Biology Questions and Answers: Gametogenesis

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Biology Questions and Answers

3. What is the name of the
Gametogenesis cells capable of making
gametes? What is the ploidy
of these gamete-forming
1. What are gametes? cells?
Gametes are cells specialized in sexual The cells that form gametes are the
reproduction. They contain half of the germ cells as opposed to the somatic
maximum number of chromosomes of cells. The ploidy (number of
the species and unite with another chromosomes) of the germ cells is the
gamete giving birth to a zygote with same as the somatic cells (only during
double of the number of chromosomes the formation of gametes meiosis occurs
of the gametic cells. and the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half).
In humans gametes are formed by
meiosis; the male gametes are the
sperm cells and the female gametes are
the egg cells. 4. What are gonads? What are
the male and the female
gonads in humans?
2. What is the type of cell Gonads are the organs that produce
division that allows sexual gametes. They contain the germ cells
reproduction? What is that undergo division and generate
gametogenesis? gametes. In males the gonads are the
testicles. In females the gonads are the
Meiosis is the type of cell division that ovaries.
allows sexual reproduction since it
reduces to a half the number of
chromosomes of the species making
possible the combination of two 5. Indicating the name and
gametes to form a new individual. (In respective ploidy of each
some beings meiosis creates haploid involved cell how can the
gametophytes that by means of mitosis formation of sperm cells from
generate gametes. Even in this case the germ cells be described?
function of meiosis is the same: to
provide cells with half of the number of
chromosomes of the species with The formation of sperm cells, or
separation of the homologous.) spermatogenesis, begins with a germ
cell called spermatogonium (2n) that
Gametogenesis is the name given to the suffers mitosis and gives birth to the
process of gamete production. spermatocyte I (2n). The spermatocyte
I undergoes meiosis I and generates
two spermatocyte II (n) that then
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286
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undergo meiosis II and produce four 9. What is the difference
spermatids (n). Each spermatid between spermatids and
undergoes a maturation process called
sperm cells? What is the name
spermiogenesis and four sperm cells
appear. of the transformation of
spermatids into sperm cells?
Sperm cells (the male gametes) are

6. What is the difference matured spermatids that have already
between spermatogonium and undergone differentiation (appearance
spermatocyte I? of the flagellum, reduction of the
cytoplasm, formation of the acrosome,
increase in the number of
The male germ cells are the
mitochondria). This differentiation
spermatogonia (diploid cells, 2n)
process is called spermiogenesis.
situated in the testicles. They mature
and by means of mitosis give birth to
spermatocytes I (2n) that will undergo
meiosis.
10. What is the acrosome of
the sperm cell? How is it
formed?
7. What is the difference
between spermatocyte I and The acrosome is a structure that
spermatocyte II? contains a great number of digestive
enzymes, it is located in the anterior
end of the sperm cell and it is formed by
The spermatocyte I (2n) undergoes the
the union of Golgi apparatus vesicles.
first division of meiosis (meiosis I)
The function of the acrosome is to
originating two spermatocyte II
release its enzymes when the sperm cell
(haploid, n).
meets the egg cell to break the external
covering of the female gamete thus
making fecundation possible.
between spermatocyte II and
spermatid? 11. What is the function of the
flagellum of the sperm cell?
The spermatids (n) are the products of How is it formed?
the second division of meiosis (meiosis
II) in the male gametogenesis. Each
The flagellum of the sperm cell is made
spermatocyte II originates two
by the centrioles that migrate to the
spermatids totaling four spermatids for
region posterior to the nucleus. Its
each spermatocyte I that enter meiosis.
function is to promote locomotion
towards the egg cell.
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12. Why is the cytoplasm of 14. Indicating the name and
sperm cells very reduced? respective ploidy of each
Why do mitochondria of sperm involved cell how can the
cells concentrate in the base formation of egg cells from
of the flagellum? germ cells be described?
The reduced cytoplasm of sperm cells The formation of egg cells begins with a
decreases the cell weight and provides a germ cell called oogonium (2n) that
more hydrodynamic shape for the undergoes mitosis and gives birth to the
locomotion in fluids. oocyte I (2n). The oocyte I undergoes
meiosis I that however is interrupted at
The high concentration of mitochondria prophase. After puberty during each
at the base of the flagellum of the menstrual cycle an oocyte I finishes the
sperm cell is necessary for the energetic meiosis I and generate one oocyte II (n)
supply of the flagellum (for it to beat and the first polar body (n). With
and move the sperm cell). fecundation the oocyte II then
undergoes meiosis II and produces the
mature egg cell (n) and the second
polar body (n).
13. Concerning events during
the periods of life how
different is the gametogenesis
15. What is the first polar
in women and in men?
body? How different is it from
The formation of spermatogonia in men
the oocyte II?
takes place during the embryonic
period. The formation of sperm cells In oogenesis the oogonium
however is a continuous process that differentiates into oocyte I (2n) and this
begins in puberty and goes on until old cell enters meiosis. After finishing the
age and sometimes during all the first meiotic division (meiosis I) the
remaining life of the man. oocyte I forms two cells: the oocyte II
(n) and the first polar body. The oocyte
In women all oogonia are formed before II is bigger because it gets almost all
birth. The oogonia turn into oocytes I the cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic
that enter the first division of meiosis structures of the oocyte I as a strategy
(meiosis I). This division however is for metabolite and nutrient storage. The
interrupted at prophase and continues oocyte II cell goes then to the second
only in puberty. After the beginning of meiotic division. The first polar body is
menses an egg cell is released during very small and almost lacks cytoplasm;
each period and, if fecundated, it it disintegrates or stays attached to the
finishes the meiotic division. The oocyte II.
oogenesis stops after menopause
(cessation of the menstrual activity) and
the climacteric period of life begins.
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16. What is the relation 19. How does the male
between fecundation and the gamete penetrate the egg
end of the meiotic process cell? How does the female
during oogenesis? gamete protect itself from the
entrance of more gametes
The oocyte II only completes the second after the entrance of the first
meiotic division (interrupted at sperm cell?
metaphase) if fecundation by a male
gamete occurs. (One can say therefore
The sperm cell that reaches the egg cell
that in fact the female gamete is the
triggers the acrosome reaction, a
oocyte II).
process in which hydrolytic enzymes of
the acrosome are released on the
external surface of the zona pellucida
(the protective layer that surrounds the
17. What is the second polar
egg cell). A portion of this layer is
body? digested by the acrosomal enzymes
allowing the sperm cell to reach the
After termination of the second meiotic plasma membrane of the egg cell
division of the oocyte II two cells are carrying out fecundation.
generated: the egg cell proper and the
second polar body. The second polar At the moment that the sperm cell
body is a very small cell that almost makes contact with the egg cell
lacks cytoplasm and stays adnexal to membrane a chemical alteration of this
the egg cell. The entire cytoplasmic membrane occurs. Enzymes secreted by
content of the oocyte II passes to the exocytosis (cortical reaction) make the
egg cell. zona pellucida unable to bind to other
sperm cells (zonal reaction) and other
male gametes cannot enter the egg cell.
18. What is the relationship

