM kII).
◦ The kinase phosphorylates the AMPA
receptors (P),increasing their conductance,
and moves more AMPA receptors into the
synaptic cell membrane from cytoplasmic
storage sites.
◦ In addition,a chemical signal (PS) may pass
to the presynaptic neuron, producing a
long-term increase in the quantal release
of glutamate.
(Courtesy of R Nicoll.)
◦ Long-term depression (LTD) was first noted in the
hippocampus but was subsequently shown to be present
throughout the brain in the same fibres as LTP.
◦ LTD is the opposite of LTP.
◦ It resembles LTP in many ways, but it is characterized by a
decrease in synaptic strength.
◦ It is produced by slower stimulation of presynaptic neurons
and is associated with a smaller rise in intracellular Ca2+
than occurs in LTP.
◦ In the cerebellum, its occurrence appears to require the
phosphorylation of the GluR2 subunit of the α-amino-3-
hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4 propionic acid (AMPA)
receptors.
 Memory
Storage of acquired information is accomplished in at least
two stages:
1. Short-term memory lasts for seconds to hours
Involves transient changes in functions of pre-existing synapses,
such as altering amount of neurotransmitter released
2. Long-term memory is retained for days to years.
Involves relatively permanent functional or structural changes
between existing neurons, such as formation of new synapses;
synthesis of new proteins plays key role.

The process of transferring and fixing short-term memory traces

into long-term memory stores is known as consolidation.
◦ There is no single “memory centre” in the brain.
◦ The neural change responsible for retention or storage of
knowledge is known as the memory trace
◦ The neurons involved in memory traces are widely
distributed throughout the subcortical and cortical regions
of the brain.

◦ The regions of the brain most extensively implicated in

memory include:
◦ the hippocampus and associated structures of the
medial (inner) temporal lobes
◦ the limbic system
◦ the cerebellum
◦ the prefrontal cortex
◦ other regions of the cerebral cortex
 Declarative memories

◦ The hippocampus and surrounding regions play an especially

important role in declarative memories
◦ Declarative memory basically means memory of the various
details of an integrated thought, such as memory of an important
experience that includes
(1) memory of the surroundings
(2) memory of time relationships
(3) memory of causes of the experience
(4) memory of the meaning of the experience
(5) memory of one’s deductions that were left in the person’s mind.

◦ Declarative memories require conscious recall.

◦ The hippocampus and associated temporal/limbic structures are
especially important in maintaining a durable record of the
everyday episodic events in our lives.
 Procedural Memories

◦ The cerebellum and relevant cortical regions play an essential

role in the “how to” procedural memories (skill memories)
involving motor skills gained through repetitive training, such as
memorizing a particular abilities (driving, dancing, sports).

◦ Procedural memories can be brought forth without conscious

effort.
◦ Psychological studies have shown that rehearsal of the same
information again and again in the mind accelerates and
potentiates the degree of transfer of short-term memory into long
term memory and therefore accelerates and enhances
consolidation.
◦ The brain has a natural tendency to rehearse newfound
information, especially newfound information that catches the
mind’s attention.
◦ Therefore, over a period of time, the important features of sensory
experiences become progressively more and more fixed in the
memory stores.
 Language
◦ Language is a complex form of communication in which
written or spoken words symbolize objects and convey ideas.
◦ It involves the integration of two distinct capabilities:
expression (speaking ability) and comprehension.
◦ Each of which is related to a specific area of the cortex.

◦ Unlike the sensory and motor regions of the cortex, which are
present in both hemispheres, in the vast majority of people the
areas of the brain responsible for language ability are found in
only one hemisphere:
the left hemisphere.
◦ The primary areas of cortical specialization for language
are Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area.

◦ Wernicke’s area is located in the left cortex at the juncture

of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, is concerned
with language comprehension.
◦ It plays a critical role in understanding both spoken and
written messages.
◦ Furthermore, it is responsible for formulating coherent
patterns of speech that are transferred via a bundle of
fibers to Broca’s area, which in turn controls articulation of
this speech.
◦ Broca’s area is located in the left frontal lobe, in close
association with the motor areas of the cortex that control
the muscles necessary for articulation.
◦ Wernicke’s area was named in honour of the neurologist
who first described its special significance in intellectual
processes.
◦ This area of confluence of the different sensory
interpretative areas is especially highly developed in the
dominant side of the brain (the left side in almost all right-
handed people).
◦ It plays the greatest single role of any part of the cerebral
cortex for the higher comprehension levels of brain
function that we call intelligence. (Bagian ini melakukan
peran tunggal terbesar dari setiap bagian korteks serebral
untuk tingkat pemahaman yang lebih tinggi dari fungsi
otak yang kita sebut kecerdasan).
◦ Therefore, this region has been called by different names
suggestive of an area that has almost global importance:
the general interpretative area, the gnostic area, the
knowing area, the tertiary association area, and so forth.
◦ Wernicke’s area receives input from the temporal, parietal,
and occipital lobes:
◦ the visual cortex in the occipital lobe; a pathway
important in reading comprehension and in describing
objects seen
◦ the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe, a pathway
essential for understanding spoken words.

◦ When a person has already learned one language and

then learns a new language, the area in the brain where
the new language is stored is slightly removed from the
storage area for the first language.
◦ If both languages are learned simultaneously, they are
stored together in the same area of the brain.
Cerebral processing of spoken and visual language
Wernicke’s Aphasia and Global Aphasia.

◦ Some people are capable of understanding either the spoken

word or the written word but are unable to interpret the thought
that is expressed.
◦ This results most frequently when Wernicke’s area in the posterior
superior temporal gyrus in the dominant hemisphere is damaged
or destroyed.
◦ Therefore, this type of aphasia is called Wernicke’s aphasia.
◦ Loss of Broca’s Area Causes Motor Aphasia.
◦ The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth,
respiratory system, and other accessory muscles of speech are all
initiated from this area.
◦ Sometimes a person is capable of deciding what he or she wants
to say but cannot make the vocal system emit words instead of
noises.
◦ This effect, called motor aphasia, results from damage to Broca’s
speech area.
 Concept of the Dominant Hemisphere

◦ The general interpretative functions of

Wernicke’s area and the angular
gyrus, as well as the functions of the
speech and motor control areas, are
usually much more highly developed
in one cerebral hemisphere than in
the other.

◦ Therefore, this hemisphere is called

the dominant hemisphere.
◦ In about 95 per cent of all people, the
left hemisphere is the dominant one.
Sources of texts and pictures:
1. Textbook of Medical Physiology, Guyton & Hall
2. Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology
3. Fundamental of Physiology, Sherwood L.
4. Human Physiology, Silverthorn DU
5. Human Anatomy and Physiology, Marieb EN