between the menstrual cycle
and ovulation? 20. What are the female
pronucleus and the male
Ovulation is the releasing of the female pronucleus?
gamete from the ovary. Ovulation is a
periodical event that occurs during each The female pronucleus is the proper
menstrual cycle. Considering as the first haploid nucleus of the egg cell. Male
day of the menstrual cycle the day when pronucleus is the haploid nucleus of the
menses begins, the ovulation occurs sperm cell that has fecundated the egg
around the 14th day when the cell. After fecundation both pronuclei
concentrations of the hormones LH and fuse forming the nucleus of the diploid
FSH reach high levels. zygote.
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21. Concerning their size and
basic morphology how and
why do the male and the
female gametes differentiate
from each other?
The female gametes are big cells full of

vitellus (nutritive material). The male
gametes are small, mobile and agile
flagellate cells.
Those features are related to their

respective biological functions. While
the female gametes have the basic
functions of receiving the sperm cell
nucleus and of storing nutrients for the
zygote, the male gametes have the
function of active movement towards
the egg cell.
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the prostate and the bulbourethral
Reproductive glands and then go through the urethra,
System inside the penis, to the exterior.
4. What is the function of the

1. What are the organs that secretions of the prostate,
are part of the male genital seminal vesicle and
system? bulbourethral glands in
reproduction?
The organs that comprise the male
genital system are the testicles, the
These secretions along with sperm cells
epididymides, the vas deferens, the
from the testicles form the semen. The
seminal vesicles, the ejaculatory duct,
secretions have the function of
the prostate, the bulbourethral glands,
nourishing the sperm cells and serving
the urethra and the penis.
them as a fluid means of propagation.
The basic pH of the seminal fluid also
neutralizes the acid secretions of the
vagina allowing the survival of sperm
2. Concerning reproduction cells in the vaginal environment after
what is the function of the copulation.
testicles?
The testicles are the male gonads, i.e.,

the organs where the production of 5. What are the endocrine
gametes takes place. In human beings glands that regulate sexual
the gametes are made by meiosis that activity in males? How does
occur in the testicles.
this regulation work and what
are the involved hormones?
3. After passing the In males the sexual activity is regulated

epididymides through which by the endocrine glands hypophysis
(pituitary), adrenals and gonads
structures do sperm cells go (testicles).
until exteriorization?
The FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
After leaving the epididymis in the secreted by the adenohypophysis acts
testicle sperm cells enter the vas upon the testicles stimulating the
deferens, after that they receive spermatogenesis. The LH (luteinizing
secretions from the seminal vesicles and hormone), another adenohypophyseal
gather (from right and left sides) in the hormone, stimulates the production of
ejaculatory duct that passes inside the testosterone by the testicles too.
prostate. They also get secretions from Testosterone, whose production
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intensifies after the beginning of 8. What is the organ that
puberty, acts in several organs of the releases the female gamete
body and it is responsible for the
under formation? How is this
appearing of the male secondary sex
characteristics (beard, body hair, deep release triggered? What is the
voice, increase of the muscle and organ that collects the
osseous mass, maturation of genitalia, released gametes?
etc.) Testosterone also stimulates
spermatogenesis. The organ that liberates the female
gamete is the ovary, the female gonad.
The releasing of the oocyte is a
response to hormonal stimuli. The
6. What are the organs that immature egg cell (still an oocyte) falls
are part of the female into the abdominal cavity and is picked
reproductive system? up by the Fallopian tube (uterine tube,
or oviduct), a tubular structure that
The organs that constitute the female connects the ovary with the uterus.
reproductive system are the ovaries, the
Fallopian tubes (or uterine tubes), the
uterus, the vagina and the vulva.
9. What are the anatomical
relationships between the
organs of the female
7. In which period of life does reproductive system from the
the formation of gametes external vulva to the ovaries?
begin in women?
The external female genitalia is called
The meiosis that forms female gametes the vulva. The vulva is the external
begins in the cells of the ovarian follicles opening of the vaginal canal, or vagina.
before birth. After the beginning of The vagina is the copulation organ of
puberty, under hormonal stimuli, during the females and its posterior extremity
each menstrual cycle one of the cells is communicates with the uterus through
released on the surface of the ovary and the uterine cervix. The uterus is divided
meiosis resumes. The meiotic process is into two portions: the cervix and the
only concluded however if fecundation uterine cavity. The lateral walls of the
happens. uterine fundus communicate with the
Fallopian tubes. The other extremity of
each Fallopian tube ends in fimbria
forming fringes in the abdominal cavity.
Between the uterine tube and the ovary
there is still intra-abdominal space.
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10. What is the menstrual estrogens and progesterone are in low
cycle? concentration.
The menstrual cycle is the periodic

succession of interactions between
13. After menses what is the
hormones and the organs of the female
reproductive system that, after the hormone that influences the
beginning of puberty, regulates the maturation of the ovarian
release of the female gametes and follicles?
prepares the uterus for fecundation and
pregnancy. The maturation of the ovarian follicles
after menses is stimulated by the action
of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).
11. What are the endocrine

glands involved in the
menstrual cycle? What are the 14. What is the hormone
hormones in action? secreted by the growing
ovarian follicles? What is the
The endocrine glands that secrete action of that hormone upon
hormones involved in the menstrual the uterus?
cycle are the hypophysis (pituitary) and
the ovaries.
The follicles that are growing after
menses secrete estrogen. These
The hormones from adenohypophysis
hormones act upon the uterus
are FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
stimulating the thickening of the
and LH (luteinizing hormone) and the
endometrium (the internal mucosa of
hormones from the ovaries are estrogen
the uterus).
and progesterone.
15. What is the relationship

12. What event marks the
between the estrogen level
beginning of the menstrual
and the LH level in the
cycle? What is the blood
menstrual cycle? What is the
concentration of FSH, LH,
function of LH in the
estrogen and progesterone in
menstrual cycle and when
this phase of the cycle?
does its blood concentration
By convention the menstrual cycle
reach a peak?
begins at the day that menses begins.
(Menses is the endometrial hemorrhage The increase in the blood concentration
excreted through the vaginal canal.) At of estrogen with the growing of the
these days the hormones FSH, LH, ovarian follicle causes the hypophysis to
secrete LH. In this phase LH acts
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together with FSH promoting the 18. How long after ovulation
maturation of the follicle that at the must fecundation occur to be
14th day ruptures releasing the female
effective?
gamete (ovulation). After the release of
the ovum LH acts stimulating the
formation of the corpus luteum, a If fecundation does not occur
structure made from the remaining approximately 24 hours after ovulation
follicular mass. The LH concentration is the released ovum often dies.
at maximum at the 14th day of the
cycle.
19. What is the structure into

which the follicle is
16. What are the hormones transformed after ovulation?
that promote the release of What is the importance of that
the female gamete from the structure in the menstrual
follicle and at which day of the cycle?
menstrual cycle does this
phenomenon happen? What is The follicle that released the ovum
this event called? suffers the action of LH and is
transformed into the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum is very important
The hormones that promote the release
of the ovum from the follicle are FSH because it secretes estrogen and
progesterone.
and LH, hormones found in maximum
blood concentration around the 14th
These hormones prepare the uterine
day of the cycle. The release of the
female gamete from the ovary is called mucosa, also known as endometrium,
for nidation (implantation of the zygote
ovulation. Ovulation happens at
(around) the 14th day of the menstrual in the uterine wall) and embryonic
development since they stimulate the
cycle.
thickening of the mucous tissue,
increase its vascularity and make the
appearing of uterine glycogen-producing
glands.
17. How does the female
gamete move from the ovary
to the uterus?
20. What is the importance of
The female gamete released from the the uterine glycogen-
ovary falls into the surrounding producing glands?
abdominal cavity and is collected by the
Fallopian tube. The internal epithelium
The uterine glands produce glycogen
of the uterine tubes has ciliated cells
that move the ovum or the fecundated that can be degraded into glucose to
nourish the embryo before the complete
egg cell towards the uterus.
development of the placenta.
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21. How does the hypophysis- endometrium is a richly vascularized
corpus luteum negative tissue. The rupture of blood vessels of
the uterine mucosa during the
feedback work? What is the menstrual desquamation causes the
name given to the atrophied bleeding.
corpus luteum after this
feedback process?
After ovulation the estrogen and 24. Which are the phases of
progesterone secretions from the corpus the menstrual cycle?
luteum inhibit the hypophyseal FSH and
LH secretions (this happens by inhibition The menstrual cycle is divided into two
of GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing main phases: the follicular (or
hormone, a hypothalamic hormone). menstrual) phase and the luteal (or
The blood concentration of these secretory) phase.
adenohypophyseal hormones falls to
basal levels again. As LH lowers the The menstrual phase begins at the first
corpus luteum (luteum means “yellow”) day of menses and lasts until ovulation
becomes atrophic and turns into the (around the 14th day). The luteal phase
corpus albicans (“white”). With the begins after ovulation and ends when
regression of the corpus luteum the menses begins (around the 28th day).
production of estrogen and
progesterone ceases.
25. Including main events and

hormonal changes how can
22. In hormonal terms why
the menstrual cycle be
does menses occur?
described?
Menses is the endometrial monthly
One can imagine a cycle like an analog
desquamation that occurs as the
clock at which at 0 o’clock is the
estrogen and progesterone levels fall
beginning and the end of the menstrual
after the regression of the corpus
cycle and that 6 o’clock corresponds to
luteum because these hormones, mainly
the 14h day of the cycle.
progesterone, can no longer support
and maintain the thickening of the
At 0 o’clock the menses and so the
endometrium.
menstrual cycle begins and FSH blood
level begins to increase. Around 2
o’clock the maturing follicles under FSH
action are already secreting estrogen
23. What is the explanation and the endometrium is thickening.
for the bleeding that Around 3 o’clock estrogen is intensely
accompanies menses? stimulating the increase of LH blood
level. At 6 o’clock (the 14th day) LH is
The hemorrhage that accompanies at its maximum concentration and FSH
menses occurs because the also at high levels to promote ovulation,
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LH then stimulates the formation of the 27. What is the part of the
corpus luteum. Around 7 o’clock the female reproductive system
corpus luteum is already secreting a
where fecundation occurs?
great amount of estrogen and
progesterone and the endometrium
thickens even more, concomitant Fecundation generally occurs in the
lowering of FSH and LH occurs with the Fallopian tubes but it can also take
increasing of the ovarian hormones. place within the uterus. There are cases
Around 11 o’clock the reduced LH and when fecundation may occur even
FSH levels make the corpus luteum turn before the ovum enters the uterine
into the corpus albicans, the production tube, a fact that may lead to a severe
of estrogen and progesterone ceases medical condition known as abdominal
and the endometrium regresses. At 0 pregnancy.
o’clock again (28th day) the
endometrium desquamates and a new
menstrual cycle begins.
28. How does the sexual
arousal mechanism in women
facilitate fecundation?
26. In general what is the
phase of the menstrual cycle During sexual arousal in women the
when copulation may lead to vagina secretes substances to neutralize
fecundation? its acidity thus allowing the survival of
sperm cells within it. During the female
fertile period hormones make the mucus
Although this is not a rule, to be
effective fecundation in general must that covers the internal surface of the
uterus less viscous to help the passage
occur within about 24 hours after
ovulation (that occurs around the 14th of sperm cells to the uterine tubes.
During copulation the uterine cervix
day of the menstrual cycle).
Fecundation may occur even if advances inside the vagina to facilitate
the entering of male gametes through
copulation took place up to 3 days
before ovulation since the male gametes the cervical canal.
remain viable for about 72 hours within
the female reproductive system.
The fertile period of the women however 29. What is nidation? In which
is considered the period from 7 days phase of the menstrual cycle
before ovulation to 7 days after does nidation occur?
ovulation.
Nidation is the implantantion of the
embryo in the uterus. Nidation occurs
around the 7th day after fecundation,
i.e., 7 to 8 days after ovulation
(obviously, it occurs only if fecundation
also occurs). Since it occurs in the luteal
phase the progesterone level is high and
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the endometrium is in its best condition The functioning of the hypophysis is
to receive the embryo. altered during pregnancy. Since
estrogen and progesterone levels
remain elevated during the gestational
period the production of GnRH
30. What is tubal pregnancy? (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from
the hypothalamus is inhibited. The lack
Many times fecundation takes place in of GnRH thus inhibits the secretion of
the Fallopian tubes. Generally the newly FSH and LH from the hypophysis and a
formed zygote is taken to the uterus new menstrual cycle does not begin.
where nidation and the embryonic
development occur. In some cases If pregnancy does not occur the
however the zygote cannot go down to lowering of estrogen and progesterone
the uterus and the embryo implants levels stimulates the production of
itself in the uterine tube tissue, GnRH by the hypothalamus. This
characterizing the tubal pregnancy. hormone then hastens the
Tubal pregnancy is a severe clinical adenohypophyseal secretion of FHS and
condition since often the tube ruptures LH that in their turn stimulate the
during gestation causing hemorrhage maturation of follicles and the beginning
and even death of the woman. The most of a new menstrual cycle.
common treatment for tubal pregnancy
has been surgery.
33. What is the endocrine

function of the placenta?
31. How do hormonal tests to
detect pregnancy work? The placenta besides being the organ
through which the exchange of
Laboratory tests to detect pregnancy substances between the mother and the
commonly test for human chorionic fetus is done also has the function of
gonadotropin (HCG) concentration in secreting estrogen and progesterone to
blood or urine samples. If the level of keep a high level of these hormones
this hormone is abnormally high, during pregnancy. (The placenta still
pregnancy is likely. secretes other hormones like human
placental lactogen, that act similarly to
the hypophyseal hormones that regulate
reproduction, and HCG, human
32. Does the hypophysis- chorionic gonadotropin.)
ovaries endocrine axis work in
the same way during
pregnancy as in non-pregnant 34. How do contraceptive pills
women? If pregnancy does generally work?
not occur how does another
menstrual cycle begin? Contraceptive pills generally contain the
hormones estrogen and progesterone. If
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taken daily from the 4th day after allowing the release of seminal fluid
menses the abnormal elevation of these during ejaculation.
hormones acts upon the hypophysis-
hypothalamus endocrine axis inhibiting Surgical sterilization of women is often
the FSH and LH secretions. Since these done by bilateral tubal ligation. With
hormones then do not reach their tubal ligation the ovum does not pass to
normal high levels during the menstrual the uterus so the sperm cells cannot
cycle ovulation does not occur. reach it.
(Treatment with contraceptive pills must

be initiated under medical supervision.)
37. How does the
contraceptive diaphragm
work? What are the
35. What are the common
limitations of this
contraindications of the
contraceptive method?
contraceptive pills?
The contraceptive diaphragm is an
There are medical reports associating artifact made of latex or plastic that
the use of contraceptive pills with when placed on the vaginal fundus
vomiting, nausea, vertigo, headaches, covers the uterine cervix forbidding the
hypertension and other pathological passage of sperm cells through the
conditions. Some research has cervical canal. To be more effective the
attempted to relate the medical diaphragm needs to be used together
ingestion of estrogen and progesterone with spermicide. This method however
with increased propensity to does not prevent sexually transmitted
cardiovascular diseases (like infarction, diseases (STDs).
strokes and thrombosis) and to
malignant neoplasias (cancers). Doctors
must always be asked about the risks
and benefits of the contraceptive pill
38. Why is the use of condoms
prior to use.
not just a contraceptive
method but also a health
protection behavior?
36. What are the most
common methods of male and The use of condoms besides being an
female surgical sterilization? efficient contraceptive method also
helps the prevention of diseases caused
by sexually transmitted agents (STDs),
Vasectomy is the most common method
like syphilis, gonorrhea, HPV (human
of surgical sterilization in men. In
papilloma virus that may lead to genital
vasectomy the vas deferens inside the
cancers) infestation, HIV infection, etc.
scrotum are sectioned and closed at a
section which will forbid the sperm cells
to follow to the ejaculatory duct but still
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39. What is the normal Copper is then gradually released (IUD
duration of the menstrual may last 5 to 10 years) and since it has
a spermicidal action sperm cells are
cycle? How does the calendar destroyed before fecundation. Besides
contraceptive method work? this mechanism the movement of the
IUD inside the uterus causes slight
The normal duration of the menstrual endometrial inflammation that helps to
cycle is 28 days but it can vary among prevent nidation.
different women or in different cycles of
the same woman.
In the calendar contraceptive method 42. Generally how does a male

the date n-14 (n minus 14) is taken animal realize that the female
considering n the number of days of the
is receptive to copulation?
normal menstrual cycle of the woman
(generally n=28). The safety margin +3
or –3 refers to the days around n-14 In most vertebrate species with internal
that intercourse should be avoided to fecundation the females have
prevent pregnancy. (This method is not reproductive cycles with fertile periods.
exempt from failures. A doctor must During this period the female secretes
always be consulted before relying on pheromones (odoriferous substances
any contraceptive method.) that attract the male of the species)
from the skin and mucosae. The
presence of the male individual and his
pheromones also stimulates the release
40. How is the ovulation date of pheromones by the female. (Many
animals also use pheromones for
estimated with the control of territorial demarcation and for signal
the woman's body transmission between individuals about
temperature? the location of dangers and food.)
One method to estimate the exact

ovulation day is daily control of the
body temperature taken always under 43. What is parthenogenesis?
same conditions. At the ovulation day
the body temperature often increases Parthenogenesis is the reproduction or
about 0.5 degrees centigrade. formation of a new individual from the
egg cell but without fecundation by the
male gamete. According to the species,
individuals born by parthenogenesis
41. What is the contraceptive may be male or female, or of any sex.
mechanism of the IUD?
In bees the drone (the single male bee)
The IUD (intrauterine device) is a piece is haploid and born by parthenogenesis
of plastic coated with copper that is while the females (queen and workers)
inserted within the uterus by a doctor. are diploid.
299
300
Embryology
301
302

The animal pole of a telolecithal egg is
Embryonic the portion of the egg with little vitellus,
Development it is opposite to the vegetal pole which
is the region where the yolk is
concentrated.
1. What is the cell division

process directly related to the 4. What are the four initial
embryonic growth? stages of the embryonic
development?
The embryonic growth depends directly
on mitosis. Through this type of cell The four initial stages of the embryonic
division the zygote divides itself giving development are the morula stage, the
birth to a series of cells that by mitosis blastula stage, the gastrula stage and
also compose differentiated tissues and the neurula stage.
organs until the formation of a complete
individual.
5. What is the cell division

during the first stage of the
2. What is the function of the
embryonic development
vitellus in the vertebrate egg?
called? How is this stage
How are these eggs classified
characterized?
according to the amount of
vitellus within them? The cell division in the first stage of the
embryonic developments is called
Vitellus (yolk) is the nutritive material cleavage, or segmentation. In this stage
that accumulates in the cytoplasm of several mitoses occur from the zygote
the egg (zygote) with the function of forming the new embryo.
nourishing the embryo. According to the
amount of vitellus in them, the
vertebrate eggs are classified as
oligolecithal (little yolk), centrolecithal, 6. What are the cells produced
or heterolecithal (more yolk diffusely in the first stage of the
distributed) and telolecithal (more yolk
concentrated in one end of the egg).
embryonic development
called?
The cells that result from the cleavage

3. What are the animal pole (the first stage of the embryonic
and the vegetal pole of the development) are called blastomeres. In
this stage the embryo is called morula
vertebrate egg?
(similar to a “morus”, mulberry).
303

7. After the morula stage what 10. What are the archenteron
is the next stage? What is the and the blastopore? What is
morphological feature that the stage of the embryonic
defines this stage? development in which these
structures are formed? What
After passing the morula stage in which are the destinations of the
the embryo is a compact mass of cells, archenteron and of the
the next stage is the blastula stage. In
blastopore?
the blastula stage the compactness is
lost and an internal cavity filled with
fluid appears inside, the blastocele. Archenteron is the tube formed during
gastrulation by means of invagination of
the blastula wall inside the blatocele. It
is the origin of the gastrointestinal tract.
8. After the blastula stage Blastopore is the opening of the
archenteron to the exterior. The
what is the following stage of
blastopore gives birth to one of the
the embryonic development? extremities of the digestive tube: the
What is the passage from mouth in protostome beings, or the
blastula to the next stage anus in deuterostome beings.
called?
The blastula turns into gastrula in a

process known as gastrulation.
11. How is the mesoderm
(third germ layer) of
triploblastic animals formed?
9. What is gastrulation? How The mesoderm appears from

during gastrulation are the differentiation of endodermal cells that
first two germ layers formed? cover the dorsal region of the
archenteron.
What are these germ layers?
Gastrulation is the process through

which a portion of the blastula wall 12. What are the three types
undergoes invagination inside the
blastocele, forming a tube called
of germ layers that form
archenteron (primitive intestine). The tissues and organs in animals?
cells of the inner side of the tube form
the endoderm (germ layer) and the cells The three germ layers are the
of the outer side form the ectoderm ectoderm, the mesoderm and the
(another germ layer). It is the beginning endoderm.
of the tissue differentiation in embryonic
development.
304

13. How are animals classified in vertebrates. It is formed by
according to the germ layers differentiation of mesodermal cells.
present in their embryonic
development?
16. What is the coelom? To
Cnidarians are diploblastic, i.e., they which structures do coeloms
present only endoderm and ectoderm.
give birth? Are all animals
With the exception of poriferans, all
remaining animals are triploblastic. coelomate?
Poriferans do not present differentiated
tissue organization and so they do not Coeloms are cavities delimited by
classify regarding germ layers (although mesoderm. Coeloms originate the
sometimes they are mentioned as cavities where the internal organs of the
diploblastic). body are located, like the pericardial
cavity, the peritoneal cavity and the
pleural cavity.
14. How does the embryo turn Besides coelomate animals, there are
from gastrula into neurula? acoelomate animals, like
platyhelminthes, and pseudocoelomate
How is the neural tube animals, like nematodes.
formed? What is the
embryonic origin of the
nervous system in
vertebrates? 17. What is the germ layer
from which the coeloms
The neurula stage is characterized by originate?
the appearance of the neural tube along
the dorsal region of the embryo. The The coeloms are originated from
growth of mesoderm in that region mesoderm.
induces the differentiation of ectodermal
cells just above. These cells then
differentiate forming the neural tube. So
the origin of the nervous system is the 18. What are pleura,
ectoderm (the same germ layer that pericardium and peritoneum?
gives birth to the skin).
Pleura is the membrane that covers the

lungs and the inner wall of the chest;
15. What is the notochord? pericardium is the membrane that
covers the heart; peritoneum is the
How is this structure formed? membrane that covers most organs of
the gastrointestinal tract and part of the
The notochord is a rodlike structure that abdominal cavity. All these membranes
forms the supporting axis of the embryo delimit coeloms (internal cavities).
and gives birth to the vertebral column
305

19. After the neurula stage 22. From which germ layer do
and from its ventral portion to the epidermis and the nervous
the dorsal how can the system originate? What are
morphology of the embryo be other organs and tissues made
described? from that germ layer?
In a schematic longitudinal section of Epidermis and nervous system have the

the embryo after the neurula stage, the same embryonic origin: the ectoderm.
outermost layer of cells is the ectoderm. The epidermal appendages (like nails,
In the ventral region comes the hair, sweat glands and sebaceous
archenteron tube formed of endodermal glands), the mammary glands, the
cells. In both sides of the embryo adenohypophysis, the cornea, the
coeloms delimited by mesoderm are crystalline lens and the retina are also
present. In the central region above the derived from ectoderm.
archenteron and in the middle of the
coeloms there is the notochord. In the
dorsal region just above the notochord
lies the neural tube. 23. From which germ layer do
blood cells originate? What
are other organs and tissues
20. What are somites? made from that germ layer?
Blood cells have a mesodermal

Somites are differentiated portions of
embryonic origin. Other organs made
mesodermal tissue longitudinally
from mesoderm are: covering serous
distributed along the embryo. The
membranes like the pericardium, the
somites originate the muscle tissue and
peritoneum and the pleura, muscles,
portions of the connective tissues.
cartilages, dermis, adipose tissue,
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra,
gonads, blood and lymph vessels,
bones.
21. What are histogenesis and
organogenesis?
Histogenesis is the process of tissue 24. From which germ layer do

formation in the embryonic the liver and the pancreas
development. Organogenesis is the
originate? What are other
process of organ formation. Before
histogenesis and organogenesis the organs and tissues made from
primitive embryonic structures have that germ layer?
been already formed: germ layers,
neural tube, notochord, coeloms, The liver and the pancreas are
somites. originated from the endoderm. Also
from endodermal origin are the epithelia
of the airway, the epithelia of the
306

bladder, of the urethra and of the GI
tube (except of the mouth and anus),
the alveolar cells of the lungs and the
thyroid and parathyroid glands.
25. What are twins?

Genetically what are the two
types of twins that can be
generated?
Twins are simultaneously generated

(within the mother’s uterus) offspring.
Twins classify according to zygosity as
monozygotic or as dizygotic twins.
Monozygotic twins, also known as

identical twins, are those originated
from one single fertilized ovum
(therefore from one single zygote);
monozygotic twins are genetically
identical, i.e., they have identical
genotypes and are necessarily of the
same sex. Dizygotic twins, also known
as fraternal twins, are those generated
from two different ova fecundated by
two different sperm cells; so they are
not genetically identical and they are
not necessarily of the same sex.
26. What is polyembryony?
Polyembryony is the phenomenon in

which a single embryo in its initial
embryonic stage divides itself forming
many new individuals of the same sex
and genetically identical. This is the
way, for example, in which reproduction
takes place in armadillos of the genus
Dasypus. Polyembryony is an example
of natural “cloning”.
307

In placental mammals besides all these
Extraembryonic membranes the placenta is present too.
Membranes
4. How is the yolk sac formed?
What is the function of the
1. What are extraembryonic
yolk sac?
membranes?
The yolk sac is formed from the
Extraembryonic membranes are covering of the vitellus by some cells
membranous structures that appear in originated from the primitive gut.
parallel with the embryo and play
important roles in the embryonic The yolk sac stores vitellus, the main
development. They form from the nourishment source of non-placental
embryo but do not become part of the embryos.
individual organism after its birth.
5. Which is the
2. What are the
extraembryonic membrane
extraembryonic membranes
whose function is to store
present in vertebrates?
nitrogen wastes of the
embryo? Is this function
The extraembryonic membranes that
may be present in vertebrates are the present in placental
yolk sac, the amnion, the chorion, the mammalian embryos?
allantois and the placenta.
The allantois is the extraembryonic
membrane whose function is to store
the excreted matter of the embryo.
3. Are the extraembryonic
membranes the same in all In placental mammals the allantois is
vertebrates? present but it does not exert that
function since the embryonic wastes are
collected by the mother’s body through
The presence of each extraembryonic the placenta.
membrane varies according to the
vertebrate class.
In fishes and amphibians only the yolk

sac is present. In reptiles and birds
besides the yolk sac there are also the
amnion, the chorion and the allantois.
308

6. Why can the allantois be 9. What is the chorioallantois
considered an adaptation to membrane present in the
terrestrial life? embryonic development of
reptiles and birds? How does
The allantois is an adaptation to dry this membrane participate in
land because in embryos of oviparous the energetic metabolism of
terrestrial beings, like reptiles and birds,
the embryo?
the metabolic residuals cannot be
immediately excreted to the aquatic
surrounds (as fishes and amphibian The chorioallantois membrane is formed
larvae do). It was necessary then for by juxtaposition of some regions of the
the appearance of a structure capable of chorion and the allantois. Since it is
storing the embryonic excretes until porous, the chorioallantois membrane
hatching. allows the passage of gases between
the embryo and the exterior thus
making aerobic cellular respiration
possible.
between amnion and chorion?
10. In which type of animals
Amnion is the membrane that covers
does the placenta exist? What
the embryo. Chorion is the membrane
that covers the amnion, the yolk sac is its main function?
and the allantois. The space delimited
by the chorion and the amnion is called True placenta is present in placental
amniotic cavity and it is filled with mammals.
aminiotic fluid. The amniotic cavity has
the functions of preventing desiccation The placenta is formed from the chorion
of the embryo and of protecting it of the embryo and from the mother’s
against mechanical shocks. endometrium. Its main function is to
allow the exchange of substances
between the fetus and the mother’s
body.
8. Why can the amnion also be
considered an adaptation to
terrestrial life?
11. What are the main
substances transferred from
The amnion is also an adaptation to dry
land since one of its functions is to the mother to the fetus
prevent desiccation of the embryo. through the placenta? And
from the fetus to the mother?
From the mother to the fetus the main

transferred substances through the
placenta are water, oxygen, nutrients
309

and antibodies. From the fetus to the 14. What is the function of the
mother, metabolic wastes, including umbilical cord?
urea (nitrogen waste), and carbon
dioxide.
The umbilical cord is a set of blood
vessels that connects the fetus with the
placenta. In the fetus one extremity of
the cord inserts into the center of the
12. Is there a exchange of
abdominal wall (the later scar of this
cells between the mother and insertion is the umbilicus or navel).
the fetus through the
placenta? The function of the umbilical cord is to
allow the transport of substances,
Under normal conditions, there is no nutrients, gases and residuals, between
passage of cells across the placenta the fetus and the mother’s body.
during gestation. The placenta has a
smooth mucosa separating the richly
vascularized region in contact with the
mother’s endometrium from the
umbilical cord in contact with the fetal
blood. This barrier is known as placental
barrier. Although permeable to some
substances (selective permeability) the
placental barrier forbids the passage of
cells.
13. What are the endocrine

functions of the placenta?
The placenta has endocrine function

since it secretes the hormones
progesterone and estrogen that
maintain the endometrium (internal
covering of the uterus) and prevent
menses during pregnancy. The placenta
also secretes other important hormones
for pregnancy regulation.
310

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